MOLLUSCA.
ALTHOUGH the Mollusca do not come within the limits of this work they
nevertheless afford objects worthy of microscopic investigation. The
gills of a bivalve mollusk are like crescent-shaped leaves fixed by
their stalks to the transverse extremities of the mantle, so that the
greater part floats freely in the water.
To the naked eye the gills appear to be formed of radiating fibres of
admirable structure; but the microscope shows that each leaf consists of
a vast number of straight transparent and tubular filaments, arranged
side by side so close that 1,500 of them might be contained in the
length of an inch. These filaments, however, apparently so numerous, in
fact consist of only one exceedingly long filament in each gill, bent
upon itself again and again throughout its whole length, both at the
fixed and free ends of the leaf. These long filaments are fringed on
both sides by lines of cilia continually vibrating in contrary
directions. By this action a current of water is perpetually made to
flow up one side of the filaments and down the other, so that the blood
which circulates in their interior is exposed throughout their long
winding course to the action of oxygen in the water. The duration of
these vibrations in the mollusca is marvellous. The cilia on a fragment
of a gill put into water by Mr. Gosse fifteen hours after the death of
the mollusk caused a wave to flow uniformly up one side of the filaments
and down the other. Even twenty-hours after the death of the animal the
ciliary motion was continued on such parts as were not corrupted, a
remarkable instance of the inherent contractility of the animal tissues.
The refined mechanism of the gills of the common Mussel enables it to
live when attached to rocks above high-water mark, so as only to be
immersed at spring tides. By the movements of cilia, water is retained
in the gill-chamber, which derives oxygen from the atmosphere, and
animalcula supply the Mussel with food.
[Illustration: Fig. 165. Cardium or Cockle.]
The mollusks that burrow in sand or mud have two tubes fringed with
cilia, which they protrude into the water above them. The water which is
drawn into one of these tubes by the action of the cilia passes in a
strong current over the gills, aërates the blood, brings infusorial food
for the animal, and is expelled in a jet from the other tube. The foot
at the other extremity of the shell is the organ with which the mollusk
makes its burrow in sand, clay, chalk, stone or wood.[41]
The common Cockle digs into the sand, and uses its foot both for digging
and leaping; it is cylindrical, and when the Cockle is going to leap, it
puts out its foot and bends it into an elbow; then having fixed the
hooked point firmly in the sand, by a sudden contraction of the muscles
it springs to a considerable height and distance, and leaps actively
along the surface of the sand. The lowest part of fig. 166 is a
magnified section of the foot, showing the muscular system which gives
the animal that power. It consists of many rows of longitudinal muscles,
interlaced at regular distances by transverse fibres. When the foot is
extended, the Cockle has the power of distending it by filling a network
of capillary tubes with water till it is almost transparent. The water
is also distributed through the body and into the gill-chamber, which
opens and shuts every ten minutes or oftener, in order to maintain the
supply; and it has egress through the pores in the mantle and foot, for
some burrowing mollusks squirt it out through the foot when disturbed.
This water-system is unconnected with the circulation of the blood.
[Illustration: Fig. 166. Foot of Cockle.]
Each bivalve mollusk is both male and female; and the fertilized eggs
pass into the gills of the parent, where they undergo a kind of
incubation. At a certain time the yellow yolk of the egg is divided into
a granular mass, which separates from the liquid albumen and produces
cilia. The cilia cause the albumen to revolve round the interior of the
egg; at last the granular mass revolves with it, while at the same time
it rotates about its axis in a contrary direction at the rate of six or
eight times in a minute. When still in the egg, all the organs of the
little embryos are formed in succession, even the little valves of the
shells are seen to open and shut, but the embryos are hatched before
they leave the parent, and swim about in the cavity of the external
gill.
_Shells of the Mollusca._
When these mollusks come into the water, they soon find their
transparent white shell too small, and begin to increase its size by
means of the mantle, which is an exquisitely sensible fleshy envelope
applied to the back of the animal, extending round its sides like a
cloak, only meeting in front, and it is for the most part in close
contact with the whole interior of the shell. Its edges are fringed with
rows of slender tentacles, and studded with glands, which secrete the
colours afterwards seen in the shell; the glands in the rest of the
mantle secrete only colourless matter.
When the animal begins to enlarge its shell, it attaches the borders of
the mantle to the margin of the valves, secretes a film of animal
matter, and lines it with a layer of mucus containing carbonate of lime
and colour in a soft state, which soon becomes hard, and is then coated
internally by the other glands of the mantle with colourless carbonate
of lime.
The two strata thus formed, one richly coloured, the other white, often
nacreous and brilliantly iridescent, are highly organized substances.
Examined with the microscope, they present remarkable varieties in some
of the natural groups of bivalve Mollusca; the structure of the
Monomyarian Oyster is characteristic of the division which has but one
muscle; the Dimyaria, having two muscles, are represented by the Cockle.
[Illustration: Fig. 167. Section of shell of Pinna transversely to the
direction of its prisms.]
[Illustration: Fig. 168. Membranous basis of the shell of Pinna.]
The exterior laminæ at the edge of the fragile valves of a Pinna are
often so thin and transparent that the organization of the shells may be
seen with a low magnifying power. A fragment has the appearance of a
honeycomb on both surfaces (fig. 167), whereas its broken edge resembles
an assemblage of basaltic columns. The exterior layer of the shell is
thus composed of a vast number of nearly uniform prisms, usually
approaching to the hexagonal structure, whose lengths form the thickness
of the lamina, their extremities its surfaces. When the calcareous part
of the lamina is dissolved by dilute acid, a firm membrane is left,
which exhibits a hexagonal structure (fig. 168), as in the original
shell; but it is only in the shells of a few families of bivalves nearly
allied to the Pinna that this combination of the organic and mineral
elements is seen in this distinct form; it is beautifully displayed in
the nacreous shells.
[Illustration: Fig. 169. Section of nacreous lining of the shell of
Avicula margaritacea (pearl oyster).]
In many shells the internal layer has a nacreous or iridescent lustre,
shown by Sir David Brewster to depend upon the striation of its surface,
by a series of nearly parallel grooved lines. When Dr. Carpenter had
dissolved the calcareous matter from a thin piece of nacreous substance,
taken from the shell of the Haliotis splendens, or Ear Shell, there
remained an iridescent membrane, which presented to the microscope a
series of folds or plaits somewhat regular, and splendidly iridescent,
but when the plaits were unfolded and the membrane stretched, the
iridescence vanished. So the varied hues of mother-of-pearl are owing to
the folds of an organic membrane.
The shells of the Gastropoda, or crawling mollusks, have a structure
peculiar to themselves, but by no means so much varied as that of the
bivalve class. The Strombus gigas, or Queen Conch, the Cassis, or Helmet
Shell, and the beautiful porcellanous Cyprææ or Cowries, are much valued
by the artists who cut cameos, on account of the structure of their
shells, which consists of three strata, the same in composition, but
differing in arrangement, and sometimes in colour. Each stratum of the
shell is formed of many thin laminæ, placed side by side, perpendicular
to the plane of the stratum, and each lamina consists of a series of
prismatic spicules with their long sides in close approximation; the
laminæ of the inner and outer strata have their spicules parallel to one
another, while the spicules of the intermediate lamina are perpendicular
to those on each side. According to Dr. Bowerbank, who discovered this
complicated structure, the spicules are microscopic tubes filled with
carbonate of lime.
The Spondylus gædaropus has sixty ocelli constructed for accurate
vision. One can form no idea of the effect of so many eyes, unless they
combine to form one image as our eyes do. The common Pecten, or Scallop,
pretty both in form and colour, has a number of minute brilliant eyes
arranged along the inner edge of the mantle, like two rows of diamond
sparks. Some families of mollusks are destitute of eyes, even of the
simplest kind; and it has been observed that those mollusks most
liberally provided with eyes are also endowed with the most active and
vigorous motions. The bivalves do not appear to have either taste or
organs of hearing, but they are exceedingly sensitive to touch. It is
singular that animals which have neither head nor brain should have any
senses at all. A nerve-collar round the gullet with a trilobed
nerve-centre on each side supplies the place of a brain; nerves extend
from these; besides there are nerve-centres in various parts of the
unsymmetrical bodies of the acephalous mollusks.
The Gastropoda, or crawling mollusks, have a head, and are consequently
animals of a higher organization than the Conchifera or bivalve class.
Their mantle forms a vaulted chamber over the head and neck, and
envelopes the foot or crawling-disk; all these the animal can protrude
or draw in at pleasure. The head is of a globular form, with two or four
exceedingly sensitive tentacles, arranged in pairs on each side of it,
as in the garden snail, which has four, two long and two short. These
tentacles, which the snail can push out and draw in at pleasure, are
hollow tubes, the walls of which are composed of circular bands of
muscle. The tentacles are pushed out by the alternate contractions of
these circular bands, but they are drawn in again like the inverted
finger of a glove by muscular cords proceeding to the internal extremity
of the tentacle from the muscle that withdraws the foot. The structure
of the tentacles is the same in all the crawling mollusks; they are most
sensitive in the Helix or Snail family, but they are believed to be
delicate organs of touch in all.
The Gastropod mollusks never have more than two eyes, either placed on
the tips, or at the base of one pair of tentacles; in the snail they may
be seen as black points on the tips of the longest pair. In some of the
higher Gastropods they are of great beauty, and appear to be perfectly
adapted for distinct vision. Organs of hearing were discovered by Dr.
Siebold at the base of one of the pairs of tentacles, consisting of
vesicles containing a liquid and calcareous otolites, which perform
remarkable oscillations due to the action of vibratile cilia. In the
Snail and Slug group the number of otolites varies from eighty to one
hundred.
The mouth of a Gastropod is a proboscis, with fleshy lips, generally
armed with horny plates or spines on the jaws. The Snail has a
crescent-shaped cutting plate on its jaw, and a soft bifid lip below,
but the tongue is the most remarkable microscopic object in this group
of Mollusca. In the terrestrial Gastropods, it is short and entirely
contained within the nearly globular head. It is tubular behind, but in
front it is spread into a nearly flat narrow plate, traversed by
numerous rows of minute recurved teeth, or spines set upon flattened
plates; in the Garden Snail or Slug each principal tooth has its own
plate. Fig. 170 represents a magnified portion of a Snail’s tongue by
Dr. Carpenter; the rows at the edge are separated to show the structure.
The teeth are set close one to another, and are often very numerous. In
the Helix pomatia, a snail found in the middle and southern counties of
England, they amount to 21,000, and in the great slug (Arion ater),
there are 26,800. This kind of tongue only serves for rasping vegetable
food. All the Trochidæ, which are marine mollusks that are supposed by
some naturalists to live on fuci, are remarkable for the length and
beauty of their narrow spiny tongues. Fig. 171 is a small portion of the
tongue or palate of the Trochus zizyphinus, highly magnified; the large
teeth of the lateral bands, as well as the small teeth in the centre,
have minutely serrated edges. Fig. 172 shows the Trochus granulatus in
the act of crawling.
[Illustration: Fig. 170. The tongue of Helix aspersa.]
[Illustration: Fig. 171. Palate of Trochus zizyphinus.]
[Illustration: Fig. 172. Granulated Trochus.]
The Limpet lives on sea-weeds. The animal is large in proportion to the
size of its conical shell; it has a long leaf-shaped gill under the edge
of the mantle. The head has a short proboscis and pointed tentacles,
with eyes at their base. The mouth has a horny jaw and a very long
tongue, moved by muscles rising from firm objects on each side of it.
Fig. 173 represents the tongue beset with recurved hooks, and A shows a
portion highly magnified. These recurved teeth are transparent,
amber-coloured, and in the Limpet, as in most of the other Gastropods,
they are chitinous. The teeth towards the point of the tongue are
sufficiently hard to rasp the food; and it is said that when they are
worn down, the part of the tongue supporting them falls off, and that
the waste is supplied by a progressive growth of the tongue from behind,
and a hardening of the teeth in front. The soft reserved portion is
coiled in a spiral when not in use.
[Illustration: Fig. 173. Tongue of Limpet:—A, portion of surface
magnified.]
All the species of Patellidæ, or Limpets, have the power of making
cavities with their foot in the surface of the rocks to which they
adhere. The cavity exactly corresponds in shape and size with the mouth
of the shell, which is sunk and very strongly glued into it, yet the
Limpet dissolves the glue with a liquid secretion, roams in quest of
food, and returns again to its home: both fluids are secreted by a
multitude of glands in the foot, which is the instrument of adhesion.
The tongue of the carnivorous Gastropods is a very formidable weapon,
used for boring holes in the hardest shells. The round holes in dead
shells frequently met with on our coasts show that their inhabitants had
fallen a prey to some of these zoophagous Mollusks. The tongue of these
predatory Gastropods is a narrow mechanical file, sometimes twice or
even three times the length of the whole animal, and when not in use it
is curled up near the foot. It is spined in various microscopic patterns
according to the genus, and is supported by two firm parts from whence
the muscles spring that work the rasp.
