THE RETURN FROM BABYLON, THE NEW COMMUNITY IN JUDÆA, EZRA AND NEHEMIAH.
The Journey to Jerusalem--The Samaritans--Commencement
of the Rebuilding of the Temple--Interruption of the
Work--Darius--Haggai and Zechariah--Completion of the
Temple--Contest between Zerubbabel and Joshua--Intermarriage
with Heathens--The Judæans in Babylonia--Ezra visits
Jerusalem--Dissolution of the Heathen Marriages--The Book
of Ruth--Attacks by Sanballat--Nehemiah--His Arrival in
Jerusalem--Fortification of the Capital--Sanballat's Intrigues
against Nehemiah--Enslavement of the Poor--Nehemiah's
Protest--Repopulation of the Capital--The Genealogies--The
Reading of the Law--The Feast of Tabernacles--The Great
Assembly--The Consecration--Departure of Nehemiah--Action of
Eliashib--Withholding the Tithes--Malachi, the Last of the
Prophets--Nehemiah's Second Visit to Jerusalem--His measures.
537-420 B. C. E.
After forty-nine years of exile, in the same month (Nisan) in which
their ancestors had departed from Egypt some eight or nine centuries
before, the Judæans now left the land of Babylonia. It was the spring
of the year (537) when they marched forth to take possession of their
dearly-beloved home, of the much longed-for Jerusalem. It was a
significant moment, carrying thousands of years in its bosom. Not like
trembling slaves, just freed from their chains, did they go forth,
but full of gladness, their hearts beating high with lofty hopes and
swelling with enthusiasm. Singers, with stringed instruments and
cymbals, accompanied them on their way, and they uttered new songs of
praise, beginning and ending with the words:
"Give thanks unto the Lord, for He is good, for His mercy
endureth for ever."
Those Judæans who remained in Babylonia--and they were not a few--rich
merchants and landed proprietors--evinced their sympathy for their
brethren by escorting them part of the way, and by presenting them with
rich gifts for the new buildings in their own country. Cyrus sent an
escort of a thousand mounted soldiers to defend the Judæans from the
attacks of predatory tribes upon the way, and also to ensure their
being able to take possession of Judæa. The prophecy but lately spoken
was now to be realised:
"In joy shall ye depart, and in peace shall ye be led home."
(ISAIAH lv. 12.)
In peace and in safety the travellers completed the six hundred miles
from Babylonia to Judæa, protected by the Persian escort. The exodus
from Babylonia, unlike the one from Egypt, has left no reminiscences;
it seemed needless to record the various halting-places, as, in all
probability, no noteworthy incident occurred on the way.
"God led them by the right path, and brought them to the place
of their longing." (PSALM cvii. 7, 30.)
When the travellers approached the land of their passionate desire,
after a march of four or five months, their joy must have been
overwhelming. The prophecies that had been uttered, the hopes they had
cherished, the visions they had indulged in were realised. Meanwhile
their happiness was not undimmed. The Holy City, the chief object of
their longing, was desolate. A great part of the country was inhabited
by strangers; in the north were the Samaritans, or Cuthæans, in the
south, the Idumæans. But these races were soon obliged to give place
to the descendants of Judah, who, with the tribe of Benjamin, returned
to their ancient dwelling-places. The beginning of the new Judæan
commonwealth was indeed humble and small. The people could not occupy
the whole of the country which had once constituted the kingdom of
Judah. A population of 40,000 was not numerous enough to settle a
large territory. The colony was thus compelled to group itself round
the capital at Jerusalem. This concentration of forces was, in some
respects, advantageous, inasmuch as the whole population, being thus
brought near to the capital, could take part in all its affairs. But,
though the extremely confined territory of the new colony, and the
small number of members in the community were calculated to depress the
lofty hopes that their prophets in Babylonia had awakened, and fill
the arrivals with gloom, unexpected circumstances arose to reinspire
them with energy. From many countries to the east, west, south, and
north, from Egypt, Phœnicia, and even from the Greek coasts and
islands, whither they had gone of their own free will or had been sold
as slaves, Judæan exiles streamed back to crowd like children around
their resurrected mother, Jerusalem. These new Jewish arrivals were
accompanied by large numbers of strangers, both "great and small,"
illustrious and obscure, who collected round them. They were received
with rejoicing, for they all acknowledged the God of Israel, and were
ready to follow His laws. These new proselytes not only added strength
to the young community, but also inspired the settlers with greater
self-reliance, who, with their own eyes, saw the words of the prophets
fulfilled.
At the approach of the seventh month, in which, according to law and
custom, various festivals occur, the elders of the families among all
classes in Jerusalem assembled, and, marching under the command of
their two leaders, the governor Zerubbabel and the high-priest Joshua,
they proceeded to perform the first act of reconstruction--they erected
an altar of stone. This altar was to be the nucleus of the Temple, the
building of which was, for the present, impossible.
While the altar was dedicated with joyous and solemn ceremonies, the
leaders were making preparations for the erection of this great and
important edifice, which was to be the spiritual centre of the new
commonwealth. The rich gifts which they had brought with them enabled
them to hire labourers and artisans, and, as in the days of King
Solomon, cedar trees were procured from Lebanon; stone was brought from
the mountains, and after enough had been quarried and shaped, steps
were taken to lay the foundations of the Sanctuary. Not only Zerubbabel
and Joshua, but also the heads of families, and a large number of the
people were present at this ceremony, which was performed with great
solemnity. The Aaronides again appeared in their priestly garments,
sounding their trumpets; the Levites of the house of Asaph chanted
songs of praise, thanking the Lord whose mercy endures for ever; and
the people burst forth into a loud transport of joy. Yet there mingled
with the jubilant notes the voice of regret that the new Temple was
smaller and less magnificent than the old.
Jerusalem, so long mourned and wept over, began to rise from her ruins.
The joyful enthusiasm called forth by the re-building of the city was,
however, soon to be damped; the honeymoon of the young commonwealth
waned rapidly, and anxious cares began to disturb its peace. Close
to the boundaries of Judæa lived the mixed tribe of Samaritans or
Cuthaæns. These people had in part accepted the doctrines taught them
by an Israelitish priest at Bethel, but they had also retained many
of their own idolatrous practices. Quite unexpectedly, some of the
Samaritan chiefs came to Jerusalem, with the request that they might
be allowed to help in re-building the Temple, and also that they be
received into the Judæan community. This seemed so important a matter
to the Judæans, that a council was convoked to discuss the subject.
