OCCUPATION OF THE LAND OF CANAAN.
Joshua's Succession--Passage of the Jordan--Conquest of
Jericho--The Gibeonites--Coalition of Canaanite Cities
against the Israelites--Settlement in the Land--Isolation of
the Tribes--Allotments--The Tribe of Levi--The Ark of the
Covenant at Shiloh--Condition of Canaan at the time of the
Conquest--Climate and Fertility--Intellectual Activity--Poetry
of Nature--Remnants of Canaanite Populations--Death of Joshua.
On crossing the Jordan and entering Canaan, the Israelites met with
no resistance. Terror had paralysed the tribes and populations who
then held the land. Nor were they united by any tie which might have
enabled them to oppose the invaders. Although mention is made of
thirty-one kings, besides those who ruled near the coast-line of the
Mediterranean, these rulers were petty chiefs, who were independent of
each other, and each of them governed only a single township with the
adjoining district. They remained passive, whilst the Israelites were
encamping near Gilgal, between the Jordan and Jericho. The fortress of
Jericho, exposed to the first brunt of an attack from the Israelites,
could expect no help from elsewhere, and was left entirely to its own
resources. The tribes of Israel, on the other hand, were headed by a
well-tried leader; they were united, skilled in warfare, and eager for
conquest.
Joshua, the son of Nun, of the tribe of Ephraim, was accepted as the
rightful successor of the great Prophet. Moses, having laid his hands
upon the disciple, had endowed him with his spirit. Yet Joshua was
far from being a prophet. Practical in his aspirations, he was more
concerned in affairs of immediate necessity and utility, than in ideals
of the future. In his early years, when overthrowing the Amalekites
near Rephidim, he had given proof of courage and good generalship. His
connection with the tribe of Ephraim, the most distinguished amongst
the tribes, was likewise of advantage to his position as a commander.
The Ephraimites, with their pride and obstinacy, might otherwise have
withheld their allegiance. This tribe having yielded obedience to him,
the other tribes readily followed the example.
The first place to be attacked was Jericho. This city was situated in
an exceedingly fertile mountain district. Here throve the lofty palm
tree and the precious balsam shrub. Owing to the proximity of the Dead
Sea, the climate of Jericho has, during the greater part of the year,
a high temperature, and the fruits of the field ripen earlier there
than in the interior of the country. The conquest of Jericho was,
therefore, of primary importance; this city was strongly fortified, and
its inhabitants, timid under open attack, felt secure only within the
precincts of their defences. The walls of Jericho, according to the
scriptural narrative, crumbled to pieces at the mighty and far-sounding
shouts of Israel's warriors. They entered the city, and, meeting with
little resistance, they slew the population, which was enfeebled by
depraved habits. After this easy victory the warriors of Israel became
impetuous, and they imagined that a small portion of their force was
sufficient to reduce Ai, a scantily populated fortress, which lay at a
distance of two or three hours' journey to the north. Joshua therefore
sent a small detachment of his men against Ai, but at the first
onslaught they were repulsed, and many of them were slain on the field
of battle. This defeat spread terror among the Israelites, who feared
that they were forsaken by God, whilst it gave new courage to the
Canaanites. It was only by the entire army's drawing up and employing a
stratagem that Joshua succeeded in taking Ai. Bethel, situated in the
vicinity, likewise fell by a ruse into the hands of the Ephraimites.
These two mountain fastnesses having been captured, the inhabitants
of the adjoining towns and villages became even more faint-hearted.
