SOLOMON.
The new King's Rule--Solomon's Choice--Poetic Allegory--Murder
of Adonijah and Joab--The Court--Alliance with
Egypt--Tyre--Solomon's Buildings--The Plan of the Temple--The
Workmen--The Materials--Description of the Temple--The Ceremony
of Consecration--Reorganisation of the Priesthood--The King's
Palace--The Throne--Increase of National Wealth--The Fleet--The
Seeds of Disunion--Jeroboam--Idolatry permitted--Estrangement
from Egypt--Growth of surrounding Kingdoms--Solomon's Fame--His
Death.
1015-977 B. C. E.
David had left affairs in Israel in such perfect order that his
successor, unless he were a fool or a knave, or the victim of
evil advice, would have but little trouble in governing. Solomon,
however, carried David's work still further. He shed such lustre
upon Israel that even the most distant generations basked in the
light that emanated from his wise rule. Indeed, a king who solidifies
and increases, if he does not actually found, the greatness of the
State; who permits his people the enjoyment of peace; who sheds the
bounties of plenty over his land, driving poverty away from the
meanest hovel; who opens up new channels for the development of his
people's powers, and who thus increases and strengthens them; a king
who has the intelligence to arouse his subjects to exercise their
mental gifts, and cultivate their love of the beautiful; who, by his
material and spiritual creations, elevates his country to the dignity
of a model State, such as had never been before him and scarcely ever
after him;--such a monarch assuredly deserves the high praise which
posterity has accorded to him. Carried away by the greatness of his
deeds--for all these grand characteristics were strikingly prominent
in Solomon--men shut their eyes to his weaknesses, and considered them
the inevitable result of human imperfection. In the first place he
strove to preserve peace for his country, though his father had left
him ample means for making fresh conquests. He was called the king of
peace--"Shelomo." By giving to his people the comforts of prosperity,
he widened its horizon, and raised its self-respect. He ruled it with
wisdom and justice, and decided with strict impartiality all contests
between individuals as well as tribes. He increased the number of
towns, and secured the safety of the roads and of the caravans. He
filled the city of Jerusalem with splendour, and built therein a
magnificent temple in honour of God. He himself cultivated the fine
arts and poetry, and thereby endowed them with fresh attractions in the
eyes of the people. Lastly, he set great aims before the nation, and
was rightly called the wise king.
History, the impartial arbitress, cannot, however, be blinded by his
dazzling virtues to the blemishes which attach to his government,
and which must be accounted the cause of the unfortunate breach
which commenced when his grave was scarcely closed. The beginning of
Solomon's rule was not free from stains of blood, and its end was
clouded with mists, which dimmed its brightness; his love of splendour
became injurious to morality; it made him despotic, and imposed a
burden on the people, which it bore for a considerable time, but shook
off at the first favourable opportunity. Solomon converted the kingly
power into an autocracy, under which every will had to be subservient
to his. But these blemishes were entirely hidden by the greatness of
the achievements under his rule. It is impossible now to decide how
far the responsibility of Solomon for these evils goes, how much of
the blame rests with his too officious servants, and to what extent
their existence must be attributed to the irresistible force of
circumstances, to which the exalted and the lowly alike must submit.
It is the curse of crowned heads that the worthiest wearer of a crown,
in order to consolidate his power, is induced to take steps which his
conscience would under other circumstances condemn, and the misdeeds of
his servants are also added to his account.
Solomon was young--scarcely twenty--when he ascended the throne. After
his accession, whilst visiting the altar at Gibeon, we are told, he had
a vision in which God asked him to express the innermost wish of his
heart, with the promise that it should be fulfilled. He did not choose
long life, nor riches, nor honour, nor the death of his enemies; but he
chose wisdom, in order that he might rule his people with justice. In
fact, this wisdom, this power of entering into the feelings and minds
of the dissenting parties who appeared before him, of seizing on the
true state of the case in spite of exaggeration and subtle arguments,
Solomon possessed to an extraordinary degree. The Solomonic judgment is
well known. By giving a verdict which was well adapted to reveal the
real feeling of a mother, he recognised, in a dispute between two women
for the possession of a child, on which side was truth, on which side
falsehood. "Cut the child in half," he said. But its real mother could
not accept this decision, and offered rather to give up her child. He
was determined that no one in his kingdom should suffer from injustice.
Though he may not have been the first that uttered the saying, "through
justice a throne is established," yet it was a maxim after his own
heart.