The decision was against the Samaritans. Zerubbabel informed the
Samaritan chiefs that their people neither would nor could be permitted
to join in the re-building of the Temple. This decision was of great
import for the entire future of the new commonwealth. From that day
the Samaritans began to develop a hostile spirit against the Judæans,
which seemed to show that they had been less anxious to take part in
the temple-service than to injure the community and to obstruct the
re-building of the Temple. On the one hand, they tried to make those
Judæans with whom they came in contact lukewarm towards the project
of building the Temple, and, on the other, they persuaded Persian
officials to interfere with its execution, so that the work ceased
for fully fifteen years. Again the Jews found themselves suffering
evils similar to those which they had experienced after their first
entry into Canaan. The neighbouring tribes envied them their strip of
land,--on all sides they encountered hostility. They were powerless to
defend themselves, for they lacked the means for carrying on war.
In these untoward circumstances the members of the community gave
their first thought to themselves, and not to the general welfare.
The richest and most distinguished persons built large and splendid
houses, using, it seems, the building materials designed for the
Temple. Bad harvests, drought, and hail disappointed the hopes of the
agriculturists. Much was sown and little reaped; there was hardly
sufficient to satisfy the hunger of the people, and to clothe them,
and "whoever earned money put it into a purse full of holes." Still
worse was the moral deterioration caused by this physical distress. The
people did not relapse into idolatry; they were radically cured of that
evil; but selfishness gained the upper hand, and the members of the
community often treated one another most harshly. This state of things
contrasted sadly with the new-born hopes of the people, and damped the
courage of some even of the nobler spirits.
The death of Cambyses (521) and the succession of Darius, the third
Persian king (521-485), led to a change favourable to Judæa. Darius,
differing from his predecessor, was, like Cyrus, a mild and generous
ruler. An apocryphal tradition tells us that Zerubbabel went to Persia
and there found favour in the eyes of Darius on account of his wisdom.
As a proof of his favour, Darius sent Zerubbabel back to Jerusalem
with permission to rebuild the Temple at the king's expense. But, in
reality, the task was not so easily accomplished. When the death of
Cambyses put an end to the wars which had been disturbing the peace of
neighbouring provinces, Zerubbabel and Joshua intended doubtless to
proceed with the building. But the people, that is to say, the heads of
families, exclaimed: "The time has not yet come to rebuild the Temple."
It required the fiery enthusiasm of the prophets Haggai and Zechariah
to set the work in motion. These prophets harangued the people
frequently during several successive months (from Elul to Kislev 520),
encouraging and rebuking and, at the same time, prophesying a glorious
future. At last they roused the people to recommence their work. In
four years (519-516) the building was finished, and the Sanctuary was
consecrated, amid great rejoicing, just before the Feast of Passover.
Seventy years had passed since the destruction of the Temple of Solomon
by Nebuchadnezzar, when the entire nation assembled at Jerusalem for
the consecration of the second Temple, henceforth to be the centre and
loadstar of the community. Three weeks later the Feast of Passover was
celebrated by the whole congregation of Israel, as well as by those
who had in sincerity joined its faith. However, although the young
community was imbued with the spirit of the Law and of the prophets,
and although the people anxiously strove for unity, there arose
differences of opinion not easy to smooth over, and liable to produce
friction. The people had two leaders: Zerubbabel, of the royal house
of David, and Joshua, the high-priest, of Aaronide descent. One was
at the head of the secular, the other, of the spiritual power. It was
impossible to prevent the one power from occasionally encroaching upon
the jurisdiction of the other. A circumstance in Zerubbabel's favour
was the people's allegiance to the royal house of David, and he was
a living reminder of a glorious past, and a pledge for an equally
brilliant future, as foretold by the prophets. The prophet Haggai had
called him the chosen favourite of God, His precious Signet-ring. But
this in itself was an obstacle. It gave the enemies of the Judæans the
opportunity to charge the community with the purpose of proclaiming him
as the successor of David to the throne. On the other hand, the prophet
Zechariah had proclaimed that the high-priest Joshua should wear the
crown, ascend the throne, and effect the realisation of the Messianic
hopes. In this way he gave the preference to the high-priest, producing
tension and divisions. Peace could only be restored by the withdrawal
of one of the two leaders: their joint rule could not fail to be the
occasion of excitement and irritation. A choice had to be made between
the two, and Zerubbabel was obliged to give way, the high-priest being
more necessary than the king's son. It is probable that Zerubbabel
left Jerusalem and returned to Babylon, and thus the house of David
retreated into the background.
After Zerubbabel's withdrawal, the leadership of the community was
put into the hands of the high-priest Joshua, and after his death
into those of his son Jehoiakim. Was this change a desirable one?
True, no evil is reported of the first two high-priests, nor do they
seem to have done anything specially praiseworthy towards uplifting
and strengthening the community. The supreme command over the people
does not seem to have been given to the high-priest, but to have been
vested in a governor or administrator (Pechah), appointed over Judæa
either by the Persian kings or by the satraps of Syria and Phœnicia.
This official does not appear to have lived in Jerusalem, but to have
visited the city from time to time, where, seated on a throne, he heard
and decided disputes, but not infrequently rather caused dissensions
and aggravated existing bad feelings, in order to raise complaints
against the Judæans. For, as some Judæans nourished the hope, held
out by the prophets, that Judah might yet become a mighty power, to
whom kings and nations would bow, the suspicion that the people were
plotting a defection from Persia was not removed with the retirement
of Zerubbabel. Accusations on that ground commenced directly after the
death of Darius, in the reign of his successor, Xerxes (Ahasuerus,
485-464). The enemies of the Judæans, particularly the Samaritans, did
not fail to draw the governor's attention to the disloyalty of the
Judæans, and thus caused unfavourable decrees to be issued against them
at court. Added to this, the successive governors tried to oppress the
landowners by excessive demands. The position of the Judæans in their
own country, which they had entered with such buoyant hope, grew worse
and worse in the second and third generations.
In order to free themselves, on the one side at least, from these
constant troubles, the most distinguished Judæan families took a step
that led in the end to mischievous complications. They approached the
neighbouring peoples, or received the advances of the latter, in a
friendly spirit, and as a proof of the sincerity of their feelings,
they began to form connections by marriage. As in the days when the
Israelites first occupied the land of Canaan, in the time of the
Judges, the necessity for friendly intercourse with neighbouring tribes
led to mixed marriages, so during the second occupation of Palestine
by the Israelites, similar relations led to similar results. But the
circumstances differed, inasmuch as the Canaanites, Hittites, and
other original dwellers in the land practised abominable idolatry,
and infected the Israelites with their vicious customs, while the new
neighbours of the Judæan commonwealth, particularly the Samaritans, had
given up idolatry, and were longing earnestly and sincerely to take
part in the divine service at Jerusalem. They were, in fact, proselytes
to the religion of Judæa; and were they always to be sternly repulsed?
The principal Judæan families determined to admit the foreigners into
the community, and the high-priest, of that time, either Jehoiakim
or his son Eliashib, was ready to carry these wishes into effect.
Marriages were therefore contracted with the Samaritans and other
neighbouring people, and even some members of the family of the
high-priest formed such connections.