Without awaiting an attack, they abandoned their homes, and fled to the
north, the west and the south. The country, being more or less denuded
of its inhabitants, was now occupied by the conquerors. The Gibeonites,
or Hivites, in the tract of land called Gibeon, freely submitted to
Joshua and his people. They agreed that the Israelites should share
with them the possession of their territory on the condition that
their lives should be spared. Joshua and the elders having agreed to
these terms, the compact, according to the practice of that age, was
ratified by an oath. In this way the Israelites acquired possession
of the whole mountain district from the borders of the great plain to
the vicinity of Jerusalem, the subsequent metropolis of Palestine. The
borderland of the plain separated the original inhabitants of the north
from those of the south, and neither of these populations was willing
to render help to the other. The southern Canaanites now became more
closely allied. The apprehension that their land might fall an easy
prey to the invaders overcame their mutual jealousies and their love
of feud; being thus brought into closer union with each other, they
ventured to engage in aggressive warfare. Five kings, or rather chiefs
of townships, those of Jebus (Jerusalem), Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish and
Eglon, joined together to punish the Gibeonites for submitting to the
invaders, for whom they had opened the road, and whom they had helped
to new conquests. The Gibeonites, in face of this danger, implored
the protection of Joshua, who forthwith led his victorious warriors
against the allied troops of the five towns, and inflicted on them a
crushing defeat near Gibeon. The beaten army fled many miles towards
the west and the south, and in their flight they were struck down by
a hailstorm. This day of battle appears to have been regarded as one
of signal triumph, its achievements were remembered even five hundred
years later, and were commemorated in a martial song:--
"Joshua spake:
'O Sun, stand thou still near Gibeon,
And thou, O Moon, near the valley of Ajalon!'
And the sun stood still,
And the moon remained at rest,
Until the people had chastised the foes."[6]
The passage of the Jordan, auspicious beyond expectation, and the
rapid succession of victories were new wonders which could fitly be
associated with those of former days. They afforded rich themes for
praise, which was not dedicated to the great deeds of the people, but
to the marvellous working of the Deity.
The victory at Gibeon opened access to the south, and the Israelites
could now freely move their forces in that direction; but there were
still some strongholds in the south which they were unable either to
capture or to keep in subjection.
The principal work--the subjection of the central portion of
Canaan--being now accomplished, the tribes of Israel ceased to form
one combined army, and in this severance they were probably influenced
by the example of the children of Joseph. The latter, who were divided
into the tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh, claimed to have precedence in
the ranks of Israel. This claim may be traced back, as has already been
shown, to their sojourn in Egypt, and also to the fact that Joshua,
the leader of the Israelites, was descended from Ephraim. Hence it was
that the children of Joseph sought to obtain possession of the central
mountain range, which abounded in springs and had a very rich soil.
Shechem, the ancient town of the Hivites, being situated between Mount
Gerizim and Mount Ebal, had a good supply of water on every side, and
became the principal city of the land. But the two divisions, Ephraim
and Manasseh, were unwilling to content themselves with this desirable
district (which was named "Mount Ephraim"). As Joshua was one of their
own tribe, they expected from him the favours of a partisan, and that
he would yield to all their demands. They alleged, therefore, that
the territory allotted to them was insufficient for their numerous
families. They desired to possess not only the fine and fertile plain
which extended many miles to the north, but also the land, lying
beyond, round Mount Tabor; but they did not find Joshua so yielding as
they had anticipated. With a touch of irony he told them that, since
they were so numerous, they ought to be able to conquer Mount Tabor,
in the land of the Perizzites and the Rephaites, and clear away the
forest. Disappointed by this reply, they withdrew from the expeditions
of the combined tribes, and contented themselves with the extent of
territory which had originally been allotted to them. Owing to this
withdrawal from the common cause, the other tribes were induced to
follow a similar course, and to acquire, independently of each other,
the land necessary for their respective settlements. Four tribes fixed
their attention upon the north, and four upon the south and the west.