The wisdom of Solomon is also displayed to great advantage in another
direction, namely, in his poetic productions. These were chiefly
allegorical poems (Mashal); in them he caused the lofty cedars of
Lebanon, and the lowly creeping wall plants, to appear as the emblems
of what is highest and humblest, quadrupeds, birds of the air,
reptiles, and even dumb fish are given voice and speech. Each of these
fables probably ended with an appropriate moral lesson. It has been
related that Solomon composed three thousand of such fables and five
thousand songs or proverbs.
But Solomon was by no means the originator of this style of fiction.
Long before him such compositions had been common among the Israelites.
Standing on Mount Gerizim, Jotham, the son of the Judge Gideon,
addressed the misguided people of Shechem in an ingenious parable.
The prophet Nathan had disguised his exhortation to David respecting
his sin with Bathsheba in the form of a parable. But though not the
inventor of this branch of poetry, Solomon is still deserving of praise
for devoting the time left unoccupied by the cares of government to
its further development. His rare qualities of mind were displayed in
yet another direction. In some of his compositions he delineates types
of persons and things by means of allusions, the hidden meaning of
which is left to guessing. Such enigmas, presented in a poetic form,
were in those days the favourite diversions of social gatherings and
feasts, and Solomon possessed remarkable ingenuity in devising these
recreations of the human mind.
He was, however, guilty of errors, the greater part of which arose
from an exaggerated idea of his royal dignity, and from imitating the
kings of the neighbouring states of Tyre and Egypt, with whom he was
in constant intercourse. He claimed for himself a prerogative almost
impious in a mortal, namely, that of being considered identical with
the State,--all interests were to centre in him, and all else was to
be of comparatively little importance. Solomon's wisdom ran aground
on this rock. The truth of Samuel's prediction, at the time of the
election of a ruler, was better proven by the wise king than by his
predecessors.
Unfortunately Solomon was a younger son, to whom the throne had been
allotted contrary to the ordinary laws of succession, whilst Adonijah,
whom a portion of the people had recognised as king, was considered
the rightful heir. So long as the latter lived, Solomon's government
could not be on a firm basis, and he could never feel himself secure.
Adonijah, therefore, had to be removed; the leader of the body guard,
Benaiah, forcibly entered his house, and killed him. As an excuse for
this act of violence, it was asserted that Adonijah had attempted
to win the hand of Abishag, the young widow of David, and thus had
revealed his traitorous intention of contesting his brother's right to
the throne. No sooner had he fallen than Joab, the former adherent of
Adonijah, feared that a similar fate would overtake him. This exemplary
general, who had contributed so considerably to the aggrandisement of
the people of Israel and the power of the house of David, fled to the
altar on Mount Zion, and clung to it, hoping to escape death. Benaiah,
however, refused to respect his place of refuge, and shed his blood at
the altar. In order to excuse this crime, it was given out that David
himself, on his deathbed, had impressed on his successor the duty of
revenging the death of Abner and Amasa. Joab, who had killed them in
times of peace, was not to be allowed, in spite of his venerable age,
to die in peace.
It is uncertain whether Benaiah was Solomon's evil adviser, or merely
his instrument. Joab's death was the cause of great joy amongst the
enemies of Israel, and aroused in them the courage to plan a rebellion.
Adonijah's priestly partisan, Abiathar, whom Solomon did not dare
touch, was deprived of his office as high priest, and Zadok was made
the sole head of the priesthood, and his descendants, invested with
that dignity, maintained it for over a thousand years, whilst the
offspring of Abiathar were neglected.--The Benjamite Shimei, who had
pursued David with execrations on his flight from Jerusalem, was also
executed, and it was only through this three-fold deed of blood that
Solomon's throne appears to have gained stability.
Solomon then directed his attention to the formation of a court of the
greatest magnificence, such as was befitting the powerful king whose
commands were obeyed from the boundaries of Egypt to the banks of the
Euphrates. In those days many wives were considered a necessary adjunct
to the king's dignity; David had about sixteen wives, but this was
an insignificant number as compared with that of the kings of Egypt
and Phœnicia, whom Solomon had taken for his pattern. It was only in
compliance with this common but corrupt practice that Solomon formed an
immense harem. His first wife was Naamah (the beautiful), an Ammonite
princess; he also had other wives from the Moabite and Aramæan courts,
and even from those of the Hittite and Canaanite kings; but what most
gratified his pride was that the Egyptian king Psusennes gave him his
daughter in marriage. Solomon thought that in acting thus he had taken
a wise step, and that his country and his dynasty would be benefited
by the alliance. But the result proved the contrary. The daughter of
Psusennes was naturally received with every mark of attention in the
Israelitish capital; she became the first queen in Solomon's harem,
but it seemed to him a disgrace that he could not place a magnificent
palace at the disposal of this queen. What was the cedar palace built
by David on Mount Zion, when compared with the gigantic edifices
and labyrinthine palaces of the kings of Egypt? Solomon, therefore,
determined to build a palace worthy of her.
