ELI AND SAMUEL.
Importance of the Judges--Public Feeling--Sanctuary in
Shiloh--Eli and his Sons--Defeat by the Philistines--Capture of
the Ark--Destruction of Shiloh and the Sanctuary--Flight of the
Aaronites and Levites--Death of Eli--The Ark in Philistia and
in Kirjath Jearim--Prophecy re-awakened--Samuel in Ramah--The
Order of Prophets or Singers--Popular revulsion--The tribe
of Judah--Repeated attacks of the Philistines--Meeting at
Mizpah--Samuel's activity--Nob as a place of worship--Increase
in the power of the Philistines and Ammonites--The tribes
desire to have a King--Samuel's course of action.
1100?-1067 B. C. E.
The twelve or thirteen warrior-judges had been incapable of keeping
off the hostile neighbours of Israel for any length of time, much
less had they ensured the permanent safety of the country. Even the
celebrated Barak, with all his enthusiasm, and Gideon and Jephthah
with their warlike courage could succeed only in uniting a few of the
tribes, but were unable to secure or restore the union of the entire
people. The warrior-judges were, in fact, of importance only so long
as they repulsed the enemy, averted danger, and ensured safety in
daily life. They wielded no real power, not even over the tribes to
which their prowess brought help and freedom; nor did they possess any
rights by which they could enforce obedience. The isolation of each
tribe, and the division amongst the several tribes continued, in spite
of temporary victories; the actual weakness of the country increased
rather than diminished. Samson's "serpent-like attacks and adder's
bites" did not deter the Philistines from considering the tribes within
reach as their subjects, or more correctly speaking as their slaves,
nor did it prevent them from ill-treating the Israelites. Jephthah's
victories over the Ammonites did not cause the enemy to relinquish his
claims over the eastern tribes of Reuben, Gad, and the half of Manasseh.
After the deaths of Jephthah and Samson, the state of affairs became
still more dismal. It was, however, precisely this sense of extreme
weakness which led to a gradual recovery of strength. Several tribal
leaders must have come to the conclusion that this connection with
neighbouring populations, and the adoption of idolatrous customs had
brought the people to the verge of ruin. The remembrance of the God of
their fathers no doubt once more revived in their hearts, and awakened
their sleeping consciences to a sense of duty. The men who had been
thus aroused called to mind the Sanctuary dedicated to their God at
Shiloh, and they repaired thither.
Towards the close of the judges' period, Shiloh once more became a
general rallying point. Here the Levites, the guardians of the Law,
still resided, and they used their opportunities to urge, at the
meetings held in times of distress, that a denial of Israel's God and
the worship of Baal had brought all this misery upon the people. There
also lived in Shiloh a priest who was worthy of his ancestors Aaron and
Phineas. He was the first Aaronite, after a considerable time, whose
name has been recorded for posterity. He was simply called Eli, without
the addition of his father's name, and the only title of honour he bore
was that of the priest at Shiloh. Eli is described as a venerable old
man, on whose lips were words of gentleness, and who was incapable of
giving utterance to severe censure, even of his unworthy sons.
This aged man could not fail to exercise a beneficial influence, and
win warm adherents to the Law which he represented, if only by the
example of his moral worth, and by the holy life he led. When Shiloh
was visited, in ever-increasing numbers, by desponding worshippers from
the tribes of Ephraim and Benjamin, as also from the tribes on the
trans-Jordanic side, some were murmuring at the sufferings imposed upon
them, and others complaining of the hard treatment they endured at the
hands of the Ammonites; but Eli would exhort them to rely on the ever
ready help of the God of Israel, and to give up the worship of strange
gods.
By such exhortations he might have brought about a better state of
mind among his hearers, if the respect felt for him had been likewise
enjoyed by his two sons, Hophni and Phineas. They, however, did not
walk in the ways of their father; and when the people and Eli were
overtaken by severe misfortunes, these were supposed to be a punishment
of heaven for the sins of Eli's sons, and for the weak indulgence
displayed by the High Priest.