The Periwinkles have a ribbon-shaped tongue, rough with hooked teeth;
the Scalariæ have also predatory tongues, but of all the Gastropod
mollusks, the Whelk and its numerous allies are the most predacious. The
Purpura or Dog Whelk especially is the most ravenous of mollusks. Its
long tongue is armed with hooked and spined teeth, placed three in a
row; with this weapon and a proboscis capable of boring, they have been
known to exterminate a whole bank of Mussels.
The Common Whelk is represented in fig. 174. When in the act of
crawling, its head, with two tentacles, is at one extremity, its foot at
the other, sometimes used as an organ of prehension; and it has a siphon
for carrying water to the gills at the end of the shell.
All the families of the naked mollusks or Sea Slugs, furnish beautiful
objects for the microscope. The two sexes are united in the same
individual, and in their embryonic state they have a shell, which is
cast off long before they come to maturity. The gills placed on the
naked body are capable of being withdrawn into a cavity in the medial
line of the back, and are either plumose, or like the leaf of a plant
pinnated again and again, but they vary in form and position in the
different genera.
[Illustration: Fig. 174. Whelk.]
[Illustration: Fig. 175. The Crowned Eolis.]
In the group of the Eolidæ, the gills are like leafless trees in most
genera, but in the principal genus Eolis, they are long, spindle-shaped,
sharp-pointed papillæ, arranged in transverse rows or clusters along the
sides of the back, leaving a space between them, as in fig. 175. They
are covered with long cilia, whose vibrations send a perpetual current
of sea-water along each of them, the respiration is aided by vibrating
cilia, scattered almost over the whole body, and the circulation of the
blood is very simple.
[Illustration: Fig. 176. Tongue-teeth of Eolis coronata.]
The Eolis has a head prolonged into a pair of tentacles which are active
and as sensitive as antennæ. Another pair on the back have ten or twelve
narrow plates twisted in a spiral round them; the eyes are at the base
of these horns. The mouth contains horny jaws and a spiny tongue like a
mere strap covered by numerous transverse plates armed with recurved
spines not more than a sixth part the thickness of a human hair. Fig.
176 represents the tongue and some of the spines greatly magnified. The
mouth leads into a short and large membranous stomach, from each side of
which branches are sent off, from whence long canals traverse the
papillæ longitudinally, and perform the part of a liver. In many species
these tubes are brilliantly coloured, but none are more beautiful than
those in the Eolis coronata, which is found under stones, like a mass of
jelly, not larger than a pea, at low spring tides, on our own coasts.
When put into sea-water it expands till it is about an inch long (fig.
175). It is then pellucid, tinged with pink, and the central tubes in
its numerous papillæ are of a rich crimson hue, their surface reflects a
metallic blue, and their tips are opaque white; as the animal keeps its
papillæ in constant motion the effect is very pretty.
The Eolis coronata, like all its congeners, has a stinging apparatus,
consisting of an oblong bag, full of thread cells, placed at the
extremity of each papilla, from whence darts can be ejected through an
aperture in the tip. The whole of the Eolididæ are carnivorous, fierce,
and voracious, setting up their papillæ like the quills of a porcupine
when they seize their prey; they tear off the papillæ of their weaker
brethren, and even devour their own spawn, though their chief food
consists of zoophytes.
The Pteropoda, or wing-footed mollusca, are very small; they are
incapable of crawling or fixing themselves to solid objects, but they
are furnished with two fins like the wings of a butterfly, with which
they float or row themselves about in the ocean, far from land in vast
multitudes. The shell of the typical species Hyalæa (A, fig. 177), which
resembles the thinnest transparent glass, consists of two valves, one,
which is placed on the front of the animal, is long, flat, and ends in
three points; the other valve, which is applied to the back, is short
and convex, and in the lateral fissure between the two, the mantle is
protruded. The head and fins project from an opening at the top of the
shell. The fins, which are formed of muscular fibre, are fixed on a
short thick neck, with the mouth lying between them, containing a tongue
crossed by rows of long reversed teeth. The head has no tentacles, and
the animal appears to be blind, but it has an auditory vesicle lined
with cilia, which keeps a few otolites in motion. This little animal is
highly organized; it has a gullet, a kind of crop and gizzard, a liver,
a respiratory tube, a heart, a circulating and nervous system, which
enables it to swim with a flapping motion of its fins.
[Illustration: Fig. 177. A, Hyalæa; B, Clio.]
The Clio pyramidata (B, fig. 177) is an elegant animal belonging to the
same class. Its fragile transparent shell has the form of a triangular
pyramid; and from its base proceeds a slender spine, and a similar spine
extends from each side of the middle of the shell. The posterior part of
the body is globular and pellucid, and in the dark it is vividly
luminous, shining through the glassy shell. The fins of the Hyalæa and
Clio or Cleodora are of a bright yellow, with a deep purple spot near
the base. Both are inhabitants of the ocean.
[Illustration: Fig. 178. Clione borealis.]
The Clione borealis (fig. 178), which exists in millions in the Arctic
Seas, is the most remarkable instance of the Naked Pteropods. It has
neither shell nor mantle; its membranous body is not more than half an
inch long, its head is formed of two round lobes, on each side of the
neck there is a large muscular wing or fin; in swimming the animal
brings the tips of the fins almost in contact, first on one side of the
neck and then on the other. In calm weather, they come to the surface in
myriads, and quickly descend again. There is a pair of slender tentacles
close to the head, which are organs of feeling, a pair of eyes are
placed on the back of the neck, and acoustic vesicles lined with cilia
keep otolites in motion. Besides these organs of sense, the Clione has
respiratory, digestive, and nervous systems. The latter consists of a
nerve-collar round the gullet, with two nerve masses in its upper part,
so the Clione is well supplied with nerves.
Upon each of the two round lobes of the head, there are three tentacles,
totally different from those of feeling. They are, in fact, organs of
prehension, which can be protruded or withdrawn at pleasure into a fold
of the skin. When protruded, these six tentacles form a radiating crown
round the mouth, which is terminal, and furnished with fleshy lips. Each
of these tentacles is perforated by numerous cavities, appearing like
red spots to the naked eye; however, Professor Eschricht discovered that
each spot consists of a transparent sheath, enclosing a central body
composed of a stem terminated by a tuft of about twenty microscopic
suckers, capable of being thrust out to seize prey. The whole number of
these prehensile suckers in the head of one Clione was estimated by
Eschricht to amount to 330,000. Notwithstanding the vast prehensile
power and multitude of these animals, they find abundance of food in the
Arctic Ocean, for although the water is generally of the purest
ultramarine blue, one fourth of the Greenland Sea, extending over 10° of
latitude and some hundred feet deep, is green and turbid, with a
profusion of minute animal life. The indefinite increase of the Clione
borealis is checked by the whales, who feed upon them, and other minute
inhabitants of the Arctic Seas. The Pteropods first appear in a fossil
state in the Lower Silurian strata.
_Naked Cephalopods._
The Naked Cephalopods have an internal skeleton instead of a shell, in
the shape of a transparent horny pen in the Calamary, or the well-known
internal shell of the Cuttle Fish; they are divided into Octopods and
Decapods, according to the number of their tentacles: the Poulpe, or
Octopus vulgaris, is a type of the first, the Sepia or Cuttle Fish, fig.
179, and the Loligo vulgare or Squid, are types of the last. These
creatures may be seen on rocky coasts, or in the ocean hundreds of miles
distant from land. They are nocturnal, gregarious, carnivorous, and
fierce,—their structure enables them to be tyrants of the ocean. They
are strange-looking, repulsive creatures, with staring bright-coloured
eyes, while crawling awkwardly on their fleshy arms head downmost; yet
they are the most highly organized of all mollusks.
[Illustration: Fig. 179. Cuttle Fish.]
They have a distinct brain, enclosed in a cartilaginous skull, and all
their muscles are attached to cartilages. The lower part of their body
is surrounded by a mantle, which extends in front to form a gill
chamber, in which there is a pair of plume-like gills; a funnel or
siphon projects from the gill chamber immediately below the tentacles.
All the naked Cephalopods propel themselves back foremost in the sea, by
the forcible expulsion of water from the gill chamber through this
siphon.
The head protrudes from the top of the mantle; it has a pair of large
eyes on sockets, and some species of these animals have eyelids. The
ears are cavities under the cartilage of the skull, containing a small
sac and an otolite. The mouth, which is terminal, and surrounded by the
tentacles, has powerful jaws like a parrot’s beak reversed, acting
vertically. The tongue is large, the posterior part is covered with
recurved spines, and the organ of smell is a cavity near the eyes. The
Naked Cephalopods are remarkable for having three hearts, or propelling
vessels—one for the circulation of arterial blood through the body, the
others for projecting venous blood through the gills, at whose base they
are situated.
The arms or tentacles of all the Naked Cephalopoda are formidable organs
of defence and prehension, but are most powerful in the Loligo vulgaris,
the Poulpe, and the Cuttle, on account of one pair of the tentacles
being long slender arms, dilated at their extremities into flat clubs.
On the inner surface of each of the tentacles, and upon the lower
surface of the dilated extremities of the long ones, there are
multitudes of sucking disks, which, once fixed to an object, adhere so
firmly that it is easier to tear off a portion of the animal’s tentacle
than to make it release its hold. These sucking disks, which are placed
in parallel rows, are represented magnified in fig. 180. Each sucker
consists of a firm cartilaginous or fleshy ring (_e_), across which a
disk of muscular membrane (_f_) is stretched, having a circular opening
(_g_) in its centre. A cone-shaped mass of flesh fills the opening like
a piston, capable of being drawn backwards; the membranous disk can also
be drawn in. When one of these sucking-disks touches a fish, the fleshy
piston is instantaneously retracted, a vacuum is formed, and the edges
of the disk are pressed against the victim with a force equal to the
pressure of the superincumbent water and that of the atmosphere. The
fish is powerless when embraced by the eight tentacles and their
hundreds of suckers; but, if large enough still to struggle, the force
is increased by drawing in the membranous disk. The Poulpe, the most
powerful of the group which swims far from land, and has to contend with
large slippery fishes, has a hooked claw in the centre of each
sucking-disk, which is clasped into the fish the instant the vacuum is
formed. The expansions at the extremities of their two long arms, which
are thickly and irregularly beset with hooked sucking-disks, not only
drag the fish into the embrace of the eight short tentacles, but they
clasp round it and interlock, so that the fish can be torn to pieces by
the parrot-like jaws, and eaten at leisure. The tentacles, long and
short, have strong nerves, and a little nerve-mass occupies the centre
of each sucking-disk, which gives the tentacles great power.
[Illustration: Fig. 180. Arm of Octopus.]
The sepia, or inky liquid, which all the Naked Cephalopods possess as a
means of defence, is secreted in a pyriform bag, which has an outlet
near the respiratory siphon. If the animal be alarmed when devouring its
prey, it instantly lets go its hold, discharges the inky liquid into the
water, and escapes unseen.
The skin of this class of animals is thin and semi-transparent; the
surface immediately below it consists of numerous cells, of a flattened
oval or circular form, containing coloured particles suspended in a
liquid. The colour is seldom the same in all these cells; the most
constant kind corresponds with the tint of the inky secretion. In the
Sepia there is a second series of cells, containing a deep yellow or
brownish colour; in the common Calamary, or Squid, there are three kinds
of coloured cells—yellow, rose-coloured, and brown; and in the Poulpe
there are red, yellow, blue, and black cells. The cells possess the
power of rapid contraction and expansion, by which the coloured liquid
is drawn into deeper parts of the surface, and is again brought into
contact with the semi-transparent skin—thus constantly varying. In
consequence of the high development of the nervous system, the skin of
the Naked Cephalopods is of extreme sensibility; a mere touch brings a
blush on that of the Poulpe, and they all assume the colour of the
surface on which they rest as readily as the chameleon. Many of these
nocturnal animals are luminous, and are easily attracted by bright
metallic objects.
RECAPITULATION.
NUMEROUS instances of microscopic structure may be found in the
vertebrate series of marine animals, but the field is too extensive for
the Author to venture upon.
In the first section of this book, an attempt has been made to give some
idea of the present state of molecular science—far short, indeed, of so
extensive a subject; yet it may be sufficient, perhaps, to show the
views now entertained with regard to the powers of nature, the atoms of
matter, and the general laws resulting from the phenomena of their
reciprocal action. By spectrum analysis it has been shown that not only
many terrestrial substances, in a highly attenuated state, are
constituents of the luminous atmospheres of the sun and stars, but that
the nebulæ in the more distant regions of space contain some of the
elementary gases of the air we breathe.