Through the alliance with Egypt, innovations of great consequence were
made in Israel, among them the introduction of horses and chariots.
Solomon also entered into close and friendly connection with Hiram,
king of Tyre, with whom David had already established a neighbourly
intimacy. He appears to have married a daughter of Hiram, too, and this
close bond between Solomon and Hiram seems to have led to important and
extensive undertakings.
The establishment of a large harem demanded an immense body of
servants. Solomon maintained a most brilliant court. The ambassadors
of tributary and friendly powers had to be received with great pomp,
for Solomon laid great stress on the display of splendour, and the
maintenance of his court demanded the expenditure of large sums of
money. As he could not otherwise obtain means, the royal house not
having extensive estates in its own right, the people had to defray his
enormous expenses. The whole land was divided into twelve parts, and
a Governor was placed over each division to see that the inhabitants
contributed one month's provisions every year; the purpose of this
division seems to have been that the old system of tribal organisation
might cease. A superior, or Vizier, whose duty it was to see that the
tribute of natural products was sent in regularly, was appointed over
these twelve officials.
Solomon displayed heightened grandeur in his buildings. He was anxious
in the first instance to raise a splendid temple to the God of Israel
in the capital of his country. It could not be a matter of indifference
to him that in the neighbouring lands of Egypt and Phœnicia, with the
rulers of which he was intimately acquainted, gigantic temples were
raised for the various gods, whilst in his country the sanctuary was
merely placed in a tent. Solomon, therefore, immediately after his
accession to the throne, made preparations for commencing the erection
of a sacred edifice; the site was already chosen. It was to be on Mount
Moriah, to the north-east of the city, where David had raised an altar
after the pestilence had ceased. Silver and gold had been collected
for the purpose, but building materials, stones and cedar wood still
had to be procured. Freestones and blocks had to be hewn from the rocks
in the quarries north of Jerusalem, where they were so dovetailed as to
be easily joined after reaching the spot. But whence procure workmen
for this troublesome business of hewing, preparing and conveying the
stones? Solomon had learnt from Pharaoh Psusennes, his father-in-law,
the means of obtaining workmen without incurring heavy expense. He
employed the remnant of the Canaanite population still living in the
country. Although Saul had begun to decrease their numbers, he could
not proceed against them with his full strength, on account of his
continual strife with David. David had left them undisturbed, so that
they lived quietly, mixed peaceably with the Israelites, and served the
king faithfully in his wars against the Philistines and other nations.
Solomon, on the contrary, declared the remnant of the Ammonites,
Hittites, Perizzites and Hivites, as well as the Jebusites (whom David
had permitted to live in the outskirts of Jerusalem), to be bondmen,
and compelled them to perform the hardest labour. They numbered 150,000
youths and able-bodied men, and comprised the working class. More than
3,000 Israelitish superintendents kept the enslaved natives to their
work. A superior officer, Adoniram, watched over the superintendents
and the workmen. Eighty thousand of these unhappy beings worked in the
stone quarries day and night by the light of lamps. They were under
the direction of a man from Biblos (Giblim), who understood the art
of hewing heavy blocks from the rocks, and of giving the edges the
necessary shape for dovetailing. Twenty thousand slaves removed the
heavy blocks from the mouth of the quarry, and carried them to the
building site.
Hiram, the King of Tyre, Solomon's friend, supplied cedar and cypress
wood. The trees were felled on Lebanon, for which purpose Hiram placed
skilled workmen at Solomon's disposal. The trunks were forwarded from
Lebanon to Tyre or to the other harbours, whence they were conveyed in
rafts to the port of Jaffa, and from there with much toil over hills
and dales to Jerusalem, a distance of at least a ten hours' journey.
As the Canaanite slaves were not sufficiently numerous to remove the
cedar and cypress trees, and to convey them to their destination,
Solomon employed Israelites to assist in the work, thirty thousand
being impressed for the duty. Each ten thousand were sent for a month
to work in the forests, to fell the trees, and convey them to their
destination. After a month had passed, the workmen were relieved by
another body of ten thousand. These thirty thousand Israelites were not
enslaved--they remained free, and even received wages--but they were
not allowed to withdraw voluntarily from the work.