The Philistines still held sway over the tribes in their vicinity, and
made repeated attacks and raids on Israel's lands. The tribes attacked
became so far skilled in warfare that they no longer sought to oppose
the enemy in irregular skirmishes, but met them in open battle. The
Israelites encamped on the hill Eben-ha-Ezer, and the Philistines in
the plain near Aphek. As the latter possessed iron war-chariots they
proved superior to the Israelites, of whom four thousand are supposed
to have fallen in battle. The Israelite warriors, however, did not take
to flight, but kept to their posts.
In accordance with the counsel of the elders, the Ark of the Covenant
was brought from Shiloh, it being believed that its presence would
ensure victory. Eli's sons were appointed to escort it. Nevertheless,
the second battle was even more disastrous than the first. The
Israelite troops fled in utter confusion; the Ark of the Covenant was
captured by the Philistines, and Hophni and Phineas, who attended it,
were killed. The Philistines pursued the fleeing troops, and spread
terror in every direction. Breathless with fear, a messenger of evil
tidings arrived in Shiloh, and brought the sad news to the anxious
people, and to the high priest Eli, who was sitting at the gate.
The news that the Ark of the Covenant had been captured affected the
aged priest even more than that of the death of his sons; he dropped
down dead from his seat. It now seemed that all glory had departed from
the house of Israel. The victorious Philistines, no longer content to
make foraging expeditions through the country, forced their way from
west to east until they reached the district of Shiloh. They destroyed
that town, together with the Tabernacle, which had been a witness to
the blissful days of Moses. A later poet describes this time of trial
with a heavy heart.[14]
The strength and courage of the people were entirely overcome by
this defeat. Those tribes which until now had been foremost in every
encounter were crushed. The tribe of Ephraim suffered--though not
undeservedly--most severely by the overthrow of the Sanctuary, which,
in Eli's time, had been recognised as a place for popular meetings.
Every chance of union, especially amongst the northern tribes, who,
however, had not been concerned in the disastrous strife, seemed to be
cut off.
The Philistines were impressed with the idea that by capturing the
Ark of the Covenant--which they supposed to be the safeguard of the
Israelites--and by destroying the Sanctuary, they had vanquished the
Israelite people. But they were painfully undeceived. As soon as they
had carried off the Ark of the Covenant to the neighbouring town of
Ashdod, the country was visited by various plagues. In their terror,
the Philistine princes determined to follow the advice of their priests
and magicians, and send back the Ark, accompanied by expiatory
offerings, after it had been in their possession for seven months.
It was accordingly sent over the boundaries, and taken to the town
of "Kirjath Jearim" (Forest Town), situated on a hill, where it was
guarded by the Levites of the district; but it was so little missed by
the people that decades passed before they even remembered their loss.
In the eyes of the untutored Israelites, neither the contents nor the
great age of the tablets of the Law preserved in the Ark were of great
importance. Meanwhile these misfortunes--the destruction and loss of
the Sanctuary at Shiloh--had aroused a desire for a better state of
things. Those who were not utterly indifferent could perceive that the
true cause of the evil lay in the religious and political dissensions.
The Levites, who had escaped during the destruction of Shiloh, and
had settled in other towns, probably prepared the public mind for a
return to the belief in God. Perhaps also the return of the Ark of
the Covenant from the land of the Philistines exercised an animating
influence, and raised hopes of better days. The longing for the God of
Israel became daily more widely diffused, and the want of a steadfast
and energetic leader was keenly felt--a leader who would bring the
misguided people into the right path, and raise up those who were bowed
down with sorrow. And just at the right moment a man appeared who
brought about a crisis in Israel's history.
Samuel, the son of Elkanah, was the man who reunited the long-sundered
bonds of communal life amongst the Israelites, and thereby averted the
threatening decay and internal corruption. His greatness is illustrated
by the circumstance that he is placed second to Moses not only in
chronological sequence, but also in prophetic importance.[15]
Samuel was an elevated character. He displayed the same unbending
conscientiousness towards himself as towards others. Living amidst
the people, coming into daily contact with them, he surpassed the
men of his time in love of God, purity of heart, and unselfishness.
In addition to these qualities he was distinguished by the gift of
prophecy. His spiritual eye pierced the clouds which hid the future.