In the succeeding sections it has been proved that the atmosphere teems
with the microscopic germs of animal and vegetable beings, waiting till
suitable conditions enable them to spring into life, and perform their
part in the economy of the world. The life history of the lower classes
of both kingdoms has been a triumph of microscopic science.
The molecular structure of vegetables and animals has been investigated
by men of science in their minutest details; the fragment of a tooth,
bone, or shell, recent or fossil, is sufficient to determine the nature
of the animal to which it belonged; and, if fossil, to assign the
geological period at which it had lived, whether on the earth, in the
waters, or the air. By the microscopic examination of a minute
Foraminifer or shell-like organism, it has been proved beyond a doubt
that the Eozoön, an animal which existed at a geological period whose
remoteness in time carries us far beyond the reach of imagination, only
differs in size from a kind living in the present seas. Simplicity of
structure has preserved the race through all the geological changes
which, during millions of centuries, have swept from existence myriads
of more highly organized beings. The Eozoön is the most ancient form of
life known, and was probably an inhabitant of the primeval ocean.
Patches of carbonaceous matter imbedded in the same strata show that
vegetation had already begun; so at that most remote period of the
earth’s existence, the vivifying influence of the sun, the constitution
and motions of the atmosphere and ocean, and the vicissitudes of day and
night, of life and death, were the same as at the present time.
Footnotes
Footnote 1:
The nervous system is ably explained in Dr. Carpenter’s ‘Manual of
Physiology.’
Footnote 2:
A pointer and greyhound, belonging to a friend of the author’s,
repeatedly brought home hares. Upon watching the dogs, the pointer was
seen to find the hare, which was coursed and killed by the greyhound.
Singular as this may seem, it is by no means unprecedented.
Footnote 3:
From _rhizon_, a root, and _pous_, _podos_, a foot.
Footnote 4:
‘On the Amœba princeps and its reproductive cells,’ by Mr J. H.
Carter: _Annals of Natural History_, July 1863.
Footnote 5:
‘On Difflugian Rhizopods,’ by G. C. Wallich M.D. _Annals of Natural
History_, March, 1864.
Footnote 6:
Dr. Wallich.
Footnote 7:
‘Introduction to the Study of the Foraminifera,’ by W. B. Carpenter.
Footnote 8:
A complete description of this complex type is given by Dr. Carpenter
in the Phil. Trans. 1856.
Footnote 9:
Dr. Carpenter.
Footnote 10:
Structure of the Organic Remains in the Laurentian Rocks of Canada: by
J. W. Dawson. Esq., Principal of M‘Gill University, Montreal.
Footnote 11:
The discovery of Eozoön and the minute details of its structure are
published in the _Intellectual Observer_ for May 1865. Also the
‘Laurentian Rocks of Canada,’ a small work, contains articles by
various authors on the occurrence, structure, and mineralogy of
certain organic remains of these rocks.
Footnote 12:
‘Histoire Naturelle des Animaux sans Vertèbres,’ par MM. Deshayes et
H. Milne-Edwards.
Footnote 13:
Memoir by Dr. Bowerbank in the Transactions of the Microscopic
Society.
Footnote 14:
Professor Huxley’s Lectures.
Footnote 15:
M. Milne-Edwards.
Footnote 16:
Professor Huxley’s Lectures.
Footnote 17:
‘Palæontology,’ by Professor Owen.
Footnote 18:
Prof. Owen.
Footnote 19:
Mr. Gosse.
Footnote 20:
‘Lectures on Comparative Anatomy,’ by Professor Owen.
Footnote 21:
Described in ‘The Microscope,’ by Dr. Carpenter.
Footnote 22:
‘Lectures on Comparative Anatomy,’ by Professor Owen.
Footnote 23:
‘Lectures on Comparative Anatomy,’ by Professor Owen.
Footnote 24:
Dr. F. Müller, of Santa Caterina.
Footnote 25:
‘Recherches sur quelques Animaux inférieurs de la Méditerranée,’ par
C. Vogt: _Mémoires de l’Institut National Génevois_, tom. i.
Footnote 26:
Published in 1858, by the Ray Society.
Footnote 27:
‘Lectures on Comparative Anatomy,’ by Professor Owen.
Footnote 28:
‘Evenings at the Microscope,’ by P. H. Gosse, Esq.
Footnote 29:
‘Observations on the Caryophyllia Smithii,’ by Mrs. Thynne, in the
_Annals and Magazine of Natural History_.
Footnote 30:
‘Histoire des Corallines,’ par Professeur Milne-Edwards.
Footnote 31:
‘Histoire des Corallines,’ par Professeur Milne-Edwards.
Footnote 32:
According to the system of M. Milne-Edwards, who made the Annulosa a
particular object of investigation.
Footnote 33:
Dr. Thomas Williams on ‘British Annelides,’ British Association, 1852.
Footnote 34:
‘Comptes rendus,’ July 1864.
Footnote 35:
‘Palæontology,’ by Professor Owen.
Footnote 36:
Messrs. Woodward and Barrett on the Synapta. Trans. of Zoological
Society, London.
Footnote 37:
‘The Microscope,’ by Dr. Carpenter.
Footnote 38:
Mr. C. Spence Bate.
Footnote 39:
‘Histoire naturelle des Crustacés,’ par M. Milne-Edwards.
Footnote 40:
‘Evenings at the Microscope,’ by Mr. Gosse.
Footnote 41:
Jeffrey’s ‘British Conchology.’
INDEX.
A
Abrothallus, organs of reproduction of, i. 307
Absorption of light and heat, i. 34
effects of, i. 35, 36
generally independent of colour, i. 36
Melloni’s investigations into the laws of, i. 38
Prof. Tyndall’s experiments, i. 38
amount of radiant heat absorbed by the perfumes of flowers and
plants, i. 43-45
experiments showing radiation to be equal to absorption, i. 46
great absorption of olefiant gas, i. 47
absorptive power of aqueous vapour, i. 53
dynamic absorption, i. 49
absorption a phenomenon irrespective of aggregation, i. 53
absorption of invisible rays by solids, liquids, and gases, i. 65
Absorption bands in the red and green parts of the solar spectrum, i.
131
Acalepha, the simple hydra a phase in the life of the, ii. 91
Acalephæ, Campanograde, characters of, ii. 103
Acalephæ, Ciliograde, characters of the, ii. 101
mode of reproduction of, ii. 103
Acalephæ, Physograde, characters of, ii. 107
Acanthometræ, structure and habitat of, ii. 19
Acetic acid, chemical combination forming, i. 97
Acetic fermentation, fungus producing, i. 288
Acetylene, formation of, i. 97
Acetylene, chemical composition of, i. 128
Achlya prolifera, structure and reproduction of, i. 220
Acids, their affinity for alkalies, i. 96
Acineta, structure and mode of reproduction of, ii. 77, 78
food of, and mode of seizing it, ii. 78
Acorn-shell, structure of the, ii. 213
Acrocarpi, characters of the group, i. 328
Acrocladia mamillata, spines of the, ii. 180, 181
Acrosticheæ, characters of the, i. 359, 360
Actinia sulcata, structure of, ii. 132
Actinian polype, structure and mode of reproduction of, ii. 130, 131
Actinian zoophytes, characters of, ii. 130, 131
thread-cells, ii. 132
structure of, ii. 134-136
Actinism of star-light, i. 55
of moon-light, i. 55
of sun-light, i. 56
Actinocyclus undulatus, structure of, i. 199, 200
Actinomma drymodes, structure of, ii. 21
Actinophrys sol, structure and reproduction of, ii. 16-18
certain degree of instinct exhibited by, ii. 18
its enemy, the Amœba, ii. 18
Adder’s tongue fern, i. 365
Adiantieæ, characters of the groups, i. 358
Adiantum Capillus-Veneris, or maiden’s-hair fern, structure and habitat
of, i. 359
Adriatic sea, Foraminifera in the ooze of the bed of the, ii. 51
Adularia, or moonstone, fluorescent property of, i. 66
Æcidium, characters of, i. 280
Ægean sea, zones of Algæ in the, i. 259
Æthalium septicum, structure and habitat of, i. 270-272
Amœba-like motions of, i. 270
mode of reproduction of, i. 271
Affinity, chemical, of kind and of degree, i. 95
relation between chemical affinity and mechanical force, i. 98
Agaricini, the order, i. 261
Agaricus, the genus, i. 261, 263
structure of the, i. 263
Agaricus arvensis, spawn of, i. 262
Agaricus campestris, or common mushroom, i. 261
structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 261
Agaricus gardneri, luminosity of, i. 264
Agaricus olearius, luminosity of, i. 264
Air, a non-conductor of electricity, i. 32
amount of force exerted by the sun’s light within the limits of the
terrestrial atmosphere, i. 34
absorption of radiant heat by, i. 41
effect of the rays of the sun falling on the earth through pure dry
air, i. 53
spectrum analysis of the component parts of the atmosphere, i. 139
Air-vessel of Nereocystis Lutkeana, i. 249, 250
Alaria esculenta, fruit of, i. 249
Alaria Pylaii, fruit of, i. 249
Albumen, formation and structure of, in vegetable organisms, i. 423
Alcohol, chemical combination forming, i. 97
Alcyon zoophytes, characters of, ii. 119, 120
structure and mode of reproduction of, ii. 120-123
Alcyonidium elegans, structure of, ii. 120
Alcyonium digitatum, or dead man’s fingers, structure of, ii. 121, 122
Aldebaran, spectrum of, i. 155
Algæ, i. 179
classification of the group, i. 179-181
green Algæ, i. 181-220
zones or degrees of depth at which different Algæ exist, ii. 221,
258, 259
brackish water often a cause of change in the form of Algæ, i. 245
colossal Algæ of the North Pacific, i. 245
rings of growth of some of the larger sea-weeds, i. 252
Alizarine blue, from what obtained, i. 124, 125
Alkalies, their affinity for acids, i. 96
Alkaloids, chemical structure of, i. 427
Allosorus crispus, or parsley fern, structure and habitat of, i. 358
Allotropism, i. 8
of carbon, i. 15
Alsophileæ, structure of, i. 360
Alum, a free radiator but a bad conductor of radiant heat, i. 37
partial decomposition of, by diffusion, i. 109
manufacture of, i. 120
Alumina, effect of electricity on, i. 32
Aluminum, i. 4
spectrum of, i. 65
Amalgams of metals, illustrating the relation between chemical affinity
and mechanical force, i. 98
Amansia, structure of, i. 242
Amaryllidaceæ, structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 388
America, North, enormous quantities of petroleum in, i. 126
Amidogen combines with other substances and simple atoms as if it were
a simple element, i. 106
Ammonia, amount of absorption of radiant heat by, i. 41
characteristics and constituents of, i. 119
chemical composition of, i. 128
combination forming, i. 107
carbonate of, i. 119
extent of the manufacture of, i. 120
muriate of, i. 120
manufacture of, i. 120
sulphate of, i. 120
how manufactured, i. 120
Ammonium, sulphide of, i. 119
Amœba princeps, structure, motions, food, and reproduction of, ii.