The leader of the Samaritans at that time was Sanballat, a man of
undaunted strength of will and energy of action, clever, cunning,
audacious and persevering. He was an honest proselyte, who believed
in the God of Israel, and desired to worship in His Temple; but he
determined, as it were, to take by storm the kingdom of Heaven. If he
were not allowed a part in it voluntarily, he would seize it by force
or by cunning.
But not only the Samaritans, also the Moabites and the Ammonites
were among the people anxious to maintain friendly relations with
the Judæans. Tobiah, the leader of the Ammonites, was doubly allied
to Judæan families. He had married a daughter of the noble family of
Arach, and a distinguished man, Meshullam, the son of Berechiah, had
given his daughter in marriage to Tobiah's son. But mixed marriages
with Ammonites and Moabites were specifically prohibited by the Law,
until the tenth generation after conversion.
The leaders of the Judæan community, the high-priest and others, who
were not quite prepared to violate the law, doubtless eased their
consciences by some mild interpretation of the text. But not all were
so pliable. A small number of the noblest families had kept themselves
pure from mixed marriages, which they deplored as an infraction of the
law and as a cause of deterioration of the Judæan race. More especially
the singers, who were the cultivators and preservers of the Hebrew
language and of its ancient, venerated literature, kept themselves
clear of mixed marriages. They may have raised their voices against
the pliability of their co-religionists, against this blending with
the stranger, but, as they were in the minority, their voices were
not heeded. But when a leading authority appeared in Jerusalem from
the land of exile, the minority cried out loudly against what had
taken place, and a complete reaction followed, from which disagreeable
complications necessarily ensued.
It is but rarely the case that historical reformations are made with
such suddenness that the contemporary witnesses of the change are
themselves affected by it, and are reminded at every turn that old
things have passed away, and that a new order has arisen. In general
the people who live during an important historical crisis are not
aware of the changes occurring in themselves, in their opinions, their
customs, and even in their language. Such a change, imperceptible at
first, but complete and effectual, took place in the Judæans during the
first half of the fifth century. This transformation did not proceed
from the community of Judæa, but from those who remained in the land
of exile; it soon, however, penetrated to the mother-country, and
impressed its stamp upon her.
In Babylonia, the land of the captivity, there had remained a
considerable number of the descendants of the exiles, either from
material considerations, or for other reasons. But they had been
touched by the unbounded enthusiasm of their co-religionists, and
they had shown their sympathy by rich gifts and fervent wishes. The
Babylonian Judæans laid great stress upon maintaining their own
peculiarities and their own nationality. They kept themselves apart
from all their neighbours, married only members of their own nation,
and were guided by the inherited Law as their rule of life. Their
absence from the mother-country served but to make them obey the more
strictly the behests of the Law, which thus formed the bond of union
that bound them together as members of one community. They could not
offer sacrifices, nor keep the observances connected with the Temple
service, but all the more scrupulously did they cling to those customs
that were independent of the sanctuary, such as the Sabbath, the Holy
Days, circumcision, and the dietary laws. Without doubt they had houses
of prayer, where they assembled at stated times. Even the Hebrew
tongue they cultivated to such an extent at least that it could not
become a strange language to them, although they employed the Aramaic
or Chaldaic in their intercourse with their neighbours and among
themselves. They obtained a correct knowledge of the Hebrew from the
scriptures which they had brought with them, and which they made the
object of careful study. They gave particular heed to that portion
of these scriptures to which, heretofore, little or only occasional
attention had been paid, namely the Pentateuch, with its code of laws
and observances. During the time of the captivity, the writings of the
prophets had chiefly been read, because they possessed the greater
power of consolation. But as soon as it was necessary to give reality
to the hopes and sentiments which the prophets roused and nursed, and
to stamp life with a peculiar religious and moral character, the Book
of the Law was sought out and consulted. The Torah, or Law, so long
neglected in its own home, now received due honour and attention on a
foreign soil. The Sabbath, for instance, was kept far less strictly in
Jerusalem than in the Babylonian-Persian community. This ardour for the
exact carrying out of the Law and its observances found its embodiment
in Ezra, who was the cause of that momentous change in the history of
the nation which endowed it with a new character. He did not stand
alone, however, but found many who were in accord with him.
This man, who was the creator of the new religious and social order
of things, seemed, by reason of his birth, specially called to
kindle unwonted enthusiasm for the Torah; for he was a descendant
of high-priests. It was his ancestor Hilkiah who had found the book
of Deuteronomy in the Temple, and, by giving it to King Josiah,
brought about great changes. He was also the great-grandson of that
high-priest, Seraiah, who was slain by the command of Nebuchadnezzar,
and whose sons carried the Book of the Law to Babylon. Ezra had,
therefore, the opportunity of occupying himself with the study of
this book. But he gave it more attention than either his ancestors or
his relatives had done. After he had read and studied it with care,
he determined that it should not remain a mere dead letter, but that
it should be realised in the daily life of the people. He began by
applying it to himself, carefully obeying the laws regarding dress,
diet, and particularly those bearing upon the festivals. Then he
assumed the post of teacher to his brethren; he expounded the Law,
brought it nearer to their understanding, and urged them to follow it
in every detail. The Law was to him an emanation of the Deity, revealed
to Israel by Moses; he placed it higher, infinitely higher, than the
writings of the other prophets, for the first prophet and law-giver was
the greatest of all. Convinced of the Divine inspiration of the Law
of Moses, and glowing with zeal to make its authority paramount, he
found no difficulty in infusing his own belief and his own zeal into
the Judæans of Babylonia and Persia. He soon acquired an honoured
position amongst them, his word gained authority, and he was more
eagerly listened to than the prophets had been. Ezra may have known
that the Law was but negligently followed in Judæa, and he thought
that, by visiting that country, he might awaken in his fellow-believers
a perception of its true worth. Or he may have been impelled by a
strong impulse to settle in Jerusalem, in order to comply with the
religious duties pertaining to the Temple and the sacrifices. As soon
as he had determined upon the journey, he invited those members of
his faith who might be willing to join him. The number that responded
was a considerable one, including over 1,600 men, together with women
and children, of distinguished families, who had remained in the land
of captivity. Amongst them was a great-grandson of Zerubbabel, a
descendant of the house of David. Those who could not take part in the
emigration gave Ezra rich gifts of gold, silver, and precious vessels
for the Temple. It is an astonishing circumstance that King Artaxerxes
(Longimanus) also sent presents for the sanctuary in Jerusalem, and
that many Persian nobles followed his example. It is evident that
at this time the God of Israel had many earnest worshippers amongst
the Persians and other nations, and that from "sunrise to sunset His
name was glorified and reverenced among the peoples." Not only did
Artaxerxes grant Ezra permission to journey with his brethren to
Jerusalem, but he also gave him letters to the satraps of the countries
through which he passed, and to the authorities of Palestine. He would
also have sent an escort to protect the travellers from hostile tribes,
but Ezra declined it, assuring the king that the God to whom they
prayed would protect them.
