DAYS OF THE MARTYRS
We now pass from features of every week to days and seasons of yearly
occurrence.
In point of time the celebrations connected with the Pascha are the
earliest to emerge of sacred days observed annually by the whole Church.
But for reasons of convenience it has been thought better to defer
the consideration of the difficult questions relating to the Easter
controversies till the origin of the days of Martyrs and Saints has been
dealt with.
The Kalendar in some of its later stages exhibits a highly artificial
elaboration. But in its beginnings it was, to a large extent, the outcome
of a natural and spontaneous feeling which could not fail to remember in
various localities the cruel deaths of men and women who had suffered
for the Faith with courage and constancy in such places, or their
neighbourhoods. The origins of the Kalendar show in various churches,
widely separated, the natural desire to commemorate their own local
martyrs on the days on which they had actually suffered.
As regards the order of time there is ample reason to convince us that
the commemorations of martyrs were features of Church life much earlier
than those of St Mary the Virgin, of most of the Apostles, and even of
many of the festivals of the Lord Himself.
The marks of antiquity that characterise generally the older Kalendars
and Martyrologies are (1) the comparative paucity of entries, (2) the
fewness of festivals of the Virgin, (3) the fewness of saints who were
not martyrs, (4) the absence of the title ‘saint,’ and (5) the absence of
feasts in Lent.
Again, the local character of the observance of the days of martyrs is
a marked feature of the earlier records which illustrate the subject.
Now and then the name of some martyr of pre-eminent distinction in other
lands finds its way into the lists; but it remains generally true that
in each place the martyrs and saints of that place and its neighbourhood
form the great body of those commemorated. And in addition to the
natural feeling that prompted the remembrance of those more particularly
associated with a particular place, the fact that the commemorations were
originally observed by religious services in cemeteries, at the tombs
or burial places of the martyrs, tended at first to discountenance the
commemoration of the martyrs of other places whose story was known only
by report, whether written or oral.
The day of a martyr’s death was by an exercise of the triumphant faith
of the Church known as his birthday (_natale_, or _dies natalis_, or
_natalitia_). It was regarded as the day of his entrance into a new and
better world. The expression occurs in its Greek form as early as the
letter of the Church of Smyrna concerning the martyrdom of Polycarp (_c._
18).
There can be no doubt that at an early date records were kept of the
day of the death of martyrs. Cyprian required that even the death-days
of those who died in prison for the faith should be communicated to him
with a view to his offering an oblation on that day (_Ep._ xii. (xxxvii.)
2). It is in this way probably that the earliest Kalendars of the Church
originated.
[Illustration: Ancient Syriac Martyrology, written A D. 412
(Brit. Mus. Or. Add. 12150, _fol._ 252 _v_, _ll._ 1-20, _col._ 1.) The
plate shows the entries from St Stephen’s Day to Epiphany.]
We purpose dealing more particularly with the early Roman Kalendars.
The earliest martyrology that has survived is contained in a Roman
record transcribed in A.D. 354. It is known, sometimes as the _Liberian
Martyrology_ (from the name of Liberius, who was bishop of Rome at
the time), sometimes as the _Bucherian Martyrology_, from the name
of the scholar who first made it known to the learned world[24], and
not uncommonly as the _Philocalian_, from the name of the scribe. It
presents many interesting, and some perplexing features, which cannot be
dealt with here. We must content ourselves with noticing that, besides
recording, as in a serviceable almanack, several pagan festivals, it
marks the days of the month of the burials (_depositiones_) of the
bishops of Rome from A.D. 254 to A.D. 354, and also the burial-days of
martyrs, twenty-five in number. In both lists the cemeteries at Rome
where the burials took place are noted. But there are also entered three
ecclesiastical commemorations which do not mark entombments, (1) ‘viij
Kal. Jan. (Dec. 25) Natus Christus in Bethleem Judeae’; (2) ‘viij Kal.