He proclaimed his prophetic visions, and they came to pass. Samuel
was descended from one of the most distinguished Levitical families,
from the same Korah who had incited the rebellion against Moses in
days of old. Samuel inherited intensity of feeling from his mother
Hannah, whose fervent though inaudible prayer has formed a model for
all ages. At a tender age his mother secured a place for him as one of
the attendant Levites in the Sanctuary at Shiloh. He had daily to open
its gates; he took part in the sacrificial service, and he passed his
nights within the precincts of the tabernacle.
At an early age the gift of prophecy, unknown to himself, was awakened
within him. Whilst wrapped in deep sleep he heard himself called
from the inner recess of the Sanctuary where the Ark of the Covenant
reposed. This was Samuel's first vision, and happened previous to the
defeat of the Israelites by the Philistines, the capture of the Ark of
the Covenant, the death of Eli and his two sons, and the destruction of
the Sanctuary. Samuel's services ceased with the last-named event, and
he returned to his father's house at Ramah in deep affliction.
The misfortunes which had befallen his people, and especially the ruin
of Shiloh made an overpowering impression on Samuel, whose youthful
mind was filled with the highest aspirations. In the Levitical circle,
in which he had grown up, it was a fixed belief that the trials
undergone by the people resulted from their denial of the God of
Israel. To have no Sanctuary was considered equivalent to being without
God.
The sacred writings enshrined in the Ark enjoined righteousness,
justice, mercy, and the equality of all Israelites without distinction
of class, as commanded by God; but little or nothing was said of
sacrifices. Samuel, who was nearer by many centuries to the origin of
the Israelitish nation than were the later prophets, was, like them,
convinced of the fact that God had not ordained the deliverance of His
people solely in order that they might sacrifice to Him only, but that
they might carry His laws into effect. The contents of these records of
the Law represented the will of God which the Israelites were to follow
with implicit obedience. This Law was a living force in Samuel's heart,
and he grew to be the medium by which it became indelibly impressed on
the people; to give effect to its teaching was the task of his life.
The fact of having no Sanctuary was, as has been shown, deemed
equivalent to being abandoned by God. Gradually, however, Samuel
seems to have taken up a different train of thought--_No Sanctuary,
no burnt-offerings_. "Is sacrifice absolutely necessary for a pure
worship of God, and for a holy life in His ways?" This thought became
matured within him; and later, on a fitting occasion, he preached on
this theme thus: The sacrifices are of little importance; the fat of
rams cannot win God's approbation; in what, then, should the service of
God consist? "In strict obedience to all that He has commanded." During
his sojourn in Shiloh, Samuel had not only made himself acquainted with
the contents of the stone tablets which were kept in the Ark of the
Sanctuary, but he became versed also in the book of the Law emanating
from Moses, and he was entirely filled with their spirit. The living
word was the means which he employed to attain his end, for he was
endowed with impressive eloquence. From time to time he had prophetic
dreams and visions. These revealed to him that his convictions were not
the mere suggestions of his own mind or heart, but were sanctioned
or inspired by a higher Being. The prophetic inspirations consisted
of teachings or commands; they were combined with an unveiling of the
near future, and bore the character of revelations. Animated by his
prophetic visions, Samuel communicated them to his hearers, probably at
his native place, Ramah, where his reputation had preceded him. These
communications, which foreshadowed extraordinary events beyond the
limits of common foresight, he seems to have expressed in orations and
in rhythmic utterances, abounding in poetic metaphors and similes.
Whilst in Shiloh, he had been repeatedly vouchsafed prophetic visions,
and these had been confirmed. It soon went forth in the environs of
Ramah, and in ever widening circles that a prophet had arisen in
Israel, and that the spirit of God, which had rested on Moses and had
led him to deliver the children of Israel from Egypt, had now descended
on the son of Elkanah. In the interval, during a long succession of
centuries, no prophet, in the full sense of the word, had arisen. The
fact that God had raised up a second Moses encouraged the hope that
better times were at hand. Samuel's first endeavour was to reclaim the
nation from the idolatrous worship of Baal and Astarte, and from a
superstitious belief in the oracular powers of the Teraphim.
The desire of a portion of the people to abandon their evil ways
materially assisted Samuel in his efforts. His irresistible eloquence
was concentrated in the one theme that the gods of the heathen were
nonentities who could neither help nor save. He declared that it was
folly and sinful to consult the lying oracles and the jugglery of
the soothsayers, and that God would never desert the nation whom He
had chosen. These words found a powerful response in the hearts of
those who heard them. Samuel did not wait for the people to come to
him in order that he might address them, but he went forth to them.