The arrival of Ezra with his numerous companions must have caused much
surprise in Jerusalem (459-458). They came provided with letters from
the king, laden with gifts, and imbued with enthusiastic feelings.
Without doubt, Ezra's name as an instructor and expounder of the Law
had already penetrated as far as Judæa, and he was received with every
mark of consideration. No sooner had he assumed the ecclesiastical
function, than the men of strong convictions who condemned
intermarriages with the surrounding peoples brought their complaints
before him. Ezra was dismayed when he heard of these occurrences. The
representatives of the people and of the Temple had, in contempt of
the Law, connected themselves with the heathen. Ezra held this to be
a terrible sin. For the Judæan or Israelitish race was in his eyes a
holy one, and suffered desecration by mingling with foreign tribes,
even though they had abjured idolatry. According to Ezra's reading
of the Law, heathens who had accepted the Law might enter into the
community; they were, however, not to be put upon a footing of equality
with Israelites by birth, but were to live as a group apart. The
Gibeonites, in former days the slaves of the Temple, who had accepted
the Israelitish doctrines more than a thousand years before, were
still kept distinct, and were not permitted to intermarry with the
Israelites; and in Ezra's opinion, the new proselytes from the heathen
nations were to be treated in a similar manner. The connection with
them ought not to be of an intimate character; such was Ezra's opinion,
based, not on ancestral pride, but on religious and social grounds.
Some dim presentiment warned him that the reception of proselytes or
half-proselytes into the community--of such elements as had not been
tried and proved in the furnace of suffering, as the seed of Abraham
had been--would give undue preponderance to the foreign element, and
would destroy all the moral and religious advantages which the Judæans
had acquired. This fear seized upon his whole soul; he rent his
clothes, plucked the hair from his head and beard, and refusing all
nourishment, sat until the afternoon, sorrowing and desolate because
of this danger which threatened the life of the nation. Then he entered
the court of the Temple, and throwing himself upon his knees, he poured
forth a confession full of deep contrition, lamenting that the people
had not improved by their bitter experiences, but had relapsed into
their former evil ways. This keenly-felt penitence, uttered amid sobs
and tears, powerfully affected the bystanders, men, women and children,
who had been attracted by the sight of the kneeling sage. They burst
into passionate weeping, as if their tears could obliterate the dark
pages in their history. One of those present, Shechaniah, touched by
sympathy, uttered a weighty suggestion: "Let us make a covenant to
put away all the strange wives, and such as are born of them." Ezra
seized upon the idea at once; he rose and demanded that the heads of
the families, who were present on that occasion, swear before the
Sanctuary, and by their God, that they would repudiate their foreign
wives and their children. That moment was to decide the fate of the
Judæan people. Ezra, and those who thought as he did, raised a wall
of separation between the Judæans and the rest of the world. But this
exclusiveness was not strictly in agreement with the letter of the Law,
for Ezra himself, with all his knowledge, was not able to point out any
passage in the Torah, implying that mixed marriages were forbidden when
contracted with those who acknowledged the God of Israel.
Such members of the community as, in a moment of enthusiasm, had taken
this vow, were now obliged to keep it. With bleeding hearts they
separated themselves from their wives, the daughters of neighbouring
tribes, and repudiated their own children. The sons and relations of
the high-priest were forced to set an example to the rest. Those of
the elders of the people who were the most ardent disciples of the Law
formed a kind of senate. They issued a proclamation throughout Judah,
commanding all who had been guilty of contracting mixed marriages, to
appear within three days in Jerusalem, on pain of excommunication. A
special court of enquiry was instituted for this one question. Ezra
himself selected the members who were to make the needful researches
to discover whether the Judæans had really repudiated their wives. So
thoroughly was the work of this court of enquiry carried on, that all
those who were living in the towns of Judæa separated themselves from
their wives and children, as the inhabitants of Jerusalem had done.
Still there were some who, influenced by family feelings, made some
show of resistance.
The severity with which this separation from all neighbouring tribes,
Samaritans and others, had been effected led naturally to grave
results. The raising of this wall of separation by Ezra and his party
against those who were truly anxious to belong to the community caused
much bitterness. They were to be separated for ever from the Deity
they had chosen, and excluded from the Sanctuary in Jerusalem to which
they had belonged. The decree of separation sent to them changed their
friendly relations towards the Judæans to enmity. Hatred which arises
from despised affection is always most bitter. The grief of the wives
deserted by their husbands, and the sight of children disowned by their
fathers could not fail to awaken and to increase the animosity of
those who were closely related to them. Unfortunately for the Judæans,
Sanballat and Tobiah, two forceful and able men, were at the head
of the party excluded from the community. Tobiah, the Ammonite, was
related to several Judæan families. They had both accepted the Judæan
teaching, and now they were both repulsed. Henceforth they assumed a
hostile position towards Judæa; they were determined, by force or by
intrigues, to maintain their right of worshipping in the Temple and
sharing in the faith of Israel. At first they probably took steps to
restore their peaceful intercourse with the Judæans, and urged them to
revoke their cruel decision. In Jerusalem, as well as in the provinces,
there was a party which strongly disapproved of Ezra's stern action.
The well-informed among these differed with Ezra on the illegality of
marriages with women who had, at all events outwardly, accepted the
Law. Was Ezra's severity justifiable? Did not the historical records
contain many instances of Israelites having married foreign wives? Such
questions must have been constantly put at that time.
A charming literary production, written probably at that date, echoes
the opinions of the gentler members of the community. The poetical
author of the Book of Ruth relates, apparently without a purpose, the
simple idyllic story of a distinguished family of Bethlehem which had
migrated to Moab, where the two sons married Moabitish wives; but he
touches at the same time upon the burning question of the day. Ruth,
the Moabitess, the widow of one of the sons, is described as saying to
her mother-in-law, "Entreat me not to leave thee, or to return from
following after thee: for whither thou goest I will go, and where
thou lodgest I will lodge: thy people shall be my people, and thy
God, my God: where thou diest will I die, and there will I be buried;
the Lord do so to me, and more also, if aught but death part thee and
me." And the Moabitess kept her word faithfully. Upon her marriage
with Boaz, the people exclaim: "The Lord make the woman that is come
into thine house like Rachel and like Leah, which two did build the
house of Israel." The son born to Ruth was the ancestor of David, the
great king of Israel. The several incidents of this exquisite story
are most delicately and artistically developed. But the author meant
to place two facts before his readers, namely, that the royal house of
Israel sprang from a Moabitess, and that the Moabitess, after having
connected herself closely with the people of Israel and acknowledged
their God, gave proof of such virtues as grace a daughter of Israel:
chastity, refinement of feeling, and cheerful self-sacrifice. The
reference in this tale to the all-absorbing question of the day was
too pointed to be passed over unnoticed. Among those unfortunate wives
who had been, or who were to be repudiated by their husbands, might
there not be some who resembled Ruth? And the children born of foreign
women, but having Judæan fathers,--were they to be looked down upon as
heathens? If so, then not even the house of David, the royal family,
whose ancestor had married a Moabitess, belonged to the Judæan nation!