Mart. (Feb. 22) Natale (_sic_) Petri de Cathedra’; (3) ‘Nonis Martii
(March 7) Perpetuae et Felicitatis Africae[25].’ The appearance of St
Perpetua and St Felicitas in a characteristically Roman document is a
striking testimony to the fame of these two African sufferers for the
Faith[26]. The use of the word _natale_ in connexion with St Peter’s
chair not improbably marks the dedication of a church; and, at all events
at a later period, the word seems sometimes used as equivalent simply to
a festival, or perhaps a festival marking an origin or beginning—as, for
example, _Natale Calicis_, of which something will be said hereafter (p.
40). Easter could not appear in the Kalendar properly so-called; but the
document contains cycles for the calculation of Easter, and a list of the
days on which it would fall from A.D. 312 to A.D. 412.
Early Kalendars would be of much value in our enquiries; but they are
few in number. The following three deserve notice. (1) The _Syrian
Martyrology_ first published by Dr W. Wright in the _Journal of Sacred
Literature_ (Oct. 1866). It was written in A.D. 411-12, but represents
an original of perhaps about A.D. 380. It is Arian in origin, and has
elements that show connexions with Alexandria, Antioch, and Nicomedia;
and its range of martyrs is much wider than that of other early documents
of the kind. Yet of Western martyrs we find only in Africa Perpetua and
Satornilos and ten other martyrs[27] (March 7) and ‘Akistus (?Xystus II)
bishop of Rome’ (Aug. 1). We find St Peter and St Paul on Dec. 28; St
John and St James on Dec. 27; and ‘St Stephen, apostle’ on the 26th[28].
(2) The _Kalendar of Polemius Silvius_, bishop of Sedunum, in the upper
valley of the Rhone (A.D. 448). It contains the birthdays of the Emperors
and some of the more eminent of the heathen festivals, such as the
Lupercalia and Caristia, but with a view, apparently, of supplanting them
by Christian commemorations. The Christian festivals recorded are few
in number, those of our Lord being Christmas, Epiphany, and the fixed
dates, March 25 for the Crucifixion, and March 27 for the Resurrection.
There are only six saints’ days. The _depositio_ of Peter and Paul on
Feb. 22; Vincent, Lawrence, Hippolytus, Stephen, and the Maccabees on
their usual days. Other features of interest must be passed over[29].
(3) The _Carthaginian Kalendar_[30] has been assigned as probably about
A.D. 500[31]. It is thus described by Bishop J. Wordsworth, ‘It has, in
the Eastern manner, no entries between February 16 and April 19, _i.e._
during Lent. Its Saints are mostly local, but some twenty are Roman,
and a few other Italian, Sicilian, and Spanish. It also marks SS. John
Baptist (June 24), Maccabees, Luke [Oct. 13], Andrew, Christmas, Stephen
[Dec. 26], John Baptist [probably an error of the pen for John the
Evangelist] and James (Dec. 27) [‘the Apostle whom Herod slew’], Infants
[Dec. 28] and Epiphany [sanctum Epefania][32].’ It may be added that
this Kalendar marks the _depositiones_ of seven bishops of Carthage, not
martyrs, whose anniversaries were kept.
In one of the African Councils of the fourth century it was enacted
that the Acts of the martyrs should be read in the church on their
anniversaries. But Rome was slow in adopting this practice[33].
It will be seen that as time went on the strictly local character
of the martyrs commemorated was invaded by a desire to record the
famous sufferers of other parts of the Christian world. Rome, with its
characteristic conservatism in matters liturgical, seems to have been
slower than other places to yield to this impulse. At Hippo we find
Augustine commemorating, beside local martyrs, the Roman Lawrence and
Agnes, the Spanish Vincent and Fructuosus, and the Milanese Protasius and
Gervasius whose bones (as was believed) had been recently discovered. He
also commemorated the Maccabees, St Stephen, and both the Nativity and
Decollation of the Baptist. On the other hand in the laudatory sermons
that have come down to us we find Chrysostom at Antioch commemorating
only the saints of Antioch, and Basil, at Caesarea in Cappadocia, only
those of his own country.
The Sacramentary, which is called after Pope Leo (A.D. 440-461), shows
signs of a somewhat later date; but it is unquestionably a Roman book;
and the Kalendar which we can construct from it represents the Kalendar
of Rome as it was not later than about the middle of the sixth century.