13-16
its capture of the Actinophrys, ii. 18
a new species found in dust from Egypt, ii. 65
Amorphous substances, conduct of, under magnetic influence, i. 76
Amphicora, two eye-specks in the tail of, ii. 158
Amphidetus, spines of the, ii. 180
Amphipoda, characters of the, ii. 201
Amphithoæ, structure of, ii. 203
Analysis, chemical, electricity and light instruments of, i. 95
the most powerful means of, i. 96
Andræa subulata, leaves of, i. 330
Andræaceæ, characters of the tribe, i. 328
Angiocarpei, structure, mode of reproduction, and habitat of, i. 309,
310
Angiopteris evecta, perfume from, i. 364, 365
Angræcum sesquipedale, structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 402
Anguillulæ, eel-like entozoa, structure and habitat of, ii. 147, 148
Anemone, sea, structure and mode of reproduction of, ii. 130, 131
Aniline, formation of the fulminate of, i. 92
combination forming, i. 107
how produced, i. 121, 122
constituents and characteristics of, i. 122
formation of the aniline colours, i. 122, 123
mauve, i. 122
magenta, i. 122
purple, i. 123
yellow, i. 124
chemical composition of, i. 128
Aniline, acetate of, i. 123
Animals, functions of the frame of, ii. 1
sarcode and muscle, ii. 2
blood, ii. 2
waste and repair, ii. 3
food, ii. 3
animal heat, ii. 3
the heart, digestion, heat, and respiration, ii. 4
nerve-force of animals, ii. 4
nervous system, ii. 5
structure and functions of the brain and spinal cord, ii. 8
intelligence, or the mental principle, in animals, ii. 11, 12
Anise seed, amount of radiant heat absorbed by the perfume of, i. 44
Annelida, characters of the, ii. 149
mode of reproduction of, ii. 160
luminosity of, ii. 160
fossil remains of, ii. 161
Annulosa, or worms, characters of, ii. 144
Anomura, structure and mode of reproduction of, ii. 197
Antennaria Robinsonii, mode of reproduction of, i. 296
Antennariei, structure of, i. 296
Anthoxanthum odoratum, or sweet-scented vernal grass, mode of
reproduction of, i. 386
Anthozoa zoophytes, or living flowers, characters of, ii. 119
Antiaris toxicaria, causes of the virulence of, i. 426
fruit of, innocuous, i. 426
Antozone, i. 8
Aphrodita hystrix, structure and mode of reproduction of, ii. 159
Apolemia contorta, structure and mode of reproduction of, ii. 108, 109
Apple, fructification of the, i. 381
Apus cancriformis, structure of the, ii. 210
Aqueous vapour, i. 53
absorptive power of, i. 53-55
Arachnoidiscus Ehrenbergii, structure of, i. 199
Arcella, structure and mode of formation of the shell of, ii. 21, 22,
23
Aregma speciosum, spores of, i. 276
Arenicola, structure of, ii. 157
Arragonite, i. 108
external and internal alteration of, by heat, i. 108
Artemia salina, structure of, ii. 210
Artocarpus, or bread-fruit tree, i. 426
Arum, structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 388
water secreted by the, at night, i. 429
Arundo Donax, size of the, i. 386
Ascaris lumbricoïdes, structure and mode of reproduction of, ii. 147
Asci, or sporidia sacs, of Ascomycetes, i. 290
Ascidia virginea, structure, food, and habitat of, ii. 224, 225
Ascidians, or Tunicata, character of, ii. 222
compound or social gelatinous, ii. 222
star-like, ii. 224
Ascomycetes, structure of, i. 290
Ascophora elegans, fructification of, i. 226
Ashes, i. 14
Aspergillus dubius, spores of, i. 286
Aspergillus glaucus, spores of, i. 286
Asphalt, sources of, in various parts of the world, i. 126
Aspidieæ, characters and habitat of the group, i. 346, 348
Asplenieæ, characters and habitat of the group, i. 351, 352, 353
Asplenium lanceolatum, structure, fructification, and habitat of, i.
354
Asplenium marinum, structure and habitat, i. 355, 356
Asplenium Ruta-muraria, or wall rue, structure, habitat, and
reproductive organs of, i. 353, 354
Asteroïdea, or star-fishes, characters of the, ii. 169
fossil star-fishes, ii. 174
Athyrium Filix-fœmina, or lady fern, herbaceous caudex of, i. 340
structure and fructification of, i. 352, 353
Atlantic Ocean, profound depths of, north and south, ii. 49
foraminifera at great depths in the, ii. 49, 50
Atmolysis, or method of analysing gases, i. 111
Atmosphere, effect of the heat radiated by the moon on the higher
regions of the, i. 55
opalescence of the, and its effect on the chemical power of the sun’s
light, i. 55
causes of this opalescence, i. 55
its permeability to every kind of chemical rays, i. 58
Atmosphere of the sun, thirteen terrestrial substances in the, i. 59
Atolls, or coral lagoons, ii. 140
Atoms or molecules of matter, power of atoms of matter on the rays of
the solar beam, i. 58
aggregation of matter by electricity, i. 74
effect of the physical forces on molecular arrangement, i. 90, 91
proof of the individuality and polarity of the atoms of matter, i. 91
effect of motion, i. 91
Atoms: effect of catalysis, i. 91
of matter, i. 2
cohesion of, i. 25
unit of mechanical force, i. 26
the atomic theory, i. 93
the law of definite proportions, in combination and resolution of the
component parts of substances, i. 94
affinity of kind and of degree, i. 95
force of chemical combination, i. 97, 98
relative atomic weights, i. 99
table of atomic weights compared with that of hydrogen, i. 100
relation between the atomic weights and the specific gravities of
substances, i. 100
capacities of atoms for heat and electricity, i. 100, 101
law of equivalency in weight and volume, i. 102, 103
substitution the basis of this law, i. 104
sequence of atomic numbers, i. 105
groups of substances whose atomic weights are in regular arithmetical
series, i. 106
groups of combined atoms called compound radicles, i. 106
the polyatomic theory, i. 107
the force of molecular attraction more powerful than gravitation, i.
109
internal movement of molecules of matter in a gaseous state, i. 113
Aulocantha scolymantha, structure of, ii. 21
Avicula margaritacea, or pearl oyster, nacreous lining of shell of, ii.
234
Azores, the black mildew of the, i. 297
Azote in vegetable organisms, i. 423
Azuline dye, production of, i. 123
B
Babylon, the asphaltic mortar used in building, i. 126
Bacillaria cursoria, motion of, i. 203
Bacillaria paradoxa, motion of, i. 203
Back, Sir George, his arctic journey, i. 308
Bacteria, their structure, size and habitat, ii. 64
Bæomyces, structure of, i. 306
Balanidæ, structure of, ii. 213
Balanus balanoïdes, development of, ii. 216
Balanus culcatus, structure of, ii. 213-215
Baldness caused by fungi, i. 275
Balms, chemical combination forming the principle of the, i. 97
Bamboo, size and structure of, i. 386
Bangia, characters of the genus, i. 222
Bangia ceramicola, structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 223
Bangia ciliaris, structure and reproduction of, i. 223
Bangia fuscopurpurea, structure and reproduction of, i. 223
Barium, i. 3
one of an isomeric triad with calcium and strontium, i. 105
spectrum analysis of the rarefied vapour of, i. 142
effect of high temperature, i. 143
chloride of, spectrum of, i. 146
Bark of trees, structure of, i. 406, 407
Baryta, green coloured light obtained by the combustion of, i. 133
Batarrea, structure of, i. 267
Batrachospermeæ, habitat and structure of, i. 210
Bean, common, fungus of the, i. 280
Beans, caseine obtained from, i. 125
Beer, yeast of, i. 287
Beetles, fungi in the stomachs of, i. 274
Begonia, structure and mode of reproduction, of, i. 376
Bengal, Bay of, causes of the scarlet colour of the, ii. 72
Benzol, combination forming, i. 118, 127
constituents and characteristics of, i. 121
chemical composition of, i. 128
Bergamot, amount of radiant heat absorbed by the perfume of, i. 44
Beroë Forskalia, structure of the, ii. 102, 103
Bhang, whence obtained, i. 427
intoxicating effect of, i. 427
Biddulphia pulchella, structure of, i. 198
Bignonia, fructification of, i. 381, 382
Bilin, polishing slate of, of what it consists, i. 206
Biscay, Bay of, zones of Algæ in the, i. 259
Bisection, propagation of diatoms by, i. 200, 204
Bismuth, diamagnetism of, i. 75, 76
chloride of, spectrum of, i. 146
Bittern, i. 18
Bleaching properties of:—
chlorine, i. 19
bromine, i. 20
iodine, i. 21
Blechnum Spicant, structure, habitat, and mode of reproduction of, i.
356, 357
Blood, formation and functions of, ii. 2, 3
Blue dyes, i. 123, 124
Bog moss, structure, fructification, and habitat of, i. 332
Boleti, habitat and structure of the, i. 265
Boletus æneus, large amount of heat evolved by, i. 265
Bombyx rubi, fungi destructive of, i. 282
Boron, i. 18
whence obtained, i. 18
insolubility of, i. 18
heat at which it burns, i. 18
Botrychium, habitat of the genus, i. 366
Botrychium Lunaria, or moonwort, structure and habitat of, i. 366
Botryllidæ, or star-like Ascidians, ii. 224
Botrytis Bassiana, a fungus parasite of the silk-worm, i. 274
Botrytis curta, development of, i. 294
Botrytis, the cause of the murrain in potatoes, i. 284
structure of, i. 284
Brachionus pala, structure of, ii. 162-166
Brachyura, structure and mode of reproduction of, ii. 189-197
Brackens, i. 358
Brain, structure and functions of the, ii. 8
Branchipes stagnalis, structure of, ii. 210
Bread, fungus which attacks, hot from the oven, i. 296
Bread-fruit tree, food obtained from the, i. 426
Bristle fern, structure and habitat of, i. 361
Bromine, i. 18
whence obtained, i. 18
properties of, i. 20, 22
Professor Schönbein’s views as to, i. 20, 21
spectrum of, i. 21
amount of absorption of radiant heat by, i. 41, 42, 43
atomic weight of, compared with that of hydrogen, i. 100
spectrum analysis of, i. 140
Bryei, characters and structure of the, i. 329
Bryopsis, structure and habitat of, i. 219, 224
Bryozoa, or Polyzoa, characters of, ii. 218
Buckthorn, green dye obtained from, i. 124
Buds of trees, structure and functions of, i. 411
Bugula avicularia, structure of, ii. 220
Bulbous plants, beauty of, i. 387
Bulbous plants, structure and reproduction of, i. 388
Bunt, germination of the spores of, i. 281
C
Cadmium, i. 4
spectrum of volatilized cadmium, i. 64
chloride of, spectrum of, i. 146
Cæomacei, structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 278
Cæsium, i. 3, 4
atomic weight of, compared with that of hydrogen, i. 100
one of an isomeric triad with rubidium and potassium, i. 105
M. Bunsen’s discovery of the metal by spectrum analysis, i. 134, 135
mode of distinguishing it from potassium, i. 136
its properties, i. 136
changes in its spectrum by high temperature, i. 144
Caffeine, the neutral crystallisable principle of coffee, i. 428
Caladium distillatorium, water secreted by at night, i. 429
Calanus, structure and social habits of the, ii. 206
bloody water formed by the, ii. 206
Calanus pontilla, structure of, ii. 206
Calanus sanguineus, structure of, ii. 206
Calcarina, intermediate skeleton of, ii. 42, 43
Calcium, i. 3, 4
one of an isomeric triad with strontium and barium, i. 105
spectrum analysis of the rarefied vapour of, i. 142
effect of high temperature, i. 143
chloride of, spectrum of, i. 146
Caliciei, characters and habitat of the order, i. 309
Calicium inquinans, spores of, i. 309
Calicium tympanellum, organs of reproduction of, i. 301
Calico-printing, use of oxalic acid in, i. 116
Callithamnion, structure of the genus, i. 231
Callithamnion corymbosum, structure and reproductive organs of, i. 231,
232
Callithamnion sparsum, structure of, i. 231
Calorescence, property of, in some solids and liquids, i. 61
Calyx of flowering plants, i. 378
Cambium of plants, structure of, i. 407, 417
Camptosorus, or walking fern, structure and mode of reproduction of, i.
352
Campylopus lamellinervis, leaves of, i. 330
Canada, enormous quantities of petroleum in, i. 126
Caoutchouc, whence obtained, i. 426
Carbazotic acid, constituents of, i. 121
Carbohydrates, combinations forming the, i. 116
Carbolic acid, combination forming, i. 107, 120, 121, 128
its property of arresting putrefaction, i. 121
becomes solid when dried and purified, i. 121
Carbon, i. 13
allotropism of, i. 15
at variance with the geometrical system of crystallization, i. 15
analogy between carbon and silicon, i. 18
effect of the combination of the atoms of carbon and oxygen in
combustion, i. 30
property of the bisulphide of, in the transmission of heat, i. 36
effect of a discharge of the nitric acid electric battery, with
carbon balls on the terminals, i. 84
will not combine directly with hydrogen, i. 97
atomic weight of, compared with that of hydrogen, i. 100
spectra of the compounds of carbon, i. 146
bisulphide of, absorption of radiant heat by, i. 40
opacity of, to the invisible rays, i. 65
in coal gas, i. 118
how freed from coal gas, i. 118
Carbonic acid gas, i. 14
reduced to a solid, i. 15
weight of the atoms of, compared with those of hydrogen, i. 99
absorption of radiant heat by, i. 41
how freed from coal gas, i. 118
one of the illuminants in coal gas, i. 118
Carbonic oxide, absorption of radiant heat by, i. 41
action of different thicknesses of, on radiant heat, i. 48
the poisonous quality of coal gas, i. 118
Carcinus mœnas, structure and reproduction of, ii. 192, 195
moulting and power of reproducing limbs, ii. 197
Cardium, or cockle, structure and mode of reproduction of, ii. 230, 231
Carpenteria, structure and habitat of the, ii. 57
a link between the Foraminifera and the sponges, ii. 57
Carrigeen, or Irish moss, structure and mode of reproduction of, i.