But none of these representations were of avail. Ezra and the
reigning senate in Jerusalem insisted sternly upon the exclusion
from the community of all people who could not claim Judaic descent,
and who were, therefore, not of "the holy seed." The failure of all
conciliatory measures resulted in hostilities, which lasted for several
years (457-444). Ezra was, unfortunately, not a man of action; he could
only pray and arouse the feelings of others, but he could not prevent
many Judæan families from secretly abetting his opponents. On the
other hand, Sanballat and his followers were men of decided character,
full of virulent hatred towards their adversaries, and they took every
opportunity of harassing their enemies. At last they even attacked
Jerusalem.
What could have inspired them with such boldness, knowing as they did
that Ezra was favoured by the Persian court, and that Judæan favourites
possessed great influence over Artaxerxes? Did they, perhaps, count
upon the fickleness of the Persian king? Or were they emboldened by the
revolt of Megabyzus, satrap of Syria, to whom both Judæa and Samaria
were subordinate? And while the Syrians vanquished one Persian army
after another, were they encouraged to commence hostilities on their
own account and to aim at the heart of their enemy? But, no matter
what it was that induced Sanballat and his followers to take warlike
steps against Jerusalem, they were entirely successful. They were able
to raise an army, whilst their opponents in Jerusalem were mostly
ignorant of the use of arms. The result was that Sanballat and his
followers made breaches in the walls of the city, burned the wooden
gates, and destroyed many of the buildings, so that Jerusalem again
resembled a heap of ruins. They, however, spared the Temple, for it was
sacred in their eyes also; but it was nevertheless abandoned, and most
of the inhabitants, having lost the protection of the city walls, left
Jerusalem, and established themselves in other places, wherever they
could find shelter.
The Aaronides and Levites, deprived of their income from gifts and
tithes, left the Temple and sought other means of subsistence. The
commonwealth of Judæa, after barely a century's existence, was
passing through sad times. Many noble families made peace with their
neighbours, took back their repudiated wives, and contracted new
connections with the stranger. They pledged themselves by a reciprocal
vow of constancy to respect these new ties. For a short time it seemed
as if Ezra's great work were frustrated, and as if the life of the
commonwealth were endangered. How little was lacking to effect a
complete dissolution!
The religious zeal kindled by Ezra was, however, too ardent to be
so easily extinguished. Some of the Judæans, maddened by grief at
the destruction and desolation of Jerusalem, hurried to the Persian
court to seek aid. They counted upon the aid of Nehemiah, the Judæan
cup-bearer of Artaxerxes. Hananiah, a kinsman of Nehemiah, and an
eye-witness of the sad occurrences, gave him a harrowing description
of the sad state of the Judæans and of the fall of the Holy City.
Nehemiah was struck with dismay at these tidings. He belonged to the
zealous party in Persia, and was, if possible, more exacting than
Ezra. Jerusalem, the Holy City, had always presented itself to his
imagination as especially protected by God, and surrounded by a fiery
wall, which permitted no enemy to approach with impunity. And now it
had been humbled and put to shame, like any earthly city. But he did
not allow his grief to master him; he was a man of vigorous action and
great ingenuity. At court he had learned the art of governing, and knew
that a firm will could control both men and circumstances. He instantly
determined upon going to Jerusalem, to put an end to this miserable
state of things. But how could he leave Persia, seeing that he was
bound to the court by his office? The great favour that Artaxerxes
always showed him chained him to the place, and removed all prospects
of a journey to Jerusalem.
Full of tact, Nehemiah refrained from entreating Artaxerxes to give
him leave to start upon his journey, until a favourable opportunity
should occur. But the grief that was gnawing at his heart soon showed
itself in his face, and clouded his usually cheerful countenance.
One day, when he was pouring out wine for the king and queen, his
sad expression attracted their attention, and Artaxerxes questioned
him as to its cause. He instantly made use of the opportunity, and
answered, "Why should not my countenance be sad, when the city, the
place of my father's sepulchre, lieth waste, and the gates thereof
are consumed with fire?" He then expressed his earnest desire to
the king. Artaxerxes at once granted his every wish, permitting him
to undertake the journey, to rebuild the city walls, and to restore
order in the unsettled State. The king gave him letters to the various
royal officials, directing them to lay no obstacles in his way, and
to deliver to him timber for building purposes. He even appointed an
escort of soldiers to accompany Nehemiah, and named him governor of
Judæa. The king made but one condition, namely, that his stay in
Jerusalem was not to be permanent, but that he must return to the
Persian court at the expiration of a given time.
A new chapter in the history of the commonwealth commences with
Nehemiah's journey to Jerusalem, or rather this event completes the
chapter begun by Ezra. Nehemiah left the city of Susa with a large
retinue, accompanied by an armed escort. As he travelled through the
former dominion of the Ten Tribes, he presented his credentials to the
various officials, and thus Sanballat and Tobiah were apprised of the
object of his journey, and naturally felt that they were on the eve of
a war. It was disappointing to them to see that a Judæan, the favourite
of Artaxerxes, one who would devote himself to the protection of his
persecuted brethren, had been appointed governor of the land.
When Nehemiah arrived in Jerusalem, he secluded himself for three
days. He wished, first of all, to become acquainted with the scene of
his duties, and with the people with whom he would come into contact.
Meanwhile, he devoted himself to the establishment of a kind of court,
for he possessed a princely fortune, and he made a princely display. He
kept the reason of his sojourn secret, and did not even divulge it to
the leaders of the community, for he did not trust them. One night he
rode forth secretly to examine the extent of the injury sustained by
the walls, and to devise a plan for repairing them. He then summoned
the leading men of the community, and announced, to their amazement,
that King Artaxerxes had given him complete power, not only to rebuild
the walls, but to govern the country, and that it was his intention to
wipe out the disgrace and misery that had fallen upon them. He found
the assembled Judæans ready, heart and soul, to help him. Even those
who had intermarried with the strangers, and were on a friendly footing
with them, evinced their approbation. But Nehemiah had imposed a heavy
task upon himself. He was to reorganise a disjointed commonwealth,
whose members, through fear, weakness, selfishness, and a variety of
motives, had not sufficient courage to face real danger. Nehemiah's
first care was to fortify Jerusalem; he himself superintended the work
of building the fortifications, and made it less arduous by a careful
division of labour. But the task of rebuilding was necessarily a
tedious one. The repudiated proselytes, headed by Sanballat and Tobiah,
whose every hope of alliance with the Judæans had been cut off by
Nehemiah's words, "Ye shall have no portion, no right, no memorial in
Jerusalem," manifested as much zeal in disturbing the work, as he did
in accomplishing it. They artfully tried to make the Persians suspect
Nehemiah of treason, and of having conceived the ambitious scheme of
making himself king of Judæa. Then they endeavoured to discourage the
workmen by deriding them, and by declaring that the walls were weak
enough for a jackal to break through them. When the walls had risen
to half their destined height, the enemy secretly determined upon an
attack. Nehemiah, however, had armed some of his own people, as well as
some of the leading members of the community, and placed them on guard.