It gives us the following days; but it must be observed that the months
of January, February, March, and part of April are unfortunately
missing[34].
The first is April 14, Tiburtius (a Roman martyr). There follow
‘Paschal time’: April 23, George (Eastern)[?][35]; Dedication
of the Basilica of St Peter, the Apostle; the Ascension of the
Lord; the day before Pentecost; the Sunday of Pentecost; the
fast of the fourth month; June 24, natale of St John Baptist;
June 26, natale of SS. John and Paul (two Romans, brothers,
martyrs under Julian); June 29, natale of the Apostles Peter
and Paul (at Rome); July 10, natale of seven martyrs who are
named (all at Rome; and the cemeteries where their bodies
rest are named); Aug. 3[36], natale of St Stephen (bishop of
Rome and martyr, more commonly commemorated on Aug. 2); Aug.
6, natale of St Xystus and of Felicissimus and Agapitus (all
martyrs at Rome); Aug. 10, natale of St Lawrence (Rome); Aug.
13, natale of SS. Hippolytus and Pontianus (Romans); Aug.
30, natale of Adauctus and Felix (at Rome); Sept. 14, natale
of SS. Cornelius and Cyprian (the former bishop of Rome, the
latter bishop of Carthage, his contemporary); Sept. 16, natale
of St Euphemia (at Rome); Fast of the seventh month; Sept.
30, natale (_sic_) of the basilica of the Angel in Salaria
(on the Via Salaria: evidently for the foundation or the
dedication of a church at Rome, probably under the name of St
Michael); Depositio of St Silvester (bishop of Rome, no date:
in the Bucherian Martyrology it is at Dec. 31); Nov. 8 (or
9), natale of the four crowned saints (all at Rome); Nov. 22,
natale of St Caecilia (Roman martyr); Nov. 23, natale of SS.
Clement and Felicitas (both Roman martyrs); Nov. 24, natale
of SS. Chrysogonus and Gregorius (the first, a Roman martyr,
the second, uncertain[37]); Nov. 30, natale of St Andrew,
Apostle; Dec. 25, natale of the Lord; and of the martyrs,
Pastor, Basilius, Jovianus, Victorinus, Eugenia, Felicitas, and
Anastasia (Eugenia was perhaps the Roman lady martyred with
Agape; Anastasia was of Roman origin, though she suffered death
in Illyria: her name appears in the canon of the Roman mass.
The persons intended by the other names are more uncertain);
Dec. 27, natale of St John, Evangelist; Dec. 28, natale of the
Innocents.
It has been thought well to give in full this list, defective though it
is (as lacking the opening months of the year). It exhibits indeed a
large preponderance of celebrations of local interest; but there are
clear indications that already the martyrs of other places than Rome are
securing themselves positions in the Roman Kalendar.
The collection of masses and other liturgical offices known as the
Gelasian Sacramentary are not without interest in illustrating the
development of the Kalendar, more particularly among the Franks. But we
pass on to consider the features of the distinctively Roman service book,
which, by a somewhat misleading name, has been called the _Gregorian
Sacramentary_. In its present form (though it contains many ancient
elements) it is probably not earlier than the close of the eighth
century. Omitting notices of moveable days, and exhibiting the dates
by the days of the month in our modern fashion, the Kalendar runs as
follows[38], some remarks being added within marks of parenthesis.
=January.= 1. Octava Domini (the octave of Christmas). 6.
Epiphania (called in the older Roman Kalendar ‘Theophania,’ as
by the Greeks). 14. St Felix ‘in Pincis’ (on the Pincian). 16.
St Marcellus, Pope. 18. St Prisca (at Rome). 20. SS. Fabian and
Sebastian (both at Rome). 21. St Agnes (at Rome)[39]. 22. St
Vincent (Spain). 28. Second of St Agnes (Octave).
=February.= 2. Ypapante, or Purification of St Mary. 5. St
Agatha (Sicily: a church at Rome dedicated to her). 14. St
Valentine (presbyter at Rome).
=March.= 12. St Gregory, Pope. 25. Annunciation of St Mary.
=April.= 14. SS. Tiburtius and Valerian (at Rome). 23. St
George (Eastern: church ‘in Velabro’ at Rome). 28. St Vitalis
(of Ravenna: a church at Rome).