It was not to be expected that Hiram would cut down his cedar and
cypress forests, or that he would place carpenters and builders at
Solomon's disposal without receiving some return. So long as the
buildings were in course of erection, Solomon sent him annually a
certain amount of corn, wine and oil, with the raising of which tribute
the people were probably taxed. But Hiram was also obliged to advance
gold for the adornment of the interior of the temple. Solomon's fleet
had not yet imported the precious metal. In return for the supply of
gold, Solomon yielded up to Hiram twenty towns of the borderland, in
the tribe of Asher, between Phœnicia and the territory of Israel.
Though these were not important, and did not please Hiram, still it
was a transference of Israelitish territory to the Phœnicians. Hiram
permitted various races to colonise the towns, from whom the territory
received the name "Gelil Haggoyim" (the district of nations), later
Galilee. As soon as the stones and blocks of wood had been removed to
the building site of the temple, the erection of which was to occupy
three years, the work was commenced.
The temple was built of freestone, and the walls were covered with
cedar planks on the inside. On these were traced designs of palms,
open flower cups, and cherubim (winged heads with human faces), and
these designs were inlaid with gold. The temple was sixty cubits long,
twenty cubits wide, and thirty cubits high. It was divided into the
Holy of Holies (Debir, the inner chamber, a square of twenty cubits),
and the Holy Place (Hechal, which was forty cubits long). The Holy of
Holies seems to have been situated on higher ground than the sanctuary.
At the sides were two cherubim of gilded olive wood, each ten cubits
high, the wings of which were five cubits wide. At the entrance of
the sanctuary was an open vestibule (Ulam), which was of the same
width as the sanctuary, and ten cubits in length, and in front of this
hall there were artistically wrought columns of bronze. The artist,
Hiram, was a half-Jew, his father being a Syrian and his mother a
Naphtalite. The Holy of Holies was to face the west, contrary to the
custom of the Gentiles, whose temples faced the rising sun; the gates
were of olive wood, adorned with gilded cherubim as well as with palms
and flower-cups. The folding doors of the sanctuary, made of cypress
wood, were ornamented in a like manner, and the floor was of cypress
wood inlaid with gold. In the Holy of Holies nothing was visible but
the cherubim, intended to enshrine the ark of the covenant, in which
the tablets of the law were kept. In the sanctuary there was an altar
of cedar wood gilded on all sides, with five gilded candlesticks at
each side, and a large gilded table for twelve loaves. The temple was
surrounded by an extensive courtyard. Inside the vestibule stood a
large iron altar, and a spacious water reservoir, called the "iron
sea," adorned with a border of open flower-cups and lily-buds, and on
the lower part with colocynths. This reservoir was supported by twelve
iron bulls, each three of which turned in a different direction. The
water was intended for washing the hands and feet of the officiating
priests whenever they entered the sanctuary, the flow of water probably
being regulated by a faucet. Ten small basins on wheels, artistically
engraved, could be pushed to any spot where they might be wanted.
Vessels for the sacrificial rites were cast in large quantities by the
order of the king. The whole building inside and outside was stamped
with the impress of wealth and grandeur. At the completion of the
building, it was consecrated (1007) with solemn rites. The erection
of the temple had occupied seven years, and the month selected for
the consecration was that in which the harvest and the vintage were
completed. The chiefs of all the tribes and the elders of families were
invited, and people streamed from every quarter to gaze in astonishment
at the splendours of the temple, and to look upon the unaccustomed
spectacle.
The solemnities commenced with the transfer of the ark from Mount Zion,
the town of David, to Mount Moriah. The bars attached to the ark were
those which had been used during the wanderings in the desert. They
were so placed that all present could see that holy relic of past ages,
the two stone tables inscribed with the ten commandments. During the
transfer of the ark of the covenant, and during the consecration, many
thousands of sacrifices were offered, and also psalms were sung. No
sooner had the ark of the covenant been brought into the Holy of Holies
than a thick cloud filled the body of the temple, so that the Aaronites
were interrupted in their service. This was considered a token of
God's mercy, and a sign that the consecration had been performed in
accordance with His will. The vast assembly was thus swayed by the
feelings of joy, piety and devotion. The king gave expression to the
general sentiments in a few grave words: "God has promised to dwell in
a cloud. I have built a dwelling for thee, O God--an abode for thee
to dwell in for ever." Mount Moriah thus appeared like Mount Sinai,
where the voice of God had spoken from out of a dense cloud. The temple
became an object of veneration to the people, who believed that from
between the two cherubim, God would make known to them the ways in
which they were to walk. A prophet who was present (perhaps Ahijah of
Shiloh) announced to King Solomon in the name of God, "If thou wilt
walk in my law, and obey my commands, and fulfil my behests, then I
will fulfil unto thee the promise I made unto David, thy father--'I
shall dwell in the midst of the sons of Israel, and I will not desert
my people.'"