The expedition, from which the sons of Joseph had retired, was hazarded
by the four tribes of Issachar, Zebulon, Asher, and Naphtali. They
descended into the plain of Jezreel, where they left a portion of their
settlers. Another portion pushed on to the northern hill regions, which
touched the base of the lofty mountain range. These tribes were even
less prepared than the children of Joseph for engaging in warfare with
the inhabitants of the plain, to whose rapidly moving war-chariots
they could have offered no resistance. The children of Issachar were
satisfied with the pasture land in the great plain, and they had no
desire to throw themselves into fortified cities. The men of this tribe
appear to have placed themselves under the supremacy of the Canaanites,
for they loved a peaceful life, and, as they found the land fertile,
they readily bore the imposition of tribute. Zebulon, the twin tribe of
Issachar, was more active, and appears to have conquered for itself a
safe settlement in the north of Mount Tabor. The remaining two tribes,
Asher and Naphtali, seem to have met with greater difficulties in
gaining a firm footing among the neighbouring Canaanite population,
who were more combative and also more closely united. These warriors
concentrated themselves at Hazor, where Jabin, the local king, ruled
over several districts. This king summoned the inhabitants of the
allied cities to take up arms and destroy the invading Israelites. The
tribes of Asher and Naphtali, unable to cope with the enemy, hastened
to invoke Joshua's assistance. At that time mutual sympathy was still
keen among the tribes, and Joshua found them ready to bring speedy
relief to their brethren in the north. With these auxiliaries, and with
the men of Asher and Naphtali, Joshua surprised the Canaanites, who
were allied under King Jabin, near Lake Merom, defeated them, and put
the remainder to flight. This was the second great victory he gained
over the allied enemies. Through the battle of Merom, the two tribes
succeeded in firmly establishing themselves in the region situated on
the west side of the upper course of the Jordan and the east side of
the Mediterranean Sea. Asher and Naphtali, being settled at the extreme
north, occupied the position of outposts, the former being placed at
the west, and the other at the east, of the plateau.
At the same time four other tribes acquired their settlements in the
south; and they relied upon their own efforts unaided by the entire
army of the people. The small tribe of Benjamin, more closely connected
with the children of Joseph, was probably assisted by the latter in
obtaining a narrow and not very fertile strip of land near the southern
frontier line. This was the district of the Gibeonites, with some
additions on the east and the west.
The Canaanites, who dwelt in the western plain towards the seaboard,
also had iron chariots, on which account the Israelites did not
venture to attack them soon after their invasion. Still there was no
alternative for the rest of the tribes, but to seek their homes in the
western region. Judah was the most numerous and the mightiest of these
tribes, and was joined by the children of Simeon, who subordinated
themselves like vassals to a ruling tribe.
At the southern extremity, near the desert, the Kenites, kinsmen and
allies of the Israelites, had been domiciled since the days of Israel's
wandering through the wilderness. By the friendly aid of this people
the Judæans hoped to succeed more easily in gaining new dwelling-places.
They avoided a war with the Jebusites, with whom possibly they had made
a compact of peace, and spared the territory in which Jerusalem, the
subsequent capital, was situated.
The first place they captured was the ancient town of Hebron, where
Caleb distinguished himself by his bravery. Hebron became the chief
city of the tribe of Judah. Kirjath-Sepher, or Debir, was taken by
Othniel, Caleb's half-brother. Other leaders of this tribe continued
the conquest of various other cities. In the earlier days, the tribe
of Judah seems to have lived on friendly terms with the original
inhabitants of the land and to have dwelt peaceably by their side. The
extensive settlement of Judah was better suited for pasture than for
agriculture. The new settlers and the old inhabitants had therefore no
inducements for displacing each other, or for indulging in a deadly
strife. The large tract of land was parcelled out into small plots, and
the Canaanites and the Amalekites retained their homesteads.
The tribe of Simeon had no independent possessions, not even a single
town which it could claim as its own, and was altogether merged in
the tribe of Judah. The Simeonites dwelt in towns of Judah, without,
however, having a voice in the deliberations of the tribe. The
scantiest provision seems to have been made for the tribe of Dan,
the number of families belonging to this tribe being apparently very
small. Nor does it appear to have received such aid from a brother
tribe as was given to Issachar and to Simeon. The Danites seem to
have been followers of the tribe of Ephraim. This tribe selfishly
allowed the Danites to acquire an insecure portion in the south-west
of its own territory, or, rather, a small portion in the land of the
Benjamites. It now devolved upon the Danites to conquer for themselves
the land on the plain of Saron, which extends towards the sea, and
to establish themselves there. The Amorites, however, prevented them
from accomplishing this design, and forced them to retreat into the
mountains; but here the sons of Ephraim and the Benjamites refused them
the possession of permanent dwelling-places. The Danites were therefore
during a long time compelled to lead a camp-life, and at last one
section of this tribe had to go in search of a settlement far away to
the north.