Every workman had a sword girt upon his side; every carrier bore his
burden in one hand and his weapon in the other. In order to hasten the
completion of the walls, the work was carried on continuously from dawn
to sunset, while a part of the force stood on guard, day and night,
within the city. Nehemiah himself was always on the spot, accompanied
by a trumpeter. At the blast of his trumpet, the scattered workingmen
were instructed to assemble around him.
But instead of resuming the attack upon the walls, Sanballat busied
himself with devising intrigues against Nehemiah. He gave out that as
soon as Jerusalem was fortified, Nehemiah would cause himself to be
proclaimed king of the Judæans, and would revolt against Persia. The
more credulous began to feel alarmed, and to think of withdrawing from
the work, so as not to be regarded by the Persians in the light of
accomplices. Furthermore, the heads of those families who were related
to the enemy were in active treasonable correspondence with Tobiah. But
all these intrigues were of no avail, and Nehemiah completed the work
with such energy as to compel the unwilling admiration of the foe. From
that time Sanballat and his followers appear to have given up their
fruitless attempts to annoy Nehemiah, or to hinder his work.
But within the community itself, Nehemiah had to fight no less severe
a battle. Many of the most distinguished families who were apparently
loyal, not only entertained secret communications with the enemy, but
also were oppressing the poor in a most heartless manner. When, in the
days of scarcity, the poor borrowed money from the rich in order to
pay taxes to the king, or obtained grain for their own consumption,
they had given as security their fields, their vineyards, their olive
groves, their own houses, and sometimes even their own children; and if
the debts were not repaid, the creditors would retain the land as their
own property, and keep the children as slaves. As the complaints of
those who had been thus cruelly treated rose louder and more frequently
to the ears of Nehemiah, he determined to call these heartless men to
account. He summoned a great assembly, and spoke severely against this
form of heartlessness, which was specially condemned by the Law.
"We, the Judæans of Persia," he exclaimed, "have, according to the best
of our ability, redeemed our brethren, the Judæans that were sold unto
the heathen. And will ye even sell your brethren so that they will
be sold again unto us?" he added ironically. So deep was the respect
enjoyed by Nehemiah, so weighty his opinion, and so ready were even
the great and the rich to hearken to the admonitions of the Law, that
they promised forthwith not only to release the enslaved persons,
but also to restore the houses, fields and gardens to their owners
and to cancel their debts. Nehemiah made use of this favourable mood
to administer an oath to the rich, binding them to carry out their
promises.
This was an important victory gained by the Law, through its
representative, Nehemiah, over selfishness. He indeed excelled all
others in the example of self-denial which he set to them. Not only
did he refuse the revenues due to him, but he advanced money and grain
to the poor, and if they were unable to repay it, he relinquished the
loans. His relatives and servants behaved in the same generous and
unselfish manner.
In this way Nehemiah overcame all difficulties, and brought order into
the community. The people hung upon his words, and the leading men
yielded him obedience. But when the walls of the city were rebuilt
and the gates replaced, it appeared that the Levitical gatekeepers,
and in fact all the Levites were missing. They had migrated after the
destruction of the city, into other parts of the country, because they
received no tithes. Altogether, the city was but thinly populated, and
many houses were destroyed or deserted. Jerusalem therefore had to be
peopled again, and the Temple furnished anew with attendants.
It seems that Nehemiah caused a proclamation to be issued to all those
who had deserted Jerusalem in the time of its insecurity, and to those
who had originally settled in the provincial towns, inviting them
to take up their permanent abode in the capital. Many of the noble
families at once offered to do this. But as the number of these was
too small to repeople Jerusalem, it was determined that the tenth part
of the population of the rural districts be called upon to migrate to
the capital, and that they be selected by lot. Nehemiah, however, did
not think every one worthy of becoming a citizen of the Holy City,
least of all those born of mixed marriages. He carefully went through
the register of Judæans who had returned from Babylonia, examining
the pedigree of each separate family. He conducted the matter with
great rigour. Three families, consisting of six hundred and forty-two
persons, who could not prove that they were descended from Israelites,
were not admitted, and three Aaronide families, who were unable to
produce the record of their lineage, were temporarily deprived of the
dignity of the priesthood.
As soon as Nehemiah had fortified Jerusalem, and found means to provide
a population for it, giving the community a centre and forming the
people into a compact body, he sought to breathe into this body the
living soul of the Law. But for this purpose he required the aid of the
scribes. Ezra, who had been thrown into the background by the great
activity of Nehemiah, now re-appeared upon the scene. On the festival
celebrated on the first day of the seventh month, Ezra assembled
all the people, even those who dwelt in the country. "They gathered
themselves together as one man into the open place which is before the
Water-gate in Jerusalem." Here an elevated stand of wood was erected,
upon which Ezra stood to read the Law. Everything was calculated to
produce a solemn and imposing effect. The assembly was a numerous one;
it consisted not only of men, but also of women, and of children who
were old enough to understand what they heard. When Ezra unrolled the
Book of the Law, all the people arose, and when he opened the services
by reciting a blessing, they lifted up their hands, responding, in a
loud voice, Amen. Then Ezra began to read a section of the Torah with
an impressive voice, and all present listened intently. There were
some, indeed, unable to follow the reading, but the Levites added a
short and clear explanation, so that even the most ignorant could
understand. The people were deeply moved by what they heard, and burst
into tears. Probably they heard for the first time that portion of
Deuteronomy in which are announced the fearful punishments consequent
upon disregard of the Law; and the conscience-stricken people felt
themselves unworthy of the Divine love, and were overwhelmed with
grief. Some time elapsed before Ezra and the priests could restore
tranquillity to the excited multitude. But at length they were quieted,
and proceeded to celebrate the festival in an exalted mood. It was the
first time that the people had taken the Book of the Law into their
hearts, and that they had felt it to be an integral part of their
existence, and themselves to be its guardians.
The change which had begun during the time of the Babylonian exile was
now completed. What the prophets had commenced, the scribes ended.