The nation celebrated the autumn festivals, which occurred
simultaneously with the consecration, most joyfully. Deep and lasting
was the impression made by this temple, gleaming with gold and bronze,
sumptuous and imposing in its structure, containing no visible image
of the Deity, yet filled with His invisible presence. The house of
God offered something tangible to those whose imaginations could not
conceive of the spiritual, divested of material form. The temple was
the pride and strength of Israel, and the delight of its eyes. At the
time of the consecration there was inaugurated a religious service,
such as had been impossible within the narrow limits of the sanctuary
in Shiloh or, during the transition period, in the tent at Zion. A
priesthood had certainly existed even in former times, and belonged
exclusively to the descendants of Aaron. It was, however, only under
Solomon that a high priest was put at the head of the others, and that
gradations in rank were introduced. Azariah, the son of Zadok, was
advanced to the office of high priest after the death of his father,
and was assisted by the inferior priests. A new order of service was
arranged for the Levites, who were subordinate to the priests. A
part of them assisted at the sacrificial services. Another part kept
guard at four sides of the temple, and were charged with the care of
the sacred vessels, and with all preparations for the temple service.
Lastly, certain families took part in the singing and the instrumental
music that accompanied the services. It was the temple and the new
order of worship introduced there that actually raised Jerusalem to the
position of the capital of the country. Pilgrims from all the tribes
attended the autumnal festivals there, in order to witness the solemn
divine services, such as could be held at no tribal altar. Jerusalem
gradually becoming an important commercial town, in which foreign goods
and curiosities were displayed, attracted ever greater numbers of
visitors from all the tribes. Thus the youngest of the cities in the
land of Israel surpassed and outshone all the older towns. Solomon gave
orders that the capital be fortified on all sides, and that the temple
also be included within the line of fortifications.
The erection of the royal palace occupied a period of more than
thirteen years. It consisted of a series of buildings which extended
over a great area on the northern hill, in the quarter called Millo.
Next to the entrance was the House of the Forest of Lebanon, which
took its name from the numerous pillars of cedar, which were ranged in
rows of fifteen each. This house served as the Armoury for the king's
protection. Here thirteen hundred guards kept watch; they were provided
with spears and shields of gold, and acted as the king's attendants
when he proceeded to the temple. Great attention was given by Solomon
to the fitting up of the Judgment or Throne Chamber. The walls from
the floor to the ceiling were covered with cedar wood, and adorned
with gold fretwork. In this hall Solomon's throne was placed. It was
considered a marvel of workmanship. It was ornamented with ivory, and
inlaid with gold. Six steps led up to it, and on each step were two
artistically wrought lions, the symbols of power and of royal dignity.
The seat was supported on each side by arms, and on it also were two
lions. In the hall of public justice Solomon heard contesting parties,
and pronounced judgment: he considered his office of judge one of the
holiest and most important connected with his kingly dignity. Here he
also received the ambassadors of the various countries, who attended
his court to offer their homage, or to negotiate new treaties. A
special palace was built for the king, his servants and his wives, a
separate house being reserved for the Egyptian princess. It appears
that her removal from David's house to her own residence was effected
with great pomp. Probably Solomon had also an aqueduct built so as to
supply the town of Jerusalem and the temple with water from the rich
spring of Etam, which was at a two hours' journey from Jerusalem.
The practice of building splendid edifices of cedar was not confined
to Solomon; the great nobles and princes who lived in Jerusalem, the
high officers, and his favourites, all followed his example. With
the wealth that streamed into the land through the opening of three
important channels, the love of show, which spread from the king to the
higher classes, could be freely gratified. Phœnician merchants of high
standing, who carried on a large wholesale trade, money-changers, men
of wealth who lent money on interest, now settled in Jerusalem. They
composed a special corporation or guild, and were under the protection
of the treaty between Solomon and Hiram. They were permitted to live
according to their own laws, and were even allowed to practise their
religious or, rather, idolatrous rites. The three great sources of
wealth were the _Powerful Position of the State_, the _Alliance with
Egypt_, and the _Indian Trade_. Those princes who had entered into
treaties with David confirmed them with his successor, and other
potentates sought his friendship. On swearing allegiance, all these
princes and nations sent the customary tribute and rich gifts, such
as gold and silver vessels, valuable garments, spices, horses and
mules. The alliance with Egypt was also the source of considerable
additions to the national wealth, as that kingdom furnished horses
to the mountainous districts, and war chariots, which were in great
demand in foreign parts. The princes of Aram and of the territories
on the Euphrates who had formerly procured their horses and chariots
from Egypt, were to buy these war materials from Solomon's merchant
guild. The latter established a station for his own riders and horses
on the plain not far from the sea. He kept twelve thousand horses and
fourteen hundred war chariots (each drawn by two horses), and for
these he erected spacious buildings, containing four thousand stalls.