The conquest of Canaan had proceeded with such rapidity as to impress
the contemporaries and the posterity of the people with the opinion
that this success was the work of a miracle. Not quite half a century
before the Israelites had been scared away from the borders of
Palestine, after the spies had spread the report that the inhabitants
of the land were too strong to be vanquished. The same inhabitants were
now in such dread of the Israelites as to abandon their possessions
without attempting to make any resistance, or if they did take up
a defensive position they were easily routed. On this account the
conviction gained ground amongst the Israelites that the Deity Himself
had led the warriors, and had scattered their opponents in utter
confusion. This great conquest became, therefore, the natural theme of
spirited poetry.
Although insufficient portions had been allotted to a few of the
tribes, such as the Simeonites and the Danites, they still owned some
lands which might afford a partial subsistence, and become the nucleus
for a further extension of property. The Levites alone had been left
altogether unprovided with landed possessions. This was done in strict
conformity with the injunctions of Moses, lest the tribe of priests, by
misusing its rights of birth, should become affluent agriculturists,
and be drawn away from their holy avocations by the desire of enriching
themselves--like the Egyptian priests, who, under the pretext of
defending the interest of religion, despoiled the people of its
property, and formed a plutocratic caste.
The Levites were to remain poor and content themselves with the grants
made to them by the owners of lands and herds, they being required to
devote all their attention to the sanctuary and the divine law.
During Joshua's rule the camp of Gilgal, between the Jordan and
Jericho, was the centre of divine worship and of the Levitical
encampment; here also the tabernacle of the covenant had been erected,
and sacrifices were offered up. But Gilgal could not permanently serve
as the place for assembling the people, for it lay in an unproductive
and unfrequented district. As soon as the affairs of the people were
more consolidated, and after the Trans-Jordanic warriors had returned
to their homes, another locality had to be selected for the sanctuary.
As a matter of course, it was expedient that the sacred place should
be situated within the confines of Ephraim. Joshua likewise had his
seat amongst the Ephraimites, namely at Timnath-Serah, a town which
that tribe had gratefully allotted to him.
Shiloh (Salem) was chosen as the spot for the establishment of the
sanctuary. When the ark of the covenant arrived there, an altar was,
as a matter of course, erected by its side. Here the public assemblies
were held, if not by all the tribes, certainly by those of Ephraim,
Manasseh and Benjamin. Phineas, the high priest of the house of Aaron,
and the priests who succeeded him in office, took up their abode in
Shiloh. It is highly probable that many of the Levites resided in that
town whilst others were dispersed throughout the towns of the several
tribes; but on the whole they led a wandering life.
Through the immigration of the Israelites, the land of Canaan not only
received a new name, but assumed a different character. It became a
"Holy Land," "the Heritage of God," and was regarded as favourable to
the people's destination of leading a holy life.
Foreign countries, contrasted with Palestine, appeared to them to be
profane, and utterly unadapted for perpetuating the devout worship of
the One Spiritual God, or for enforcing the observance of His law. The
Holy Land was imagined to be sensible of the pious or of the wicked
conduct of its inhabitants. There were three iniquities which the
land was supposed to spurn as the most heinous. These were murder,
licentiousness, and idolatry. The conviction was general that on
account of such misdeeds the land had cast out its former inhabitants,
and that it would not retain the Israelites if they indulged in similar
crimes. These ideas took deep root amongst the people of Israel, and
they regarded Palestine as surpassing, in its precious qualities,
every other country. It was, indeed, an undeniable fact that the
Land of Israel (so it was named from the time when this people took
possession of it) had striking distinctions, which were unequalled in
any other portion of the globe. Within the small expanse of territory,
one hundred and fifty miles by sixty, if the Trans-Jordanic region be
included, contrasting peculiarities are crowded together, which give
a marvellous character to that country. The perpetual snow-tops of
Lebanon and Hermon in the north overlook the ranges of mountains and
valleys far away to the sandy desert in the south, where scorching
heat, like that of tropical Africa, burns up all vegetation. In close
proximity to each other, trees of various kinds are found to thrive,
which elsewhere are separated by great distances. Here is the slender
palm tree, which shoots up only under a high temperature, and there
grows the oak tree, which cannot endure such heat. If the heat of the
south fires the blood, and fills man with violent passions, the wind
sweeping over northern snow-fields, on the other hand, renders him
calm, thoughtful, and deliberate.