He travelled through the whole land, appointed public meetings, and
announced to the multitudes the lessons revealed to him by the spirit
of God; and the people, stirred by his prophetic utterances, and roused
from the lethargy into which they had been plunged ever since their
misfortunes had commenced, now began to revive. The right man had come,
whose words could be followed in days of care and trouble. The eyes of
the nation naturally turned towards him.
Had Samuel stood alone, he would scarcely have been enabled to effect
so desirable a transformation. But he had a number of assistants
on whom he could rely. The Levites, whose home was in Shiloh, had
fled when the town and the Sanctuary were destroyed. They had been
accustomed to surround the altar and to serve in the Sanctuary. They
knew no other occupation. What were they to do now in their dispersion?
Another place of worship had not yet been founded to which they might
have turned. Several Levites therefore joined Samuel. His greatness had
impressed them when he lived in Shiloh, and he now employed them to
execute his plans. Gradually their numbers increased until they formed
a band of associates (_Chebel_), or Levitical guild (_Kehillah_). These
disciples of prophecy, headed by Samuel, contributed materially to the
change of views and manners among the people.
Another circumstance served at that time to rouse the nation from its
apathy. During the entire period of the Judges' rule, the men of Judah
had not taken the slightest share in public events. Dwelling far away
in their pasture-fields and deserts, they seemed to have no part in
the life of the other tribes. They called themselves by the name of
Jacob. Utterly secluded, they led a separate existence, untouched by
the sorrows and joys, the battles and conquests, of the tribes living
on both sides of the Jordan. The Jebusites, who possessed the district
between the mountains of Ephraim and Judah, formed a barrier between
these tribes and the Israelites dwelling in the north.
It was only the repeated incursions of the Philistines on Israel's
territory which seem to have aroused the tribe of Judah, and forced it
out of its retirement. It was probably to strengthen themselves against
the attacks of their enemy, who sought to lay the yoke of serfdom on
their necks, that the men of Judah stretched out a helping hand to
the neighbouring tribes. Whatever circumstance may have influenced
them, it is certain that in Samuel's days, the tribe of Judah with its
dependency, the tribe of Simeon, took part in the common cause. Jacob
and Israel, divided during all the centuries since they first entered
Canaan, were now at length united. It was, without doubt, Samuel who
brought about this union.
Judah's or Jacob's entry into history marks the accession of a new,
vigorous and rejuvenating element. The tribe of Judah had found but
few towns, and by no means a developed town life in the territories
it had acquired. The only city worthy of note was Hebron; the other
places were villages for cattle-breeders. Both the refinement and
the depravity resulting from the influence of the Philistines had
remained unknown to the tribes of Judah and Simeon. The worship of Baal
and Astarte, with its coarse and sensual rites, had not established
itself among them. They remained, for the most part, what they had
been on their entry into the land--simple shepherds, loving peace and
upholding their liberty, without any desire for warlike fame or for
making new conquests. The simple customs of patriarchal life seem
to have endured longer in Judah than elsewhere. This accession of
strength and religious activity could certainly not have been rendered
possible without Samuel's commanding and energetic intervention. The
son of Elkanah, though no warrior, was looked upon as a firm supporter
on whom both houses could lean. For many years Samuel, assisted by
the prophetic order of Levites, pursued his active course with zeal
and energy; the people regarded him as a leader, and he, in fact, by
his inspired zeal, led them on to conquest. A victory gained near
Eben-ha-Ezer, where, many years before, the Philistines had overcome
the Israelite troops and had carried off much booty, now produced a
mighty effect: it revived the courage of the Israelites and humbled the
Philistines.
During the next decade the people once more enjoyed the comforts of
peace, and Samuel took measures that prosperity should not efface the
good results of previous misfortunes. It was his earnest endeavour to
consolidate the union between the tribes, which was the true foundation
of their strength. Year after year he called together the elders of the
people, explained to them their duties, and reminded them of the evil
days which had befallen the Israelites through their godlessness, their
intermarriage with strange nations, and their idolatrous excesses; he
also warned them against a return to these errors. Such assemblies
Samuel held by turns in the three towns which came into notice after
the destruction of Shiloh--namely, in Bethel, in Gilgal, and in Mizpah
where prayers for victory over the Philistines had been offered up in
the former campaign. At Ramah, the place of his residence, frequent
meetings of the various tribes took place; and here the elders sought
his advice in all important matters. At divine services Samuel not only
caused sacrifices to be offered up, but with the aid of the Levites
he introduced the use of stringed instruments in order to arouse the
devout feelings of the people.