Solomon's greatest gains, however, were acquired in trade with India.
To the Phœnicians the journey to this distant country was attended
with insuperable difficulties, so long as the country near the Red Sea
was rendered unsafe by the uncivilised and predatory bands that dwelt
there. By his alliance with Hiram, Solomon had opened up a safer and
nearer route to India. The strip of land extending from the southern
border of Judah to the eastern coast of the Red Sea, the Points Elath
and Eziongeber, had been rendered accessible. The caravans with their
loaded camels could proceed in safety from Jerusalem and from the coast
to the northern point of the Red Sea. At Hiram's suggestion, Solomon
had a fleet of strong and large ships (ships of Tarshish) built, and
equipped on the coast at Eziongeber. Hiram sent his most skilful
sailors, who knew the route thoroughly, to man the vessels. Israelites
of the tribes of Asher and Zebulun, who lived on the coast and were
acquainted with the sea, were also employed.
When the Israelitish fleet was complete, it sailed out of the harbour
of Eziongeber to the Red Sea, which separates Palestine from Egypt,
Nubia, and Abyssinia, and proceeded along the coast to the Gulf which
washes the shores of Southern Arabia, as far as the mouth of the Indus,
in the land of Ophir (now called Scinde). After a period of two years,
Solomon's fleet returned richly laden with the proceeds of this first
expedition. Vast droves of camels carried the treasures to Jerusalem,
to the great astonishment of the whole population. More than four
hundred talents (kikhar) of gold, silver in great quantities, ivory,
ebony, apes, and exquisitely coloured peacocks, sandal-wood, and
sweet-smelling plants were thus transported. Solomon caused a throne to
be made of the ivory, and the sandal-wood was used for ornamenting the
harps and lutes of the musicians who played in the temple. The palings
of the bridge which led from the palace to the temple were also made
of this rare and costly wood. Solomon sent his fleet several times to
Ophir or India, and each time new riches and curiosities were brought
into the country. The port Elath became a place of great importance.
Judæans settled there, and the land of Israel thus extended from
the extreme end of the Red Sea to the Euphrates. In order to convey
horses and chariots from Aramæa to the Euphrates, as also the various
importations from Phœnicia, roads had to be made, and measures taken to
ensure the safety of the caravans. In a mountainous country, it is not
easy for beasts of burden, and certainly not for horses and chariots,
to traverse great distances, obstructed as the way is by steep cliffs,
abrupt precipices, and masses of rolling stones. Solomon, however,
had roads made which led from Jerusalem to the north; these were the
_king's high-roads_.
He probably employed the services of the Canaanite natives, who were
obliged as bondmen to take part in this work. Heights were levelled,
depths filled up, and stones removed. The roads were passable by
carriages, which could proceed without hindrance from the south to the
north, and the caravans passing from the Jordan to the sea could travel
without difficulty. A chain of fortresses protected the roadways,
and served as resting places. Besides these stations for riders and
carriages, Solomon also founded towns for storing goods; these were
also used to house grain for future years of scarcity.
Thus Solomon settled the affairs of Israel, and provided for its future
security. He had no sharpsighted counsellor, such as David had had in
Ahithophel, to assist him in establishing order; his own wisdom was
his sole counsellor. But he had to choose responsible officers, who
would give effect to his instructions, and carry out the plans which
he devised. The great extent of his state and his court demanded the
establishment of new offices. For the better reception of strangers he
had placed over his vast household a major-domo (al-hab-Baith). Ahishar
was the name of this officer. The twelve officials who provided for
the wants of the household were supervised by a chief whose name was
Azariah-ben-Nathan. A high official, Adoniram, the son of Abda, was
also placed (al-ham-Mas) over the many thousand bondmen who worked
on the roads and in the fortresses. Thus three high posts were newly
created by Solomon.