On two sides Palestine is bordered by water. The Mediterranean Sea,
extending along the western margin of the land, forms inlets for ships.
Along the eastern boundary flows the Jordan, which takes its rise in
the slopes of Mount Hermon, and runs in nearly a straight line from
north to south. In the north the Jordan flows through the "Lake of
the Harp" (_Kinnereth_, _Genesareth_, or Lake of Tiberias), and in the
south this river is lost in the wonderful "Salt Sea." These two basins
form likewise a strange contrast. The "Lake of the Harp" (also "Lake
of Galilee") contains sweet water. In its depths fishes of various
kinds disport themselves. On its fertile banks, the vine, the palm,
the fig-tree, and other fruit-bearing trees are found to thrive. In
the high temperature of this region, fruits arrive at their maturity
a month earlier than on the mountain land. The Salt Sea or "The Sea of
the Deep Basin" (_arabah_) produces a contrary effect, and has rightly
been called the Dead Sea. In its waters no vertebrate animals can
exist. The excessive quantities of salt, together with magnesia, and
masses of asphalt contained in that sea, kill every living object. The
atmosphere of this region is likewise impregnated with salt, and, as
the adjacent land is covered with lime-pits, it forms a dreary desert.
The oval-shaped border of the Dead Sea rises, in some parts, to a
height of more than 1,300 feet above the water level, and being totally
bare and barren, the entire district presents a most dismal aspect.
Between the water-line and the mountain walls there are, however,
some oases in which the balsam shrub thrives, and which, in regard to
fertility, are not inferior to any spot on earth. Being situated near
the centre of the western seaboard, this strip of land is exceedingly
fruitful. But luxuriant as the vegetation of this place is, it is even
surpassed by that of the oasis on the south-east corner of the Dead
Sea. Here stood at one time the town of Zoar, which was noted as the
city of palm-trees (Tamarah). This locality likewise favoured in former
ages the growth of the balsam shrub. At a distance of five miles to the
north-east, near the town of Beth-Haran, the famous balm of Gilead was
found; but by the side of the Dead Sea miasmatic salt-marshes extend
for a length of several miles. The shores of this sea and also of the
sea of Galilee send forth thermal springs impregnated with sulphur, and
these serve to cure various maladies.
The essentially mountainous configuration of Palestine was of great
benefit to the Israelites. Two long and imposing mountain ranges,
separated by a deep valley, raise their heads in the north, like two
snow-capped giants. One of them is Mount Lebanon, the tallest peak
of which has a height of more than 10,000 feet, and is named _Dhor
el-Khedib_. The other mountain is Hermon (the Anti-Lebanon), the
highest point of which, _the Sheikh_, has an elevation of 9,300 feet.
The Lebanon was never included in the land of Israel; it remained in
the possession of the Phœnicians, the Aramæans, and the people who
succeeded the latter. This mountain range was of practical utility
to the Israelites, who derived from its celebrated cedar forests the
material for their edifices. Besides this, its lofty and odoriferous
crests formed a favourite theme in the imagery of the Hebrew poets.
Mount Hermon, with its snow-covered head, touches the north side of
the ancient territory of Israel. This mountain, if not hidden by
intervening hills, forms a charming object of admiration even at a
distance of a hundred miles.
The spurs of these two ranges were continued in the northern mountains
of Israel (Mount Naphtali, subsequently named the mountains of
Galilee), the highest peak of which rises to 4,000 feet. These heights
have a gradual slope towards the great and fertile plain of Jezreel,
which is only 500 feet above the level of the sea. Several mountain
ranges intersect this plain and divide it into smaller plains. Mount
Tabor (1,865 feet high) is not so much distinguished for its height as
for its cupola shape. Mount Moreh (1,830 feet), now called _Ed-Duhy_,
seems to lean against Mount Tabor. Not far from there, somewhat towards
the east, run the hill-tops of Gilboa (2,000 feet). On the west side
of the great plain lies the extensive tree-crested range of Carmel,
which forms a wall close to the sea. The great plain of Jezreel has
the shape of an irregular triangle, with a length of twenty miles from
north to south, and a breadth of from six to fifteen miles from east
to west, having the mountain border of Carmel on the one side and
that of Gilboa on the other. This plain divides the land into two
unequal parts. The northern half, which is the smaller, received at a
later time the name of Galilee. On the south of this plain, the ground
gradually rises, and, at one point, attains an elevation of 2,000 feet.