235, 236
Caryophyllia Smithii, its formidable artillery, ii. 133, 134
structure and development of, ii. 134, 135
Caryophyllia Smithii, locomotion of, ii. 135
Caseine, or cheese, used as a mordant, i. 125
obtained also from pease and beans, i. 125
formation and structure of, in vegetable organisms, i. 423
Cassava, or Manihot, food obtained from the, i. 426
Cassis, or helmet shells, structure of, ii. 234
Catalysis, effect of, on molecular arrangement, i. 91
instances of, i. 91, 92
Catasetum, structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 601
Caterpillars, fungus destructive of, i. 282
Caulerpas, where found, i. 219
Celidium, organs of reproduction of, i. 307
Cellipora, structure of, ii. 218
Cells, vegetable. _See_ Vegetation
Cellulose, produced by plants, i. 419
Cellularia ciliata, structure of, ii. 219, 220
Cephalopoda, naked, characters of, ii. 245
Ceramiaceæ, beauty and habitat of, i. 231
characters of the genus, i. 232
Ceramium ciliatum, structure and organs of reproduction of, i. 232
Ceratopteridineæ, or Parkeriaceæ, characters, structure, and habitat of
the group, i. 345, 363
Cerealia, the grasses from whence they were derived unknown, i. 383
Cestum Veneris, structure and mode of reproduction of, ii. 103
Ceterach, characters of the genus, i. 354
structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 354
brought by ocean currents to Europe, i. 355
Ceterach officinarum, or scaly spleen-wort, structure, organs of
fructification, and habitat of, i. 354, 355
Cetraria, or Iceland moss, characters of the genus, i. 304
Cetraria tristis, structure of, i. 304
Ceylon, the black mildew of, i. 297
Chamomile flowers, amount of radiant heat absorbed by the perfume of,
i. 44
Chantarelle, veins of the, i. 264
Characeæ, structure and habitat of, i. 312
fluid currents of, i. 312, 313
reproductive organs of, i. 313
Chara fragilis, structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 314, 315
Charcoal, i. 13
as a conductor of electricity, i. 32
Cheese, blue and brick-red moulds on, i. 285
Cheilanthes odora, scent of, i. 347
Chelidonine, whence obtained, i. 427
Chemistry, laws placing it on a strictly numerical basis, i. 93
Chimneys of bad construction, i. 14
Chiodecton monostichum, structure and habitat of, i. 309
Chiodecton myrticola, habitat of, i. 309
Chirodota, structure and habitat of, ii. 186
Chirodota lævis, wheels of the, ii. 186
Chirodota myriotrochus, wheels of the, ii. 186
Chloride of lime, i. 19
Chlorides, spectra of the, i. 146, 147
Chlorine, i. 18
whence obtained, i. 18, 19
properties of, i. 19, 22
affinity for hydrogen, i. 19, 20
substances produced by the combination of chlorine with oxygen, i. 20
and with nitrogen, and with sulphur, i. 20
Professor Schönbein’s views as to, i. 20, 21
spectrum of, i. 21
absorption of radiant heat by, i. 41, 42
its affinity for iodine, i. 96
atomic weight of, compared with that of hydrogen, i. 100
spectrum analysis of, i. 140
Chlorine gas, substances which take fire spontaneously in, i. 19
combustion of, i. 19
Chlorospermeæ, characters of, i. 180
structure and development of, i. 181
Chondrus crispus, or Carrigeen, structure and mode of propagation of,
i. 235, 236
effect of fresh water on the form of, i. 243
Chorda filum, structure and habitat of, i. 245
Chordaria divaricata, spore cysts of, i. 246
Chordariæ, structure of, i. 245
Chrysophonic acid, whence obtained, i. 303
Chylocladia kaliformis, structure and mode of propagation of, i. 235
Cibotium Barometz, caudex of, i. 350
Cidaris, spines of the, ii. 180
Cinchoneæ, alkaloids obtained from, i. 427
Cinchonine, structure of, and whence obtained, i. 427
Cirripedia, characters of the, ii. 213
Cladocarpi, characters of the group, i. 328
Cladocera, characters of the order, ii. 208
Cladonia, structure of, i. 306
Cladophora, structure of the genus, i. 222
Cladophora pellucida, structure of, i. 222
Claudea, structure of, i. 242
Clavariei, structure and habitat of, i. 266
Clio pyramidata, structure of, ii. 242, 243
Cliona, structure and burrowing apparatus of, ii. 60
Clione borealis, structure and habitat of, ii. 243
fossil remains of, ii. 244
Closterium, double circulation of the internal fluid in, i. 193
Closterium lunula, structure and development of, i. 193
Cloud, force of the chemical combination requisite to form a, i. 98
Cloves, oil of, amount of radiant heat absorbed by the perfume of, i.
44
Club mosses. _See_ Lycopodiaceæ
Coal, i. 13
effect of the consumption of a pound of, in a steam-engine, i. 29, 30
energy in abeyance in the coal existing in the whole globe, i. 30
Coal gas, i. 117, 118
poisonous quality of, i. 118
explosive quality of, i. 118
impurities from which it is freed, i. 118
uses of the black fœtid gas water resulting from the distillation of
coals, i. 119
Coal tar, i. 120
substances produced from, by distillation, i. 120
colours, i. 121, 122
Cobalt, i. 4, 5
crystals of, formed artificially by electricity, i. 74
effect of heat in the magnetism of, i. 77
Coccocarpei, characters of, i. 307
Coccocarpia smaragdina, section of, i. 300
Coccospheres, found at a vast depth in the ocean, ii. 51
Cockle, structure and mode of life of the, ii. 230, 231
Codium, structure and habitat of, i. 219-224
Codium Bursa, structure of, i. 224
Codium tomentosum, structure of, i. 214
Coffee, active principle of, i. 428
Cohesion, properties of, i. 25
in solids, i. 25
in liquids, i. 25
Cohesion: reciprocal attractions between solids and liquids, i. 25
instance of the power of the cohesive force, i. 91
Colchicum, or meadow saffron, mode of reproduction of, i. 388
poisonous alkaloid obtained from, i. 427
Collemacei, structure and habitat of, i. 307
Colloid bodies, i. 109, 110
less diffusible than crystalloids, i. 109
permeable to solutions of crystalloids, but impermeable to solutions
of colloids, i. 110
characteristics of colloids, i. 111
Collomia grandiflora, fructification of, i. 380
Colocasia, water secreted by, i. 430
Colour, causes of, in flowers, green leaves, dyed cloth, gold, and
copper, i. 35, 36
Colouring matter of flowers and plants, i. 428, 429
Comatula, structure of, ii. 175, 176
Combination, chemical, i. 94
the law of definite proportions, i. 94, 95
force of, i. 97, 98
Combustion, effect of, in the consumption of coal in the steam-engine,
i. 29, 30
combustion a case of impetus, i. 30
Comets, spectra of, i. 159
_note_, 163
Conferva glomerata, development of, i. 207
Confervaceæ, habitat of, i. 206, 207
structure and development of, i. 207
reproduction of, i. 208
modes of action of the vital forces of, i. 210
Confervæ, cells and development of, i. 171
Confervæ, marine, structure, habitat, and reproduction of, i. 221, 222.
Conidium, or spore-dust cell, of fungi, i. 279
Coniomycetes, characters of the family of, i. 275
Conjugatæ, structure of the genus, i. 216
Conjugation, propagation of diatoms by, i. 200, 204
Constantinea rosa marina, i. 235
Constantinea sitchensis, i. 235
Copepoda, characters of the, ii. 204
Copper, properties of, i. 4
colour of, in reflected and absorbed light, i. 35, 36
its power of transmitting electricity, i. 90
atomic weight of, compared with that of hydrogen, i. 100
spectra of copper and its compounds, i. 145, 146
Copper, peroxide of, combination forming, i. 104
Coral, structure of the coral polypes, ii. 133, 134
composition of the stony substance of, ii. 137
reef-building corals, ii. 138
red, ii. 125
white, ii. 127
Corallina officinalis, mode of reproduction of, i. 230
structure and development of, i. 240
Corallines, structure and mode of propagation of, i. 240
Corallium Johnstoni, structure and habitat of, ii. 127
Corallium rubrum, structure and mode of reproduction of, ii. 125, 126,
127
coral fishing in the Mediterranean, ii. 126
Corallium secundum, structure of, ii. 127
Cordyceps miliaris, characters of, i. 283, 293
Cordyceps purpurea, the second form of ergot, i. 293
structure of, i. 293
Cordyceps Robertsii, form of, i. 293
Coremium glaucum, production of, i. 287
Corolla of flowering plants, i. 378
Corundum, i. 4
Corynidæ, characters of the family, ii. 90
Cosmarium, structure and development of, i. 194
Cotton, dyes for, i. 125
necessity for mordants for fixing cotton dyes, i. 125
enormous manufacture of cotton in Britain, i. 125
Cowries, shells of, ii. 234, 235
Cow-tree, beverage obtained from the, i. 426
Crabs, structure and mode of reproduction of, ii. 189-197
hermit, structure of, ii. 197
king, fossil, ii. 211
spider, structure of, ii. 211
Creosote, i. 121
its property of preventing the decay of organic matter, i. 121
Cressylic acid, how produced, i. 120, 121
chemical composition of, i. 128
Cristallaria compressa, form of, ii. 28
structure of, ii. 39
Cristata, siliceous skeleton of, ii. 60
Crocus, structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 387, 388
Cruoria pellita, tetraspores of, i. 237
Crustacea, characters of the, ii. 188
fossil crustacea, ii. 211
Crustacea, Decapod. _See_ Decapods
Cryptogamia, spores of, i. 177, 178
Cryptonemiaceæ, multitude of forms of, i. 234
structure of, i. 234
Crystal, rock, its transmission of chemical solar rays, i. 65
absorption of invisible rays by, i. 65
change of position of the optical axes of the crystals of, by heat,
i. 73
Crystallization, relation of polarization of light and heat to
crystallization, i. 70, 71
axes of symmetry of crystals, i. 71, 72
change of position of the optical axes of crystals by heat, i. 72
effect of pressure on the optical axes of crystals, i. 73
influence on the aggregation of, i. 73, 74
probable origin of the crystalline form, i. 74
causes of the variety of forms assumed by matter, i. 74
deviation of dimorphous crystals from the general law of
crystallization, i. 75
proof of the connection between the magnetic forces and crystalline
structure, i. 76
conditions of the position which crystals take with regard to the
magnetic force, i. 76
Crystalloids, or crystalline substances, diffusibility of, i. 109
Crystals, water an essential element in, i. 107
alterations in crystals by heat, i. 108
Cunina octonaria, larvæ of, parasites of the Turritopsis nutricula, ii.
100
Cusconine, structure of, and whence obtained, i. 427
Cuthbert’s, St., beads, ii. 175
Cutaneous diseases caused by fungi, i. 274
Cutleria multifida, structure, mode of reproduction, and habitat of, i.