It is remarkable that so important an assembly should have met, not
in the Temple itself, but in its immediate vicinity, and that the
high-priest should have taken no part in it. The Sanctuary, with the
altar and the vessels for sacrifice, was, to a certain extent, thrown
into the background. Though a priest, Ezra unconsciously led the way
to a separation between the Law and the Temple, that is to say, the
subordination of the priesthood to the Scriptures. The people became so
enamoured of the Law, for which they had cared but little previously,
that they were anxious to hear more of it. The heads of the community,
whose ancestors had obstinately rejected the teaching of the prophets,
and had seemed utterly incapable of reformation, repaired to Ezra,
on the next day, and begged of him to continue his reading of the
Pentateuch. Ezra thereupon read the portion concerning the festivals
that were to be celebrated during the seventh month. In obedience to
the injunctions contained therein, the leading men caused heralds to
proclaim that all the people were to bring branches of olive trees,
myrtles, and palms from the neighbouring mountains, for the erection
of huts or booths. The people executed this order with alacrity, and
celebrated the Festival of Tabernacles in a brighter mood than they
had ever done before. During the eight days of this festival a portion
of the Law was read daily, and from that time the reading of the Law
became a permanent feature in the Divine service. Ezra and Nehemiah
were anxious to avail themselves of this religious fervour in a way to
influence those who still lived with their foreign wives to repudiate
them of their own free will. For this purpose a penitential day was
appointed. All the people appeared fasting, in mourning, and with ashes
upon their heads. The portion of the Law forbidding intermarriage
with Ammonites and Moabites was read and expounded. Then a general
acknowledgment of sin, in the name of the people, was recited by the
Levites. The desired effect was obtained; the Israelites separated from
their foreign wives, and sundered their connection with the Samaritans
and all of doubtful descent.
Ezra and Nehemiah now induced them to make a solemn covenant that they
would in future respect the teaching of the Law, and not relapse into
their old errors and shortcomings. From that day forward the whole
community was to live according to the Law of Moses. Men, women, and
children, the Temple servants, and even the proselytes, who clung
faithfully to the Judæans, took the oath that was required of them.
They swore not to give their daughters in marriage to foreigners, and
not to marry daughters of foreign tribes. This matter was looked upon
by Ezra and Nehemiah as one of peculiar importance, and, therefore, the
first place was given to it. They also swore to observe the Sabbath and
the holidays, to let the fields lie fallow every seventh year, and,
during that year, to remit all debts. Furthermore, every individual who
had attained his majority was to pay annually one third of a shekel
towards the maintenance of the Temple, to bring the first produce of
the fields and the orchards to the Sanctuary, to provide wood for the
altar, and to contribute the tithes for the maintenance of the priests
and the Levites.
The obligations assumed by the people were inscribed upon a scroll,
which was signed by the heads of the families, and sealed. Nehemiah's
name stood first upon the list, followed by the signatures of about
eighty-five prominent men. According to one account, one hundred and
twenty names were subscribed. This important gathering of Judæans was
called the Great Assembly (Keneseth ha-gedolah). Nehemiah had indeed
accomplished much in a short time. He had not only restored the decayed
commonwealth, and assured its stability by fortifying the capital, but
he had also endowed the people with the Law, and had induced them to
live in harmony with its requirements.
Nehemiah appears designedly to have contrived the gathering of large
popular assemblies in order to make a deep impression on those
present. He convened the people a second time, to consecrate the
walls of the city. As at the former ceremony, women and children were
in the congregation. In order to impart a joyful character to these
solemnities, he invited a number of Levites who were skilled in music
and song to come to Jerusalem. Two divisions of the people, starting
from the same point, marched, in opposite directions, round the walls,
and met in the Temple. At the head of each division, a choir of Levites
sang hymns of praise, each being accompanied by a band of musicians.
Ezra followed one choir, and Nehemiah the other, each of them heading
an immense concourse of people. In this way the two processions passed
slowly round the walls of the city. Far into the distance sounded the
joyous notes of the cymbals, harps and trumpets, whilst the songs
bursting from the lips of the Levites echoed again and again from the
mountains. After the day of mourning and atonement followed a day of
universal joy and gladness. This festival of dedication, we are told,
lasted eight days, and took place two years and four months after the
commencement of Nehemiah's work (442).
In order to establish the community to whom he had given new life,
Nehemiah sought able, worthy and conscientious officers. It seems
that it was he who divided the country into small districts (Pelech),
and placed over each an officer to manage its affairs and to maintain
order. To the north of the Temple, Nehemiah built a citadel, which
he fortified strongly, so that in case of necessity it might prove a
defence for the Sanctuary; this fortress was called Birah. He appointed
a faithful and God-fearing man, Hananiah, as commander. His colleague
in the work of regeneration, the scribe Ezra, was made guardian of
the Temple. The chief thing he had in view was the full restoration
of the Temple-worship. If the sacrificial services were not again to
be interrupted, provision must be made for the maintenance of the
Aaronides and Levites. The landowners had, it is true, bound themselves
most solemnly to pay the imposts to the former, and the tithes to the
latter, but Nehemiah, not content with the mere promise, required the
delivery of the supplies to be constantly watched. The Levites were
sent into the country at harvest time, to collect their tithes, and to
bring them back to Jerusalem. In order to secure an even distribution
of the tithes, a tenth of which was in turn due to the Aaronides, and
of those gifts which belonged to the latter exclusively, Nehemiah built
large granaries, where all contributions were to be stored, and whither
those entitled thereto were to repair to have their due shares assigned
to them by special officials.
Not only did Nehemiah provide for the re-population of the deserted
city of Jerusalem, but he also sought means to furnish the new
inhabitants with suitable dwellings. At his own cost he erected houses
for the poorest of the nation, and tried to supply all wants in the
same way. Thus he built up a new state, upon which he laid but one
obligation, that it should abide strictly by the Law. For twelve
years he was governor of Judah (from 444 to 432); he was then obliged
to return to the court of Artaxerxes, where he still enjoyed great
favour with the king. He departed with the hope that the work he had
accomplished might be blessed with lasting security and glory.
But no sooner had Nehemiah left than a counter-current set in that
could be traced to the influence of the high-priest Eliashib. The first
retrograde step was taken when Eliashib held friendly communication
with the Samaritans and the offspring of mixed marriages, in
violation of the decision of the Great Assembly. As an earnest of
this friendship, a member of the priest's household, named Manasseh,
married Nicaso, a daughter of Sanballat. Others, who had been secretly
dissatisfied with Nehemiah's strict line of separation, now followed
the example of the priestly house. An entire change took place. Tobiah,
the second great enemy of Nehemiah, was allowed to return unmolested to
Jerusalem, and a large court in the outer Temple was actually assigned
to him.