This district was called Mount Ephraim. From Jerusalem, southwards to
Hebron, the land again ascends to a height of 3,000 feet, forming the
land of Judah. Here there is a gradual descent, and at the old frontier
town of Beersheba the level does not rise above 700 feet. At this point
begins the table-land of Mount Paran. This district was not included
in the actual territory of Israel. Both Mount Ephraim and Mount Judah
have a slope from east to west. Between the mountain-side and the
Mediterranean Sea, from north to south, that is, from Carmel to the
southern steppe, extends a plain of increasing breadth, which is called
"the Plain of Sharon," or the "low country" (_shefelah_). In the east
the mountain declines towards the Jordan. Some peaks of this mountain
acquired a special significance. Such were the two hills by the side
of Shechem, _Gerizim_, "the mountain of the blessing" (2,650 feet),
and _Ebal_, "the mountain of the curse" (2,700 feet); _Bethel_, in the
east (2,400 feet); _Mizpeh_, some hours' journey from the subsequent
capital; _Mount Zion_ (2,610 feet); and the _Mount of Olives_ (2,700
feet). This peculiar and greatly varied configuration of the land had
its effect not only upon the productions of the soil, but also upon
the character of the people. From north to south, Palestine is divided
into three belts. The broad mountainous tract occupies the centre; the
low land (_shefelah_) extends from the west to the sea, and the meadows
(_kikkar_, _araboth_) from the east to the Jordan. In the lowland
the climate is mild; in the mountains, it is severe during the rainy
season, but temperate in the summer. In the district of the Jordan the
heat continues during the greater part of the year.
With the exception of the Jordan, the land has no rivers which retain
their waters throughout the year; but even this river, owing to its
precipitous course, is not navigable. The Jordan rises from three
sources in the slopes of Hermon. At first it runs sluggishly, and
before entering the Lake of Merom it divides into small streams. On
emerging from the lake, its waters are united in a narrow basalt bed,
and flow into the Lake of Galilee. On issuing thence, the Jordan
widens, rushes over rocks, and, after forming many rapids in its
swift course, empties itself and disappears in the Dead Sea. During
spring-time, when the melting snow of Hermon swells the waters, this
river fertilises the adjoining low-lying plains, especially those on
its eastern bank.
The other streams, including the Jarmuk and Jabbok, become dry in the
hot summer season. Such winter streams (_nechalim_), nevertheless,
enhance the productiveness of the district through which they
flow, and the cultivated lands are situated on the banks of these
intermittent streams. The fertility of the soil is also favoured by
the small springs which flow down the hills without being collected
into rivulets. The districts devoid of springs are supplied with
drinking-water by the rain, which is gathered in cisterns excavated in
the rocks.
The greater portion of Palestine is blessed with an abundant yield of
produce. This is due to the nature of the soil, and to the copious
drainage from the highlands of Lebanon, Hermon (Anti-Lebanon), with
their spurs, as well as to the rain which falls twice a year. The land
flowed "with milk and honey," and has retained this characteristic
even to the present day, wherever the industry of man is active. It is
decidedly a beautiful land "of brooks of water, of fountains and depths
that spring out of valleys and hills; a land of wheat, and barley, and
vines, and fig-trees, and pomegranates; a land of the oil-olive, and
of honey; a land wherein thou shalt eat bread without scarceness, thou
shalt not want anything in it; a land whose stones are iron, and out
of whose hills thou mayest dig brass."[7] The plains are especially
fruitful, and yield to the laborious cultivator two crops a year. But
also the land lying to the north of the plain of Jezreel is by no means
sterile. In olden times it had such an abundance of olive trees as to
give rise to the saying that the husbandman "dips his foot in oil."