248
Cuttle fish, structure of the, ii. 245-247
Cyanogen, combines with other substances and simple atoms, as if it
were a simple element, i. 106
combination forming it, i. 106
Cyathea medullaris, used as food in New Zealand, i. 360
Cyatheæ, structure of, i. 360
Cyatheineæ, characters of the group, i. 344
sporangia of, i. 343
structure and fructification of, i. 360
Cycloclypeus, structure and habitat of, ii. 48
Cyclops quadricornis, structure and mode of reproduction of, ii. 205,
206
Cydippe pileus, structure of, ii. 101, 102
Cymothea, their food and mode of taking it, ii. 203
Cyprææ, or cowries, shells of, ii. 234, 235
Cypris, structure and mode of reproduction of, ii. 207, 208
Cystopteris, characters and habitat of the genus, i. 348, 349
Cystopus candidus, or Uredo candida, structure, habitat, and mode of
reproduction of, i. 278
Cystopteris fragilis, or brittle bladder fern, structure and habitat
of, i. 349
Cystoseira, structure and habitat of, i. 255
Cystoseireæ, habitat of, i. 255
Cyttaria, the food of the Fuegians, i. 292
habitat of the, i. 292
D
Dactylocalyx pumiceus, spicula and skeleton of, ii. 60
Daphnia pulex, or arborescent water-flea, structure and mode of
reproduction of, ii. 208
Dasya, structure of, i. 241, 242
Dasyglœa, structure of, i. 215
Datura sanguinea, intoxicating effect produced by a drink obtained
from, i. 427
Davallia canariensis, or hare’s-foot fern, i. 351
Davallieæ, structure and habitat of, i. 350, 351
Dead bodies, agents in the decomposition of our, ii. 67
Decapoda, structure of, ii. 245
Decapods, tribes of the, ii. 188
characters of the, ii. 189
Delesseria alata, structure of, i. 243
Delesseria angustissima, structure of, i. 243
Delesseria sanguinea, structure and habitat of, i. 239
Dematiei, structure of, i. 283
Dendritina elegans, form of, ii. 28
structure of, ii. 32
Dendritine variety of the Peneroplis, characters and habitat of, ii. 32
fossils of, ii. 33
Dennstædtia, indusium of, i. 350
Deparia prolifera, sorus and indusium of, i. 350
Desmidiaceæ, structure and development of, i. 191 _et seq._
their habitat, i. 195
Dextrine, production of in plants, i. 421
Dialysis, as a method of separating and analysing substances, i. 108
what constitutes dialysis, i. 110
Prof. Graham’s instrument for, i. 110
an extraordinary result of, i. 110
Diamagnetism, i. 75
Diamond, i. 13, 15
heat required to consume the, i. 15
crystallisation of the, i. 15
its resistance to electricity, i. 90
Dianthine, production of, i. 127
Diastase, production of, in plants, i. 420
Diatoma vulgare, structure and development of, i. 197
Diatomaceæ, or Brittleworts, found all over the globe, i. 196, 204
variety of forms of, i. 196
structure of, i, 197
development of, i. 200
social plants, i. 205
food for many aquatic animals, i. 205
fossil deposits of shells of, i. 206
enormous geological changes caused by, i. 206
Dicksonia antarctica, structure of, i. 349
Dicksonia lanata, structure of, i. 349
Dicksonia squarrosa, habitat of, i. 349
Dicksonieæ, i. 349
structure of, i. 350
Dicotyledonous, or exogenous, plants, structure and mode of
reproduction of, i. 404-428
Dicranei, structure of, i. 329
Dictyopodium trilobum, structure and habitat of, ii. 20
Dictyota, structure of the genus, i. 246
Dictyota dichotoma, structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 247
Dictyoteæ, structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 246
Dictyurus purpurascens, structure of, i. 242
Difflugia, structure and minuteness of the shells of, ii. 22
their architecture, ii. 23
Difflugia pyriformis, structure, and habitat, and mode of propagation
of, ii. 22, 23
Diffusibility, most substances differ in, i. 109
partial decomposition of definite chemical compounds by, i. 109
reciprocal diffusion of gases through porous plates, i. 111-113
the diffusing instrument used by Prof. Graham, i. 112
Digestion, chemical powers causing, ii. 4
Dimorphism, contrasted with isomorphism, ii. 99
Diphyidæ, structure and habitat of the, ii. 103
Diplazieæ, characters of the group, i. 352
Diplazium, structure and fructification of, i. 352
Distillation, ordinary, i. 117
destructive, i. 117
of coal, i. 117
Distomata, characters of the, ii. 146
Dracæna Draco, or dragon tree of Teneriffe, i. 387
Drummond’s light, how produced, i. 30
the continuous spectra of, i. 132
Dry rot in wood, cause of, i. 266
on various substances, i. 285
Dulses, red, i. 235
Dumontia filiformis, structure of, i. 235
D’Urvillæa, structure, fructification, and habitat of, i. 256
Dyes obtained from aniline, i. 122-124
vegetable dyes, i. 124
mordants for cotton when dyed, i. 125
effects of electricity and the east wind on the process of dyeing, i.
126
obtained from preparations of petroleum, i. 127
obtained from lichens, i. 303
blue dye obtained from some club mosses, i. 374
E
Ear-shell, structure of the, ii. 234
Earth, quantity of heat which would be generated if it were arrested in
its orbit, i. 27
and if it struck the sun, i. 28
Earth light, causes of, i. 68
Earth-worm, structure and food of the, ii. 151, 152
Echinodermata asteroïdea, structure, mode of reproduction, and habitat
of, ii. 169-174
Echinodermata crinoïdea, or stone-lilies, structure, habitat, and mode
of reproduction of, ii. 175, 176
fossil remains of, ii. 175
Echinodermata Echinoïdea, structure and mode of reproduction of, ii.
177-182
Echinodermata: fossil Echinidæ, ii. 182, 183
Echinodermata Holothuroïdea, structure and mode of reproduction of, ii.
183
Echinodermata Sipunculidæ, characters of, ii. 186, 187
Echinodermata Synaptidæ, characters of the order of, ii. 184, 185
Echinus, structure of, ii. 176, 177
Echinus miliaris, spines of the, ii. 181
Ecklonia, structure and habitat of, i. 252
Ecklonia buccinalis, structure of, i. 250
Ectocarpeæ, form, structure, and habitat of, i. 244, 245
Ectocarpus pulsillus, fruit of, i. 245
Effusion of gases by pressure, i. 109, 110
Prof. Graham’s experiments, i. 113
Electricity, i. 30
permanent and regular current of, over the earth, in the atmosphere
and in the surface of the earth, i. 31
thunder and lightning, i. 31
force exerted in the creation of the deep, i. 31
the voltaic battery and the electro-magnetic induction apparatus, i.
31, 32
reciprocity of action of electricity and heat, i. 31
electricity produced by chemical action, and conversely, i. 32
intensity of the light and heat of the electric spark, i. 32
produced by fifty Bunsen elements, i. 32
conducting power of charcoal, i. 32
air and glass non-conductors, i. 32
proof of the correlation of heat and electricity, i. 33
motion of the atoms of a conducting wire during the passage of an
electric current, i. 33
effect on a conducting wire of an invariable transit of electricity
sent from the same pole of an inductive apparatus, i. 33
difference between electric and magnetic currents, i. 33
influence of electricity on the aggregation of matter, i. 74
ratio between the specific heat and weight of the atoms of matter, i.
74
influence of magnetism on the stratified appearance of the electric
light, i. 78
extreme heat and light of electric discharges, i. 84
the arc discharge, i. 84
cause of the stratified discharge, i. 85
effect of varied intensity on electric discharges, i. 86, 87
effect of varied resistance on electric discharges, i. 88, 89
varied facility with which substances transmit electricity, i. 90
illustration of the action of electricity and magnetism on light, i.
90
instances of the correlation of electricity and heat, i. 91
voltaic electricity, and its combination and resolution of substances
according to the law of definite proportions, i. 94
Faraday’s law of the quantity of electricity required to separate and
unite the same atoms, i. 94
superiority of voltaic over static electricity, i. 95
electricity the most powerful instrument of analysis, i. 95
capacity of atoms for electricity, i. 100
a given quantity of electricity required to separate combined
substances into their component parts, i. 101
spectrum analysis of the electric spark, i. 138
development of electricity in plants and flowers, i. 430
electric currents in the nerves and muscles of animals, ii. 7
Electro-chemical action in heterogeneous atoms of matter, i. 95
Electro-magnetic induction apparatus, i. 31
Ruhmkorff’s, i. 32
Elvellacei, characters of the, i. 290
Empusa Muscæ, or fly fungus, i. 274
Encalypta vulgaris, organs of fructification of, i. 326
Encrinites, structure of, ii. 175
Endocarpei, structure and habitat of, i. 310
Endocarpon lacteum, structure and organs of reproduction of, i. 299
Endogenous plants, i. 383-403
Enteromorpha, characters of the genus, i. 223
Enteromorpha intestinalis, structure and habitat of, i. 223, 224
Entomostraca, characters of the, ii. 203
Entophytes, characters of the group of, i. 275, 276
sporangia, or spore-cells, of, i. 279
Entozoa, characters of the order of, ii. 144
transformations of the young of the, ii. 146
Eolis, the crowned, structure of, ii. 240, 241
Eozoön Canadense, may be regarded as the first appearance of animal
life upon the earth, ii. 54
found in fundamental quartz rocks, ii. 54
structure of, ii. 55
range of its existence, ii. 56
Epipactis palustris, structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 397, 398
Epiphytes, characters of the group of, i. 275
Epithemia, mode of development of, i. 202
Epizoa, or suctorial crustacea, structure, habitat, and mode of
reproduction of, ii. 212
Equisetaceæ, or horse-tails, characters of, i. 367
contrasted with ferns, i. 369
large quantity of silex in, i. 369
size and habitat of fossil and existing species, i. 369
Equisetum giganteum, structure and fructification of, i. 368
Ergot, Cordyceps the second form of, i. 293
Errantia, structure and habitat of the, ii. 156, 157, 161
Erysiphe, mildew formed by, i. 295
Eschara, structure of, ii. 218
Ether, sulphuric absorption of radiant heat by, i. 40
Eucamptodon perichætialis, leaves of, i. 330
Eucyrtidium, structure of, ii. 20
Euglena acus, structure of, ii. 72
Euglena sanguinea, structure of, ii. 72
Euglena, structure of the genus, ii. 72
Euglyphæ, structure and habitat of, ii. 22
Eunice, structure of, ii. 157
mode of reproduction of, ii. 160
Euparmeliaceæ, characters of the group, i. 304
Euphorbiaceæ, or spurgeworts, poisons and food supplied by the, i. 425,
426
Evernia flavicans, colour of, i. 303
Evernia jubata, structure of, i. 302
Evernia vulpina, i. 303
brown dye obtained from, i. 303
Exchange, law of, i. 35
independent proofs of the, i. 35, _note_
Exidia Auricula Judæ, or Jew’s Ear fungus, structure and fructification
of, i. 266
Excœcaria Agallocha, poison of the, i. 426
Exogenous plants, i. 404-408
Eyes of man, fungi in, i. 275
F
Fairy rings of the fields, i. 262
Faujasina, structure of, ii. 45
Felspar, fluorescence of, i. 66
Fermentation, fungi producing, i. 286-288
minuteness and lowness of organization of the ferments, ii. 68
habitat of the, ii. 68
Fibrin, formation and structure of, in vegetable organisms, i. 423
Fig, common, juices of fruit of, changed into sugar, i. 426
poison of the white juice of the, i. 426
Filariæ, structure and mode of reproduction of, ii. 147
Filices, or ferns, structure and habitat of, i. 335
range of non-arborescent ferns, i. 335
number of species in North America, Britain, and in other places, i.
336
development of spores, i. 336, 337
roots and stems of, i. 339
leaf-stalks of, i. 340
fronds of, i. 340, 341
structure of tree-ferns, i. 341
fructification of, i. 341
sori, i. 341, 342
sporangia, i. 342, 343
foundation of the systematic arrangement of the ferns, i. 343
annulate and exannulate ferns, i. 344
Film fern, structure and habitat of, i. 362
Fire-damp of coal mines, i. 118
Fireworks, mode of the obtaining of different colours in, i. 132
Fish, phosphorescence of, i. 67
Flowering fern, i. 364
Flowers, absorption of radiant heat by the perfumes of, i. 44
weight of the perfumes, i. 45
chemical combinations forming the perfumes of, i. 97
general structure of flowering plants, i. 378
chemical nature of the colours of, i. 428, 429
Fluorescence, property of, in some solids and liquids, i. 60
Sir D. Brewster’s discovery of, i. 66
Professor Stokes’s examination of the fluorescent spectra of metals,
i. 64
employed in tracing substances in impure chemical solutions, i. 67
rapid absorption accompanied by copious fluorescence, and the
converse, i. 67
essential difference between fluorescence and phosphorescence, i. 67,
68
Fluorine, i. 18
Fluor spar, i. 18
crystals of, i. 18
acid obtained from, i. 18
fluorescence of, i. 60, 66
absorption of invisible rays by, i. 65
phosphorescence of, i. 66
Flustra, or sea-mat, structure of the, ii. 218
Fly fungus, i. 274
Fontinalei, structure and habitat of, i. 331
Food, miraculous descent of, i. 305
lichens as, i. 305, 308
importance of, to the animal frame, ii. 3
Foot-pound, the, of Mr. Joule, i. 26
unit of mechanical force, i. 26
Foraminifera, structure and geological importance of, ii. 27
various forms of, ii. 28
order of porcellanous foraminifera, ii. 30
order of arenaceous foraminifera, ii. 36
order of vitreous foraminifera, ii. 37
abundance of fossil foraminifera in the sedimentary strata, ii. 52
mode of obtaining casts of, ii. 53
comparison of foraminifera recent and fossil, ii. 53
the Eozoön Canadense, ii. 54
the Carpenteria a link between the foraminifera and sponges, ii. 57
Force, i. 23
store of, eternal and unchangeable, i. 24, 25
cohesion, i. 25
in solids, i. 25
in liquids, i. 25
reciprocal attraction between solids and liquids, i. 25
unit of mechanical force, i. 26
heat generated by impetus, i. 27
unit, or mechanical equivalent of heat, i. 29
combustion a case of impetus, i. 30
energy existing in the coal fields on the globe, i. 30
magnetism and electricity, i. 30
influence of force on the aggregation of matter, i. 73
power of electricity in this respect, i. 74
relations between the force of magnetism and atoms of matter, i. 75
effect of the physical forces on molecular arrangement, i. 91
electricity, i. 91
motion, i. 91
catalysis, i. 91
force of chemical combination, i. 97, 98
relation between chemical affinity and mechanical force, i. 98
Formic acid, synthetical formation of, i. 424
Fragillaria, development of, i. 201
Fraunhofer’s lines, i. 129
Frond, or thallus, of lichens, i. 301
of ferns, i. 340, 341
Fruit, chemical combinations forming the perfumes of, i. 97
preserved, greenish and grey moulds on, i. 285
fungus on decayed, i. 290
Fucaceæ, structure and fructification of, i. 244, 250, 251
Fuci, sexual fructification of, i. 253
Fucoideæ, habitat of some, i. 256
Fucus platycarpus, male and female cells of, i. 253, 254
Fucus vesiculosus, or bladder-wrack, structure and fructification of,
i. 252, 253
form of, in the Mediterranean, i. 258
Fuegians, staple food of the, i. 292
Funaria hygrometrica, structure of, i. 324, 327
Fungi, enormous numbers of, i. 260
structure of, i. 260
two principal groups of, i. 260
families of, i. 261, _et seq._
poisonous matter in all, i. 264
luminous, i. 264
stems of, i. 268
spawn of the gelatinous or creamy fungi, i. 269
universality of the lower fungi, i. 273
destruction caused by them, i. 273
parasitic fungi, i. 274
conidium, or spore-dust cell, i. 279
propagation of fungi by fragments of spawn, i. 281
extreme minuteness and profusion of fungi, i. 297
sudden and often disastrous appearance of the lower fungi, i. 297
conditions necessary to the development of fungi, i. 297
Furcellaria fastigiata, mode of reproduction of, i. 229
structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 235, 238
Fusarium tremelloides, its identity with the nettle Peziza, i. 292
G
Galeolaria lutea, structure, development, and mode of reproduction of,
ii. 107, 108
Garancine, from what obtained, i. 124
Gas coal. _See_ Coal gas.