Its great extent and the riches which Solomon had amassed enabled the
kingdom of Israel to hold its place amongst the greatest nations in
the ancient world. Princes and nations who lived in strife with each
other sought the aid of the ruler of this mighty dominion, and called
upon him to act as arbitrator, for his wisdom was famed far and wide.
The greatest blessing in Solomon's reign was the peace and undisturbed
quiet which obtained throughout the land. From Dan unto Beersheba the
Israelites could peacefully enjoy their home, "everyone under his own
vine and under his own fig-tree."
The commercial treaties, the prosperity of the country, the security
to life arising from the long peace maintained in Solomon's reign, all
contributed to attract the surrounding tribes of Moabites, Ammonites,
Idumæans, and even Egyptians to the country. It is probable, too, that
the high religious culture of the Israelites, so superior to idolatry,
and its splendid manifestation in the temple at Jerusalem influenced
enlightened foreigners to seek shelter under the "wings of the God
of Israel." The country, the people, and the God of Israel acquired
widespread renown in Solomon's time. The Israelitish mariners, who
visited so many harbours, coast-lands, and marts, and the Israelitish
merchants who entered into connections with foreign parts carried
reports of their fatherland to the remotest climes and nations. The
praise of the wise, mighty, and brilliant king Solomon resounded far
and wide in his times. In the eyes of the world he elevated the name
of the God whom he honoured, and to whose glory he had erected a
magnificent temple. The Israelitish sailors and merchants unconsciously
became the first messengers and pioneers of the religion of Israel
among the idolatrous nations.
One day Jerusalem was surprised by an extraordinary embassy. A wise
queen, from the spice-bearing land of Sabia (Sheba), which is situated
on the Arabian coast of the Red Sea, came to visit Jerusalem. As she
had heard so much of the greatness of Solomon, and in praise of the
God of Israel, she wished to see, with her own eyes, how much truth
or falsehood lay in the reports which had come to her ears. She was
received with marked attention by Solomon, and had many interviews
with him. The queen (whom tradition calls Belkis) greatly admired his
wisdom, and was much impressed by the temple which he had erected to
God, and by the brilliancy of his court. It is said that she propounded
enigmatic riddles to him in order to test his powers, and these he
answered in a manner which excited her astonishment.
Solomon's brilliant rule, however, became the source of a serious
division between the tribes, which he had unavailingly striven to
consolidate into one indissoluble whole. Notwithstanding that the
temple formed a bond of union for the whole people, and that Solomon
tried to abolish the tribal isolation which prevailed, he succeeded
only in the case of Benjamin, which became more closely united with
Judah. This was owing to the fact that the temple was built on
Benjamite territory, and consequently several Benjamite families
settled in the capital. Probably Solomon also preferred the tribe of
Benjamin and his own ancestral tribe to the other tribes. The mutual
dislike of the houses of Israel and Judah, or the northern and southern
tribes, had not ceased. Among the northern tribes a deep sense of
discontent prevailed against Solomon, despite the prosperity to which
he had raised them; they resented the pressure put upon them to forward
regular supplies for the court, and to perform compulsory service in
the erection of public buildings. Their discontent was not expressed
aloud, but it needed only an occasion for it to vent itself. Wise as
Solomon was, he had not sufficient foresight to perceive that his
faults were sure to weaken the future security of the state. Amongst
the officials whom Solomon employed to supervise the buildings was
an Ephraimite, who was clever, courageous and ambitious. This was
Jeroboam, the son of Nebat, from the town of Zereda or Zorathan, on the
other side of the Jordan. He was the son of a widow; thus, free from
paternal restraint, he could follow out his own impulses uncontrolled.
Jeroboam had supervised the erection of the walls of Jerusalem, and had
displayed great skill and firmness in managing the bondmen. Solomon
was, in fact, so well pleased with him that he bestowed on him a high
position in the territory of Ephraim and Manasseh. Here Jeroboam had
the opportunity of becoming acquainted with the discontent of the
people, which was probably strongest amongst the ever-discontented
Ephraimites. The popular feeling accorded well with his ambitious
plans, and he decided to utilise it when a favourable opportunity
should occur.