The central district to the south of the great plain, which belonged to
Ephraim and Manasseh, rewarded its toilers with rich harvests. On all
sides springs gush forth from the rocky fissures; and as their waters
gather together, they attain sufficient force to drive the mills,
besides supplying the soil with ample moisture. The land of the sons of
Joseph was blessed,
"With the fruit of the heavens above,
And of the deep that coucheth beneath;
And with precious fruit brought forth by the sun,
And with the precious things put forth by the moon."[8]
The hill-sides were adorned with blooming gardens, and with vineyards
exuberantly laden with grapes. The mountains, overshadowed by forests
of terebinths, oaks and yew trees, favoured the fertility of the
valleys.
In favourable situations the palm-tree produced a superabundance of
sweet fruit, the juicy contents of which sometimes even trickled to the
ground. There was less fruitfulness in the southern tracts, owing to
the numerous chalk hills and the small number of valleys. But even here
good pastures were found for the herds. Below Hebron the extreme south,
with its barren rocks and strips of sand, presents a dreary aspect. The
burning wind, in its passage over the desert, dries the atmosphere,
and impoverishes the soil. This district was therefore rightly termed
_Negeb_, "the arid land." A few oases, which are found here and there,
owed their verdure to the presence of water, which counteracted the
effect of the scorching heat. In such humid places the vegetation
became exceedingly luxuriant under the care of diligent cultivators. To
the idler this land yielded no produce.
The climate was made salubrious by the sea breezes and the free
currents of mountain air, the inhabitants being, therefore, of a sturdy
frame. Here were no miasmatic swamps to poison the atmosphere. Diseases
and the ravages of plagues are to this day of rare occurrence, and only
caused by infections imported from elsewhere. Compared with the vast
dominions of the ancient world, Palestine is extremely small. From some
lofty central points one can, at the same time, survey the eastern and
the western frontiers, the waves of the Mediterranean and the surface
of the Dead Sea, together with the Jordan, and the opposite mountains
of Gilead. A view from Mount Hermon is still more commanding, and
presents beautiful and extremely diversified landscapes. Throughout the
greater part of the year the air is so exceedingly pure and transparent
as to afford a delusive conception of the distance between the eye and
the surrounding scenery. Even remote objects appear to be placed within
close proximity.
Sensitive hearts and reflecting minds may well be said to perceive
"the finger of God" in this region, where "Tabor and Hermon praise
His name." Lofty peaks and undulating crests of mountains are seen in
alternation with verdant plains, and their images are reflected upon
the glittering surface of many waters. These towering heights, far from
overburdening and depressing the mind, draw it away from the din of the
noisy world, and call forth cheering and elevating emotions.
If the beholder be endowed with the slightest spark of poetic
sentiment, it is brought into life and action by the attractive sight
of this panorama. From the varied charms of scenic beauty the most
gifted men of this land drew their inspiration for their pensive
poetry. Neither the Greeks nor the Romans had a conception of this
species of poesy, which has its root in a deep consciousness of the
greatness of the Creator. Nations of a later epoch became adepts in
this poetry only by being the disciples of Israel. Whilst the eye
surveyed, from a prominent standpoint, the objects encircled by an
extensive horizon, the soul was impressed with the sublime idea of
infinitude--an idea which, without such aid, could only be indirectly
and artificially conveyed to the intellectual faculties. Single-hearted
and single-minded men, in the midst of such surroundings, became imbued
with a perception of the grandeur and infinity of the Godhead, whose
guiding power the people of Israel acknowledged in the early stages
of their history. They recognised the existence of the same power in
the ceaseless agitation of the apparently boundless ocean; in the
periodical return and withdrawal of fertilising showers; in the dew
which descended from the heights into the valleys; in the daily wonders
of nature hidden from human sight where the horizon is narrow, but
inviting admiration and devotion where the range of view is wide and
open.
"He that formeth the mountains and createth the winds,
He who turneth the morning into darkness,
Who treadeth upon the high places of the earth,
The Lord, the God of hosts is his name."[9]
At a later period the religious conviction gained ground that God's
omnipotence is equally manifested in ordaining the events of history
as in regulating the succession of physical phenomena; that the same
God who ordained the unchanging laws of nature, reveals himself in
the rise and fall of nations. This conviction is a specific product of
the Israelitish mind. Historical vicissitudes and natural surroundings
conspired to sharpen its faculties for everything extraordinary and
marvellous within the sphere of existing things.