This sudden change, which allowed what had recently been strictly
forbidden, produced a general disintegration. The people as a body was
so outraged by the actions of the high-priest and his party that it
openly showed its contempt for them. The landowners, moreover, left off
paying tithes and imposts for the support of the priesthood, and thus
the innocent Levites also lost their income. To avoid starvation they
were compelled to leave the Temple and the city. The contributions for
the sacrificial services ceased, and to prevent the altar from being
entirely neglected, the priests in charge offered up diseased, lame,
blind or unsightly animals. Many Judæans were so utterly disgusted
at the behaviour of the priests that they turned their backs upon
the Sanctuary and the affairs of the community, pursuing their own
interests, and this not rarely at the expense of justice, and of all
that they had sworn to uphold. When this class grew prosperous, the
truly pious people, who were struggling with poverty, became utterly
confused in their ideas of right and wrong, and exclaimed: "It is vain
to serve God: and what profit is it that we have kept His charge?"
"Every one that doeth evil is good in the sight of the Lord, and He
delighteth in them."
But worse than all else was the discord which prevailed in the Judæan
community, and which even divided families. What could be pronounced
right and lawful? The father did not agree with the son; the one
accepted the stern practice, the other the lax, and thus disputes
arose in each household. To counteract these lamentable occurrences,
the more pious, who would not allow themselves to be shaken in their
convictions, met and discussed a plan of action. They turned with hope
and longing towards Nehemiah, who was still at the court of Artaxerxes.
If he would but return to Jerusalem, he could, with one blow, put an
end to this miserable state of confusion, and restore peace, unity,
and strength to the city. At this auspicious moment a God-fearing man
suddenly appeared on the scene. He belonged to the party that was
incensed at the behaviour of the high-priest and his followers, and he
undertook to chastise the wicked, and to reanimate the waning courage
of the good. This man, full of vigour, and moved by the prophetic
spirit, was Malachi, the last of the prophets. Worthily did he close
the long list of godly men who had succeeded each other for four
centuries. Malachi announced to his dejected and despairing brethren
the speedy arrival of the Messenger of the Covenant, whom many
delighted in, and who would bring better days with him. The prophet
counselled the people not to omit paying the tithes on account of the
evil-doing of some of the priests, but to bring them all, as in former
days, into the store-houses.
Malachi, like the early prophets, proclaimed that in the distant future
a great and awful day would dawn, when the difference between the pious
and the wicked would be made clear. Before the coming of that last day
God would send His prophet Elijah, and he would reconcile the father to
the son. He bade them remember and take to heart the Law of Moses, with
its statutes and its judgments, which had been given to them on Mount
Horeb. With these words, the voice of prophecy was hushed.
The written Law, which had been made accessible to many through the
zeal of Ezra, and which had found a body of exponents, rendered the
continuance of prophetic utterances unnecessary. The scribe took
the place of the seer, and the reading of the Law, either to large
assemblies or in houses of prayer, was substituted for prophetic
revelation.
Did Nehemiah at the court of Persia have any idea of the yearning for
his presence that existed at this very moment in Jerusalem? Had he any
knowledge that Malachi's belief in better days rested upon the hope of
his return? It is impossible to say, but, at all events, he suddenly
re-appeared in Jerusalem, between the years 430 and 424, having again
obtained the king's permission to return to his spiritual home, and
soon after his arrival he became, in the words of the prophet, "like a
refiner's fire, and like the fuller's lye." He cleansed the community
of its impure elements. He began by expelling the Ammonite Tobiah
from the place which had been given to him by his priestly relative,
Eliashib, and by dismissing the latter from his office. He then
assembled the heads of the community, and reproached them bitterly
with having caused the Levites to desert the Temple, by neglecting to
collect the tithes. A summons from Nehemiah was enough to induce the
landed proprietors to perform their neglected duties, and to cause
the Levites to return to their service in the Temple. The charge of
the collected tithes and their just distribution he placed under the
care of four conscientious Judæans,--some of his devoted followers. He
restored the divine service to its former solemnity, and dismissed the
unworthy priests. A most important work in the eyes of Nehemiah was the
dissolution of the mixed marriages which had again been contracted.
Here he came in direct conflict with the high-priestly house. Manasseh,
a son or relation of the high-priest Joiada, refused to separate
himself from his Samaritan wife, Nicaso, Sanballat's daughter, and
Nehemiah possessed sufficient firmness to banish him from the country.
Many other Aaronides and Judæans who would not obey Nehemiah's commands
were also sent into exile. After peace and order had been restored
in the capital, Nehemiah tried to abolish the abuses which had found
their way into the provinces. Wherever Judæans lived in close proximity
to foreign tribes, such as the Ashdodites, Ammonites, Moabites, or
Samaritans, mixed marriages had led to almost entire ignorance of the
Hebrew tongue, for the children of these marriages generally spoke
the language of their mothers. This aroused Nehemiah's anger, and
stimulated his energy. He remonstrated with the Judæan fathers, he even
cursed them, and finally caused the refractory to be punished. By such
persistent activity he was able to accomplish the dissolution of the
mixed marriages, and the preservation of the Hebrew tongue.
Nehemiah next introduced the strict observance of the Sabbath, which
had been but negligently observed hitherto. The Law had certainly
forbidden all labour on that day, but it had not defined what really
was to be considered as labour. At all events, the Judæans who lived
in the provinces were ignorant on that point, for on the Sabbath they
pressed the wine, loaded their beasts of burden with corn, grapes,
figs, and drove them to market into the city of Jerusalem. As soon
as Nehemiah discovered that the Sabbath was treated like an ordinary
week-day, he assembled the country people, and explained that they
were sinning against God's Law, and they listened to him, and followed
his injunctions. But he had a more difficult task in abolishing an
old-established custom. Tyrian merchants were in the habit of appearing
in Jerusalem on the Sabbath-day, bringing fish fresh from the sea, and
they found ready customers. But Nehemiah ordered that henceforth all
the gates should be closed on the Sabbath eve, so that no merchant
could enter the city. These ordinances were strictly enforced, and from
that time the Sabbath was rigorously observed.
The strict observance of the Law, enjoined by Ezra, was insisted upon
by Nehemiah; he built the wall of separation between Judæans and
Gentiles so securely, that it was impossible to break through it. The
Judæans who were discontented with this separation and the severity of
the Law were obliged to leave the Judæan community, and form a sect
of their own. Nehemiah himself probably lived to see the formation of
the first sect among Jews, and as he himself might virtually be held
responsible for it, he thought it necessary to justify his proceedings,
and to set forth his own meritorious part in raising the fallen
community. He composed a kind of memoir, in which he related what he
had achieved in his first and second visits to Jerusalem. At intervals
he inserted the prayer that God would remember him for what he had done
for the people and for his services in behalf of the Sanctuary and
its preservation. It was a kind of self-justification written in his
old age, and his name has remained eternally in the remembrance of a
grateful people. To him and to Ezra, the creators of that spiritual
current which has since attained an irresistible force in the Jewish
world, grateful posterity has attributed all beneficial institutions
whose origin is unknown.