=May.= 1. SS. Philip and James, Apostles. 3. SS. Alexander,
Eventius and Theodulus (Pope, and two presbyters at Rome). 6.
Natale of St John before the Latin gate (Rome). 10. SS. Gordian
and Epimachus (both at Rome). 12. St Pancratius (at Rome, where
a church was dedicated to him). 13. Natale of St Mary ‘ad
Martyres’ (dedication of the Pantheon at Rome by Boniface IV).
25. St Urban, Pope.
=June.= 1. Dedication of the Basilica of St Nicomedes (at
Rome). 2. SS. Marcellinus and Peter (at Rome: a church in their
honour is said to have been erected by the Emperor Constantine
on the Via Lavicana). 18. SS. Marcus and Marcellianus (both at
Rome). 19. SS. Protasius and Gervasius (Milan). 24. Natale of
St John Baptist. 26. SS. John and Paul (two brothers at Rome).
28. St Leo, Pope. 29. Natale of SS. Peter and Paul, Apostles
(Rome). 30. Natale of St Paul (the Apostle).
=July.= 2. SS. Processus and Martinianus (legendary
soldier-martyrs at Rome). 10. Natale of the Seven Brethren
(at Rome). 29. SS. Felix, Simplicius, Faustinus and Beatrix
(Pope Felix II; the others commemorated at Rome on the Via
Portuensis). 30. SS. Abdon and Sennen (martyrs at Rome).
=August.= 1. St Peter ‘in Vincula’ (more commonly ‘ad Vincula’:
it is probable that the date marks the dedication of a church
at Rome). 2. St Stephen, bishop (of Rome). 5. SS. Xystus,
bishop, Felicissimus and Agapitus (all of Rome). 8. St Cyriacus
(deacon, at Rome: perhaps marks the date of his translation
by Pope Marcellus). 10. Natale of St Lawrence (Rome). 11. St
Tiburtius (martyred outside Rome on the Via Lavicana). 13. St
Hippolytus (martyr according to the legend at Rome). 14. St
Eusebius, presbyter (at Rome). 15. Assumption of St Mary. 17.
St Agapitus (at Praeneste). 22. St Timotheus (martyr at Rome).
28. St Hermes (at Rome). 29. St Sabina (virgin-martyr at Rome).
30. SS. Felix and Adauctus (both at Rome).
=September.= 8. Nativity of St Mary. 11. SS. Protus and
Hyacinthus (both at Rome). 14. SS. Cornelius and Cyprian:
also Exaltation of Holy Cross (Cornelius, Pope, Cyprian of
Carthage). 15. Natale of St Nicomedes (presbyter martyr
at Rome). 16. Natale of St Euphemia, and of SS. Lucia and
Geminianus (all at Rome). 27. SS. Cosmas and Damian (Eastern).
29. Dedication of the Basilica of the Holy Angel Michael.
=October.= 7. Natale of St Marcus, Pope. 14. Natale of St
Callistus, Pope.
=November.= 1. St Caesarius (an African deacon martyred in
Campania). 8. The four crowned saints (at Rome). 9. Natale of
St Theodorus (Asia Minor). 11. Natale of St Menna: likewise St
Martin, bishop (Menna, Asia Minor: Martin of Tours). 22. St
Caecilia (Roman). 23. St Clement: likewise St Felicitas (both
Roman). 24. St Chrysogonus (Roman). 29. St Saturninus (a Roman,
martyred at Toulouse). 30. St Andrew, Apostle.
=December.= 13. St Lucia (Syracuse). 25. Nativity of the Lord.
26. Natale of St Stephen. 27. St John, Evangelist. 28. Holy
Innocents. 31. St Silvester, Pope.