Through him a new element was introduced into the divine service of
the Israelites--viz., songs of praise. Samuel, the ancestor of the
celebrated psalmists, the sons of Korah, was the first who composed
songs of praise for divine service. His grandson, Heman, was considered
the chief psalmist and musician, and he ranked in fame with Asaph and
Jeduthun, who flourished in the subsequent generation. The charms of
poetry and music were by Samuel brought to bear upon the religious
service, and they left a lasting and ennobling impression on the minds
of the people. The employment of choirs of Levites and singers rendered
the sacrificial rite of minor importance.
The priests, the sons of Aaron, took up a less respected position, and
were, to a certain extent, neglected by Samuel. Achitub, a grandson of
Eli, had saved himself after the destruction of Shiloh by taking refuge
in the small town of Nob, near Jerusalem. He had carried away with him
the high priest's garments; and various members of the house of Aaron
having assembled there, Nob became a sacerdotal town. Here, it seems,
Achitub had erected an altar, and also a tabernacle on the model of the
one which had been destroyed in Shiloh. He even appears to have made
an Ark of the Covenant in Nob, instead of the one carried off by the
Philistines. The Israelites apparently disregarded the fact that the
new ark was wanting in the essential contents,--the stone tablets of
the Covenant.
Notwithstanding the eventful changes effected by Samuel through his
great gifts and untiring energy, the condition of the people was
anything but satisfactory. He had given special attention to the
central and southern districts, and had appointed his two sons, Joel
and Abijah, to act as judges--the one in Beersheba, the other in
Bethel--but the north was left unrepresented.
With increasing years Samuel could not display the same activity as in
his youth and riper manhood. His sons were disliked, being accused
of misusing their power and of accepting bribes. There were no men
of energy amongst Samuel's followers, and thus the ties which held
the people together gradually slackened. In addition it must be noted
that just at this period the country of Israel's greatest enemies was
transformed into a kingdom. The Philistines had either of their own
free will chosen a king, or had been forced to do so by one of the
rulers of their five cities. The town of Gath became the capital. The
ambition of the Philistine king now turned in the direction of fresh
conquests; he seems to have made successful attacks on the Phœnicians,
and to have laid waste the town of Sidon. In consequence of their
defeat the Sidonians took refuge in their ships, and on a rock which
projected far out into the sea they built a town which they called
Zor (Tyre), the city of the rock. Meanwhile the Philistines became
possessors of the entire territory between Gaza and Sidon, and it
seemed easy to them, with their increased power, to subjugate Israel;
hence a fierce warfare ensued between them and the Israelites. The
Ammonites also, who had been humiliated by Jephthah, now rose again
under their warlike king Nahash, and began to invade the possessions
of the tribe of Gad and the half of Manasseh. Powerless to defend
themselves, these tribes sent messengers to Samuel, entreating him to
supply efficient aid. They at the same time expressed a wish which,
though entertained by the entire people, was deeply painful to the
prophet. They demanded that a king should be placed at the head of
the Israelite community, who could compel the various tribes to unite
in joint action, and might lead them to battle and to victory. There
was now to be a king in Israel. Samuel was amazed when he heard these
demands. A whole people was to be dependent on the whims or the will
of a single individual! Equality of all members of the nation before
God and the law, the entire independence of each family group under its
patriarchal head, had become so identified with their mode of life,
that any change in their condition seemed incomprehensible and fraught
with the heaviest misfortunes.
It was now necessary to give a new direction to the destinies of the
people. Samuel's clear intellect disapproved of the radical change;
yet his inherent prophetic gift compelled him to accede. The kingdom
of Israel was brought forth in pain: it was not the offspring of
affection. Therefore it never could find a natural place in the system
of Israel's organisation, but was at all times considered by more
discerning minds as a foreign element.