The land of Gilead had the same characteristics that appertained to
the region on the other side of the Jordan. This district, originally
owned by the Amorites, and by the kings of Sihon and Og, was now held
by the sons of Reuben and Gad. From the summits of this territory also
immense tracts of land were visible at a single view; but nothing
beyond a mere blue streak could be seen of the distant ocean. This side
of the Jordan was, therefore, less than the opposite side, endowed with
poetic suggestiveness. The land of Gilead gave birth to no poet, it
was the home of only one prophet, and his disposition was marked by a
fierceness which accorded well with the rude and rough character of the
territory in which he was born. The Jordan formed both a geographical
and an intellectual landmark.
At the time of Israel's conquests, Canaan was dotted with cities and
fortified places, in which the invaders found some rudiments of civic
culture. Gilead, on the other hand, contained but few towns, and these
lay far apart from each other.
The territories to the west of the Jordan had only partially been
subjected and allotted. Large and important tracts of land were still
in possession of the original inhabitants, but it can no longer be
determined whether it was through the remissness of Joshua that the
land of Canaan was not completely conquered. In his advanced years,
Joshua did not display such vigour of action as was shown by his
teacher, Moses. Gradually he appears to have lost the energy that
is necessary in a commander. His followers of the tribes of Ephraim
and Manasseh had already obtained the most productive part of the
land; they were now resting on their laurels, and damped the warlike
impetus of their brethren. The excitements of the early warfare having
subsided, each of the tribes, or groups of tribes was concerned only
with its individual affairs. This isolation prevented the several
tribes from rounding off their territories by conquests from the
original inhabitants of Canaan.
The Canaanites had, even before the invasion by the Israelites, been
in possession of sacrificial altars and places for pilgrimage, with
which myths calculated to satisfy the uncultured mind were connected.
The high mountains, bordered by pleasant valleys, had been invested
with sacred attributes. Mount Carmel had long been looked upon as a
holy spot, whence the heathen priests announced their oracles. Mount
Tabor was likewise regarded as holy. At the foot of Hermon, in a fine
fertile valley, there stood a sanctuary dedicated to Baal Gad or Baal
Hermon. After the conquest, these shrines were probably, in the first
instance, visited only by the strangers who had cast their lot with
the Israelites; but their example was soon followed by the ignorant
portion of their Hebrew companions. In the interior of the country,
where the people could not discriminate between paganism and the divine
law of Israel, and still remembered the Egyptian superstitions, they
were prone to join in the sacrificial rites of the pagan idolaters. The
north, beyond Mount Tabor, likewise contained groups of the Canaanite
population. The Danites, whose neglected treatment has already been
noticed, were stationed in the centre of the Amorites. Their tenure
of land was insignificant in extent. The tribes of Judah and Simeon
were completely cut off from the other tribes. They were placed among
pagans, whose occupations were divided between those of the shepherd
and the freebooter. The Jebusites formed a barrier between the two
southern tribes and their northern brethren. This division between
the tribes was only removed after the conquest of Jebus (the city
subsequently named Jerusalem). If Joshua in his declining years beheld
with satisfaction the realisation of the Patriarchal promises, this
satisfaction was not without its alloy. As in the lives of individuals,
so in the lives of nations, the practical turn of events is liable
to disappoint all anticipations. It is true the land of Canaan now
belonged to the Israelites; but their conquests were of a precarious
nature, and might again be wrested from them by a combined attack on
the part of the dispossessed natives. The closing days of Joshua's
life were therefore troubled by the consideration of this dangerous
contingency, and by the fact that he had no successor whom the several
tribes, especially the tribe of Ephraim, might be willing to follow.
His death left the people in a state of utter bereavement, but, it
seems, it failed even to understand the gravity of the national loss.
No such grief took hold of them as was evinced at the death of their
first leader. Yet there remained one ideal which Joshua bequeathed to
the people, the prospect and the expectation that at some future time
the entire land would become their undivided property. Hopes, to which
a people clings persistently, carry within themselves the chances of
fulfilment. Severe trials continued, however, to await them before the
ideal of an undivided possession of Canaan could be fully realised.