When we examine these lists we find (1) the principal festivals of
the Lord, of His Mother, and of His Apostles placed as they are still
noted in the Kalendar. It may be observed that Jan. 1 is not styled
the Circumcision; and there is no reference to the Circumcision in the
collect. In the mass for the Epiphany the leading of the Gentiles by a
star and the gifts of the Magi are the prominent features. The use of the
name Ypapante as the first name for the Purification (Feb. 2) suggests
the Eastern origin of the festival. We find (2) the great majority of
the saints recorded to be Roman martyrs—or of martyrs connected with
Rome, either in fact or by legend; but (3) there are a few famous martyrs
from other regions of the world, as St George, St Vincent, SS. Cosmas
and Damian, and St Lucy, of Dec. 13. And Martin of Tours has a place. We
also find that some of the obscurer saints of the earlier list disappear.
Frequent pilgrimages to the East, together with the interchange of
literary correspondence between the churches, are sufficient to account
for the appearance of the Oriental martyrs. The leading features of
the Western Kalendar, as it prevailed in the mediaeval period, and has
subsisted to the present day, are already apparent.
It will be seen that All Saints does not appear on Nov. 1; and yet it
was certainly observed in many churches in England, France, and Germany
during the eighth century. It is placed at Nov. 1 in the _Metrical
Martyrology_ attributed to Bede, who died in A.D. 735. Though therefore
this Martyrology, as we now possess it, shows signs of having been
re-handled, it seems hazardous to attribute the origin of the festival,
as is done by some, to the dedication of a church at Rome ‘in honorem
Omnium Sanctorum’ by Pope Gregory III (A.D. 731-741).
Much obscurity attends the origin of All Souls’ Day. It would seem that
Amalarius of Metz, early in the ninth century, had inserted in his
Kalendar an anniversary commemoration of all the departed, and this was
probably (as the context suggests) immediately after All Saints’ Day; but
the practice of observing the day did not at once become general, and the
earliest clear testimony to Nov. 2 does not emerge till the end of the
tenth century, when Odilo, abbot of Clugny, stimulated by a vision of the
sufferings of souls in purgatory, reported to him by a pilgrim returning
from Jerusalem, enjoined on the monastic churches subject to Clugny the
observance of Nov. 2. The practice rapidly spread.
The dominant influence of the Roman Church in Europe carried eventually
the main features of the Roman Kalendar into all regions of the West. In
early times at Rome the anniversary of a martyr was ordinarily kept, not
in the various churches of the city and suburbs, but at the particular
cemetery or catacomb where he was buried, or at the tomb within some
church which had been erected over the place where his remains rested.
Outside the walls, and at various distances along the great roads that
led from the city, most of these commemorations were celebrated. As
M. Batiffol has put it, with substantial correctness, ‘the old Roman
_Sanctorale_ is the _Sanctorale_ of the cemeteries[40].’ It is a striking
and impressive illustration of the looking of the Western peoples to Rome
for guidance in matters of religion that even obscure saints buried in
the cemeteries of the neighbourhood of the Apostolic See now have places
in the religious commemorations of all the remotest Churches of the Roman
obedience.
The study of the origins of the Kalendar of the city of Rome illustrates
the general proposition that the martyrdoms of a particular city or
district form the main feature of each local Kalendar. To enter into
detail in respect to the early Kalendars of the other provinces and
dioceses of Europe, even when the scanty evidence surviving makes the
enquiry possible, is too large a task to be attempted here.
The account of the commemorations of the early martyrs may be brought
to a close by calling attention to a festival of general and perhaps
universal observance before the fifth century—the festival of the
pre-Christian martyrs, the seven Maccabees, on Aug. 1. It was not
unnatural in the age of persecution, or when the memories of the great
persecutions were still fresh, to fasten upon the Old Testament story
of heroic constancy. After the Feast of St Peter’s Chains in the West,
and the Procession of the Holy Cross in the East had displaced it from a
position of primary importance, it was not wholly forgotten; and even now
in both East and West in a subsidiary manner the memory of the Maccabees
is still preserved in the services of the Church on Aug. 1. Chrysostom
speaks of the celebration being attended in his day by a great concourse
of the faithful, and we possess three homilies of his for the festival.
Augustine shows us that the festival was observed in Africa in his
time, and mentions that there was a church called after the Maccabees
at Antioch, a city named, he makes a point to inform us, after their
persecutor, Antiochus Epiphanes. There are still extant sermons for the
festival preached by Gregory Nazianzen, and, at a later date, by Pope Leo
the Great.