Gases, absorption and radiation of radiant heat by gases and vapours,
i. 38
relation between the density of the gas and the quantity of heat
extinguished or absorbed, i. 40
experiments on coloured gases, i. 40
table showing the absorption of various gases at a common pressure,
or tension of one atmosphere, i. 41
table of absorption for one inch of tension, i. 4
causes of the difference between the absorptive power of compound and
simple gases and vapours, i. 42
radiation equal to absorption, i. 46
action of different thicknesses of the same gas or vapour on radiant
heat, i. 47
dynamic absorption and radiation, i. 49
great opacity of a gas to radiations from the same gas, i. 52
the specific heat of compound gases generally greater than that of
their component elements, i. 101
law of equivalency in weight of, i. 102
diffusion of, i. 111
Prof. Graham’s experiments, i. 112
effusion of, 109, 110, 113
Prof. Graham’s experiments, i. 113
atmolysis, or method of analysing gases, i. 111, 112, 114
internal movement of molecules of matter in a gaseous state, i. 113
coal gas, i. 117
spectrum analysis of, i. 139
oxygen, i. 139
hydrogen, i. 139
nitrogen, i. 140
chlorine, i. 140
bromine, i. 140
iodine, i. 140
superposed spectra of rarefied compound gases, i. 141
researches of M.M. Bunsen and Kirchhoff, i. 141
spectra of the rarefied vapours of:—
sodium, i. 141
iron, i. 142
calcium, i. 142
strontium, i. 142
lithium, i. 142
barium, i. 142
magnesium, i. 142
effect of high temperature on various spectra, i. 142, 143
effects of pressure on various spectra, i. 145
Gasteromycetes, characters of the family, i. 267
Gastropoda, structure of the shells of, ii. 234
structure of the animal, ii. 235
tongue of the, ii. 239
Gelidiaceæ, structure and mode of propagation of, i. 238
Gelidium corneum, structure and mode of propagation of, i. 238
form of, i. 243
Gems, crystals of, formed artificially by electricity, i. 74
Geranium, amount of radiant heat absorbed by the perfume of, i. 44
Glass, a non-conductor of electricity, i. 32
property of, in regard to the transmission of light, i. 36
impervious to chemical solar rays, i. 63
Gleichenineæ, sporangia of, i. 34
structure and habitat of, i. 344, 360
Globigerina bulloïdes, form of, ii. 28
Globigerina, structure of the genus, ii. 40, 41
Globigerinæ, abundance of at vast depths in the ocean, ii. 49-51
Globigerinidæ, characters of the family of, ii. 40
Glycerine, chemical combination forming, i. 97
Glyphidei, characters of the order, i. 309
Glucinum, i. 4
Gold, colour of, in reflected and in absorbed light, i. 35, 36
crystals of, formed artificially by electricity, i. 74
Gonidia, propagation of diatoms by, i. 202, 204
of lichens, i. 300
Goniometer, i. 38
Gorgonia graminea, structure and habitat of, ii. 124, 125
Gorgonia verrucosa, structure, habitat, and mode of reproduction of,
ii. 124
Gorgoniidæ, structure and mode of reproduction of, ii. 123, 124
the three natural groups of, ii. 124
Gracilaria compressa, i. 239
Gracilaria lichenoides, or Ceylon moss, i. 239
Gracilaria armata, mode of reproduction of, i. 230
Graminaceæ, structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 385, 386
Grammatophora serpentina, structure and development of, i. 197
Graphidei, characters of the order, i. 308
habitat of the, i. 309
Graphite, form of the crystals of, i. 15
natural, little or no porosity of, i. 112
porosity of artificial graphite, i. 112
Grasses, silica in the stalks and leaves of the, i. 17
Grasses, structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 385-387
Gravitation, force of, less powerful than that of molecular attraction,
i. 109
Gravity, specific, of atoms, i. 100
Green dye, obtained from the buckthorn, i. 124
Griffithsia, structure, habitat, and organs of reproduction of, i. 233
Grimmiei, structure of the tribe, i. 329
Grinnelia americana, structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 230, 239
Gromia oviformis, structure of, ii. 26, 27
Gromiæ, structure of the genus, ii. 25-27
Guano, mauve dye obtained from, i. 125
Guernsey, richness of the iodine obtained from the sea-weeds of, i. 258
Guinea worm, structure and mode of reproduction of, ii. 147
Gums, formation of, i. 422
Gymnogramma rutæfolia, remarkable distribution of, i. 336
Gyrophora, structure of the genus, i. 308
H
Hairs of plants, structure of, i. 411
Halichondria panicea, mode of propagation of, ii. 60, 61
Haliomma, structure of, ii. 21
Haliotis splendens, or ear-shell, structure of, ii. 234
Haliseris, structure of, i. 247
Halogens, spectra of the, i. 146
Halurus, structure and mode of propagation of, i. 233
Hare’s-foot fern, i. 351
Hart’s-tongue fern, caudex of, i. 340
structure, habitat, and fructification of, i. 351, 352
Heart, and organs representing it in the lower animals, ii. 4
Heat generated by impetus, i. 27
quantity of heat which would be generated if it were arrested in its
orbit, i. 27
probable cause of the heat of the sun, i. 28
effect of the absorption of heat on a body in expansion and
contraction, i. 28
specific heat, i. 28
mechanical equivalent of heat, i. 29
causes of the heat which is the motive force of the steam-engine,
i. 29
reciprocal action of heat and electricity, i. 31
intensity of the heat of the electric spark, i. 32
proof of the correlation of heat and electricity, i. 33
constancy in the amount and refrangibility of the light and heat
absorbed and radiated, i. 34
property of some substances in the transmission of heat, i. 36
substances which transmit radiant heat freely but radiate badly, and
vice versâ, i. 37
Tyndall’s experiments on the radiation and absorption of radiant heat
by gases and vapours, i. 38
relation between the density of the gas and the quantity of heat
extinguished or absorbed, i. 40
absorption of radiant heat by the vapours of volatile liquids, i. 40
Prof. Tyndall’s experiments showing the radiation to be equal to the
absorption of radiant heat, i. 46
action of different thicknesses of the same gas or vapour on radiant
heat, i. 47
dynamic absorption and radiation, i. 49
dynamical evolution of heat, i. 52
experiment illustrating the change of heat into light, i. 62
polarization of heat and light, i. 68, 69
by reflection and refraction, i. 69
effect of heat on the magnetism of iron, nickel, and cobalt, i. 77
extreme heat and light of electric discharges, i. 84
instances of the correlation of electricity and heat, i. 91
capacity of atoms for heat, i. 100
Mr. Croll’s experiments, i. 101
effects of heat on vegetation, i. 169
large amount of heat evolved by vegetables, i. 265
cause of animal heat, ii. 63
Helix, or snail, tentacles of, ii. 236
Helix aspersa, structure of the tongue of, ii. 237
Helix pomatia, teeth of, ii. 237
Hellebore, white, poisonous alkaloid of, i. 427
Helmet shell, structure of, ii. 234
Helminthosporium Hoffmanni, spores of, i. 285, 286
Helminthosporium nodosum, spores of, i. 286.
Helvella, structure and habitat of, i. 291
Hepaticæ, or liverworts, characters of the, i. 316
Hepialus virescens of New Zealand, Cordyceps Robertsii of the, i. 293
Herschel, Sir W., his discovery of invisible rays of light of high
heating power, i. 36
Hewardia, structure of, i. 359
Himanthalia lorea, structure, fructification and habitat of, i. 256
Holly fern, structure of, i. 347
Holothuridæ, or sea-cucumbers, structure and mode of reproduction of,
ii. 183-186
Hop, fungus constituting the mildew of the, i. 295
Hormosiphon arcticus, wide distribution of, i. 212
Hormotrichum, structure of the genus, i. 222
Hormotrichum collabens, structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 222
Hyacinth, structure and mode of reproduction of the, i. 388
Hyalæa, structure of the, ii. 242
Hydra fusca, structure and mode of propagation of, ii. 84, 85
Hydra viridis, structure and mode of propagation of, ii. 85
Hydra vulgaris, structure and mode of propagation of, ii. 85
Hydræ, structure of, ii. 81, 84
mode of propagation of, ii. 84
compound fresh-water Hydræ, ii. 85
development of medusa-buds, ii. 95
alternation of generation of hydræ and medusæ, ii. 96
Hydraulic machine, bog moss acts as a, i. 333
Hydridæ, characters of the group, ii. 81
Hydrobromic acid, amount of absorption of radiant heat by, i. 42
Hydrochloric acid, absorption of radiant heat by, i. 41, 42
Hydrodictyon utriculatum, structure and habitat of, i. 211
reproduction and development of, i. 211
Hydrofluoric acid, i. 18
Hydrogen gas, i. 11
affinity of chlorine for hydrogen, i. 19
absorptive power of, i. 39, 41
proportion of hydrogen to oxygen in the composition of water, i. 94
will not combine with carbon, i. 97
weights of the atoms of, as compared with those of oxygen, i. 99
probable cause of its greater cooling power than that of oxygen, i.
115
one of the illuminants in coal gas, i. 118
spectrum analysis of, i. 139, 144
and of hydrogen, carburetted and attenuated, during and after
decomposition, i. 141
carburetted, one of the illuminants in coal gas, i. 118
marsh-gas and fire-damp, i. 118
peroxide of, i. 9
combination forming, i. 104
combines with other substances and simple atoms as if it were a
simple element, i. 106
sulphuretted, amount of absorption of radiant heat by, i. 41
opacity of, to the invisible rays, i. 65
one of the illuminants in coal gas, i. 118
how freed from coal gas, i. 118
Hydrozoa, campanograde, characters of, ii. 103
ciliograde, characters of the, ii. 101
mode of reproduction of, ii. 103
oceanic, structure of, ii. 81, 86
compound oceanic, structure of, ii. 87
medusiform zooids, ii. 88, 89
mode of reproduction of, ii. 89, 90
Hymenomycetes, family of, i. 261
Hymenophyllum, stem of, i. 339
Hymenophyllum tunbridgense, or film fern, structure and habitat of, i.