Solomon was guilty of the folly of permitting sacrificial altars to
be built for various idols. It may have been his foreign wives who
induced him to make this concession, or perhaps it was due to the
foreigners, the Phœnicians and other races, who had taken up their
residence in Jerusalem, and had received permission to worship their
gods in the land of Israel according to their custom. However this
may have been, altars were raised on the high northern point of the
Mount of Olives, in honour of Astarte of the Zidonians, Milcom of the
Ammonites, Chemosh of the Moabites, and other idols. The religious
convictions of the nation were not so deeply rooted that the people
could witness all kinds of idolatrous practices without falling into
the errors of idol-worship themselves. A prophet, Ahijah of Shiloh,
had the courage to reprimand the king, and to warn him of the danger
which his conduct rendered imminent. Solomon, however, seems to have
given little heed to his representations, and the prophet, indignant
at the king's obtuseness, determined to use Jeroboam (whose ambitious
schemes he had probably divined) as the instrument of Solomon's
destruction. When Jeroboam left Jerusalem, the prophet approached him,
seized his garment, tore it into twelve pieces, and handing him ten
of them, he said, "Take these ten pieces; they portray the ten tribes
which will separate themselves from the house of David, and recognise
thee as their king." Jeroboam wanted no further encouragement to
mature his plans, since a prophet had commended them. He hurried to
the territories of Ephraim, and called on the Ephraimites to separate
themselves from the house of David. Meanwhile Solomon had received
tidings of the event, and before the revolution could spread, he sent
his guards to kill the rebel. Jeroboam then fled to Egypt, where a
new dynasty now occupied the throne. Shishak (Sheshenk, Sesonchosis,
980-959) was the first king of the new line. Under his rule was severed
the bond which had united Israel and Egypt since Solomon's marriage
with the Egyptian princess. Shishak in fact was inimical to the
Israelitish nation, which had become more powerful than was agreeable
to him. He therefore received Jeroboam with kindness, intending to
use him against Solomon. Shishak also gave a friendly reception and
protection to an Idumæan prince, who had special reasons for avenging
himself on the Israelitish nation. Hadad (or Adad) was a relation of
the Idumæan king whom David had conquered. He had, when a boy, escaped
the massacre ordered by Joab in consequence of a revolution in Idumæa.
When Shishak ascended the throne, the Idumæan prince hurried to Egypt,
and was graciously received. Shishak gave him the queen's sister in
marriage, and his first-born son (Genubath) grew up among the Egyptian
princes. Hadad also acquired possessions in Egypt, and was honoured
in every way; notwithstanding this, he yearned to return to Edom,
and to regain the territories which had been snatched away from him.
He carried this desire into effect with the aid of Shishak, who was
fully aware that the warlike spirit which had obtained under David and
Joab, had diminished under Solomon's peaceful rule, and that petty
warfare in the mountainous districts would be connected with little
danger, while it might be productive of great benefit to himself. Hadad
and the troops which he had mustered in Idumæa did great damage to
Solomon's caravans, which carried goods between the bay of Elath and
the Israelitish boundaries; and Solomon's warriors were powerless to
prevent these attacks.
Unnoticed by Solomon, another cloud, which threatened Israel with
destruction, was gathering in the north. Rezon (of Zobah), one of the
servants of King Hadadezer, whom David had overthrown, had taken to
flight after the defeat of his sovereign; he assembled a predatory
troop, and made raids in the districts lying between the Euphrates and
the northern ranges of the Lebanon. Rezon's troops gradually increased
in numbers, and with their numbers grew his courage and power. At
last he ventured to proceed against the ancient city of Damascus. He
succeeded in capturing it and in having himself chosen king. Advancing
from the north, Rezon also committed hostilities against the Israelites
and their allies, without any opposition on the part of Solomon, who
either had a dislike of war, or had no troops available to ward off
the attacks from the north and the south. Thus arose, from small
beginnings, powers inimical to Israel, which might easily have been
nipped in the bud. Besides this, an internal breach was in store for
Israel.
Solomon, however, did not live to see the development of the impending
evils and the decay of his kingdom. He died in peace at the age of
about sixty years (in 977). His body was buried, no doubt with great
pomp, in the rocky mausoleum of the kings which David had built on the
south of Mount Zion. It was said later on that Solomon, as well as his
father, had heaped up untold treasures and wealth in these vaults and
cells, which were discovered many centuries after by the later Jewish
kings.
Although Solomon had numerous wives, it appears that he left but few
children, a son named Rehoboam and two daughters, Taphath and Basmath,
whom their father married to two of his officers. Posterity, which has
greatly exaggerated Solomon's wisdom and ability, has also attributed
to him power over mystic spirits and demons, who, obeying his will,
could be invoked or dismissed as he chose. Even a ring on which his
name was engraven was supposed to exercise a mighty spell over the
demons, and keep them in subjection.
The power to which Solomon had elevated Israel resembled that of a
magic world built up by spirits. The spell was broken at his death.