362
Hymenophyllum unilaterale, habitat and structure of, i. 362
Hyphomycetes, characters of the family, i. 282
Hypogæi, structure and fructification of the subterranean sub-order of,
i. 267, 268
Hyponitrous acid, combination forming, i. 95
Hypopterygium Smithianum, leaves of, i. 330
I
Ice, absorption of invisible rays by, i. 65
believed to be a colloid body, i. 111
Iceland moss, characters of, i. 304
Iceland spar, polarization of light and heat in, by refraction, i. 69
change of position of the optical axes of the crystals of, by heat,
i. 73
Ileodictyon, eaten as food, i. 268
Impetus, i. 26, 27
heat generated by, i. 27
combustion a case of, i. 30
Indian rubber, dissolved by naphtha for waterproofing, i. 120
Indium, discovery of the metal so called, i. 137
properties of, i. 137
Infusoria, structure, form, and habitat of, ii. 63
abundance of infusoria in the atmosphere, ii. 63, 64
different states of development in one and the same animal, ii. 65
groups of, of opposite characters in the same liquid, ii. 66
the agents in the decomposition of animal matter, ii. 67
minuteness of the ferments, ii. 68
cilia of Infusoria, ii. 68
as organs of locomotion, ii. 69
cell constituting the body of Infusoria, ii. 70
food and organs of digestion of, ii. 70
transparent contractile vesicles, ii. 71
modes of propagation, ii. 74 _et seq._
in a state analogous to hybernation, ii. 78, 79
functions assigned to Infusoria in the economy of nature, ii. 79
Insects, phosphorescence of, i. 167
Intelligence, or the mental principle, of animals, ii. 11, 12
Iodine, i. 18, 21
whence obtained, i. 19
properties of, i. 21, 22
spectrum of, i. 21
atomic weight of, compared with that of hydrogen, i. 100
preparation of, from sea-weeds, i. 128
spectrum analysis of, i. 140, 141
iodine richer at Guernsey than elsewhere, i. 258
Iris germanica, vertical section showing the cellular tissue of, i. 173
Iron heated by percussion or impetus, i. 27
effect of electricity on, i. 32
effect of magnetism of, i. 75, 76, 77
and of heat on the magnetism of, i. 77
feeble affinity of iron for mercury, i. 98
atomic weight of, compared with that of hydrogen, i. 100
spectrum analysis of the rarefied vapour of, i. 142
Isaria, its structure and habitat, i. 282
its destruction of caterpillars, i. 282, 293
Isaria crassa, characters of, i. 283
Isaria farinosa, characters of, i. 283
Isariacei, structure and habitat of, i. 282
Isidæ, structure, habitat, and mode of reproduction of, ii. 125
Isis, structure of the genus, ii. 125
Isomeric substances, i. 104
law of the sequence of three isomeric bodies, and their respective
atomic numbers, i. 105
Isomorphism, property of, in determining atomic weights, i. 99
Isomorphous substances, conduct of, under magnetic influence, i. 76
Isopoda, characters of the order, ii. 202
J
Jam, greenish, and grey moulds on, i. 285
Jungermanniaceæ, or scale mosses, structure, fertilization, and
development of, i. 320-322
Jupiter, the planet, spectrum of, i. 157, 161
constitution of, i. 158
K
Katsup made from the morel, i. 292
Kelp, i. 258
former and present uses of, i. 128
Kerona silurus, structure and food of, ii. 69
L
Labellum of orchids, i. 401
Lactarii, laticiferous vessels of, i. 263
Lady Fern, herbaceous caudex of, i. 340
structure and fructification of, i. 352, 353
Lagenidæ, characters and habitat of the family, ii. 39
Lagoons formed by corals, ii. 140-143
Laminaria bulbosa, structure and fruit of, i. 248
Laminaria debilis, structure of, i. 248
Laminaria digitata, or oar-weed, structure of, i. 249
richness of the iodine obtained from, at Guernsey, i. 258
Laminaria radiata, structure, habitat, and fructification of, i. 250
Laminaria saccharina, or devil’s apron, structure and mode of
reproduction of, i. 249
Laminariæ, submarine forests of, i. 248
Lanosa nivalis, the probable cause of the mildew in rye, i. 297
Lastrea, structure of the genus, i. 346
Lastrea æmula, structure of, i. 346
Lastrea filix-mas, structure of, i. 340
Lastrea rigida, scent of, i. 347
Lastrea Thelypteris or marsh fern, structure of, i. 346
Latex, structure of the, in plants, i. 417
Laughing-gas, or protoxide of nitrogen, combination forming, i. 95
Laurel, oil of, amount of radiant heat absorbed by the perfume of, i.
44
Laurencia dasyphylla, antheridia of, i. 241
Laurencia pinnatifida, or pepper dulse, structure, habitat, and mode of
propagation of, i. 241
Laurencia tenuissima, antheridia of, i. 241
Laurenciaceæ, characters of, i. 240, 241
Laurentian system, ancient formation of the crystallized limestone near
the base of the, ii. 54
Lavender, absorption of radiant heat by the perfume of, i. 44
Lead, its resistance to electricity, i. 90
chloride of, spectrum of, i. 146
Leathesia, structure of, i. 245
Leaves of plants, structure and functions of, i. 410
Lecanora affinis, section of, i. 300
structure and habitat of, i. 305
Lecanora esculenta, habitat of, i. 305
Lecidea, characters of the genus, i. 306
Lecidea geographica, great age of, i. 306
Lecidinei, characters of the order, i. 306
Leeches, structure of, ii. 149-151
Lemon, amount of radiant heat absorbed by the perfume of, i. 44
Lepadidæ, structure of, ii. 213, 215
Lepas anatifera, structure and mode of reproduction of, ii. 215
Lepidodendron, structure of the fossil, i. 375
Lepidostrobus ornatus, structure of, i. 375
Lepraliæ, structure of, ii. 219
Leptopteris, characters of, i. 364
Lessonia, arborescent, forests of, i. 251
Lessonia nigrescens, structure of, i. 251
rings of growth of, i. 252
Leucobryum, structure of, i. 329
Leucobryum glaucum, leaves of, i. 330
Leveillea, structure of, i. 242
Libanea crab, a parasite of the medusæ, ii. 100
Lichens, characters and habitat of, i. 298
two groups of—Gymnocarpei and Angiocarpei, i. 299
horizontal lichens, i. 299
gonidia, i. 300
asci, i. 301
thallus or frond, i. 301
dyes obtained from, i. 124, 303
brilliancy of the colours of, i. 304
Lichina, characters of the genus, i. 310
Lichinei, characters of the group, i. 310
Life, the mystery of, i. 97
instances of individual combined with a common life in the lower
orders of animals, ii. 38
Light, probable cause of the, of the sun, i. 28
Drummond’s light, how produced, i. 30
intensity of the, of the electric spark, i. 32
chemical action of, i. 34
amount of force exerted by the sun’s light within the limits of the
terrestrial atmosphere, i. 34
constancy of the amount and refrangibility of light and heat absorbed
and radiated, i. 34
causes of colour of flowers, leaves, dyed cloth, and gold and copper,
i. 35, 36
property of some substances in the transmission of radiant light and
heat, i. 36
invisible rays of high heating power existing beyond the red end of
the solar spectrum, i. 36
Melloni’s investigation of the laws of radiation and absorption of
radiant heat in solid and liquid matter, i. 38
chemical power of the light of the moon and stars, i. 55
and of solar light, i. 56
effect of the opalescence of the atmosphere on the light of the
sun, i. 55
probable causes of the blueness of the sky, and the brightness of the
tints at sun-rise and sun-set, i. 58
solar spectrum, i. 58
myriads of ethereal waves constituting the seven colours of the, i.
58
fluorescent or degraded light, i. 60
experiment illustrating the change of heat into light, i. 62
absorption of invisible rays, by solids, liquids, and gases, i. 65
causes of earth light, i. 66
polarization of light and heat, i. 68, 69
by reflection and refraction, i. 69
relation of polarization to crystallization, i. 70, 71
M. Gassiot’s experiments on stratified electric light, i. 78
influence of magnetism on the stratified light, i. 78
cause of the stratified discharge, i. 85
effect of varied intensity on electric discharges, i. 86
action of magnetism and electricity on light, i. 90
delicate power of analysis in light, i. 95
Dr. Young’s establishment of the undulatory theory of light, i. 129
Drummond’s light, i. 132
coloured light obtained from the combustion of the salts of different
metals, i. 132
effects of light on vegetation, i. 168, 169
effects of light as an exciting cause in the vegetable world, i. 431
Lightning, spectrum of, i. 147
Ligneous tissue, i. 174, 175
Liliaceæ, structure and development of the, i. 388
Limboriei, structure and habitat of the, i. 310
Lime, carbonate of, different modifications assumed by, i. 74
chloride of, properties of, i. 19
oxalate of, formation of, i. 117
Limestones, probable history of the oldest, ii. 52
the nummulitic, ii. 53
the limestone formed by the Eozoön Canadense, ii. 54
Limnoria lignorum, structure of, ii. 203
Limpet, structure, food, and habitat of, ii. 238, 239
Limulus, fossil remains of, ii. 211
Lindsæeæ, characters of, i. 351
Lingbya, structure of, i. 213
Lingula flags, fossil animals composing the, ii. 53
Listera ovata, structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 399
Lithium, i. 3
spectrum analysis of, i. 133
existence of lithium in all three kingdoms of nature, i. 134
spectrum analysis of the rarefied vapour of, i. 142
effect of high temperature, i. 142, 143
chloride of, spectrum of, i. 146
Litmus, or orchil, from what obtained, i. 124, 303
Lituola, structure of the genus, ii. 37
Lituolidæ, characters of the family of, ii. 36, 37
Liver worts. _See_ Hepaticæ
Lobophylla angulosa, structure of, ii. 135, 136
Locomotion of some diatoms, i. 204
Lo-hao, a Chinese green dye, i. 124
Loligo vulgare, or squid, structure of, ii. 245, 246
Lomaria, characters of the genus, i. 357
Lomariopsis, characters of, i. 360
Loxades bursaria, structure of, ii. 72
Loxades bursaria, mode of propagation of, ii. 75
Lucifer, characters of the genus, ii. 200
matches, i. 17
Luminosity of the medusæ in warm seas, ii. 99
of Annelida, ii. 160
of Pyrosomidæ, ii. 226
Lycoperdon giganteum, structure, habitat, and fructification of, i. 267
Lycoperdon, structure and fructification of, i. 267
Lycopodiaceæ, or club mosses, characters of, i. 373
habitat and fructification of, i. 373, 374
uses to which they have been applied, i. 374
Lycopodium, or wolf’s-claw, characters of the genus, i. 374
Lycopodium clavatum, structure and habitat of, i. 374
inflammability of the dried spores of, i. 374
Lycopodium inundatum, structure and habitat of, i. 374
Lygodium articulatum, structure of, i. 363
Lymnæa, or pond snail, distoma of the, ii. 146
M
Macrocystis pyrifera, structure, habitat, and fructification of, i. 250
Macrura, characters of the, ii. 189
fossil remains of, ii. 211
Madder, dyes obtained from, i. 124, 125
Magenta, or aniline red, Dr. Hofmann’s discovery of, i. 122
how produced, i. 122
purple dye produced by mixing it with aniline, i. 123
Magnesium, i. 3, 4
spectrum of, i. 65
spectrum analysis of the rarefied vapour of, i. 142
shown to be one of the metals existing in the sun, i. 151-153
spectrum of the light of a magnesium flame, i. 153, 154
its use in photography, i. 154
Magnetism, i. 30
periodic and secular variations of, i. 30
probably stand in some periodic connection with the solar spots, i.
30, 31
probable cause of terrestrial magnetism, i. 31
difference between magnetic and electric currents, i. 33
relations between the force of magnetism and the atoms of matter, i.
75
all substances either magnetic or diamagnetic, i. 75
proof of the connection between the magnetic forces and crystalline
structure, i. 76
conduct of amorphous and isomorphous substances under magnetic
influence, i. 76
action of magnets upon matter most powerful in the line of maximum
density, i. 76
conditions of the position which crystals take with regard to the
magnetic force, i. 76
magnetic changes in the relations and distances between the ultimate
atoms of matter, i. 77
effect of magnetism on the stratified appearance of the electric
light, i. 78
causes of the polarity of a magnet, according to Ampère, i. 80
action of magnetism on the stratified discharges of electric light,
i. 82
illustration of the action of magnetism and electricity on light, i.
90
Maiden’s hair fern, structure and habitat of, i. 359
Malaxis paludosa, or bog malaxis, structure and mode of reproduction
of, i. 400
Malic acid, chemical combination forming, i. 97
Manchineel, poison of the, i. 426
Manganese, peroxide of, relative weight of the atoms of oxygen and
metal in, i. 99
atomic weight of, compared with that of hydrogen, i. 100
peroxide of, combination forming, i. 104
Manihot, or Cassava, food obtained from the, i. 426
Marasmius Oreades, spawn of, i. 262
Marattia salicina used as food, i. 365
Marattiaceæ, characters of the group, i. 364
Marchantia polymorpha, structure, development, fructification, and
habitat of, i. 317-320
Marchantiaceæ, characters of the order, i. 317
Mars, the planet, spectrum of, i. 158, 161
Marsh-gas, i. 118
amount of absorption of radiant heat by, i. 41
Marsilea, characters of the genus, i. 372
Marsileaceæ, or Rhizospermæ, characters of the tribe, i. 371
Matonineæ, characters of the group, i. 344
Matter, molecules of, i. 2
agency of electricity in the chemical composition and decomposition
of, i. 32
decomposing and elective power of, i. 35
Mauve, Dr. Hofmann’s discovery of the aniline colour, i. 122
at first made from orchil, i. 124
derived from guano, i. 125
Mediterranean sea, zones of algæ in the, i. 259
foraminifera, the ooze in the bed of the, ii. 51
Medusæ, form and structure of, ii. 91
Medusæ, pulmograde, form and structure of, ii. 91, 92
naked-eyed medusæ, ii. 91-96
mode of reproduction of, ii. 94
armed or stinging medusæ, ii. 99
luminosity of, in warm seas, ii. 99
development of medusa-buds, ii. 96
alternation of generation of hydræ and medusæ, ii. 96
covered-eyed medusæ, ii. 97
parasites of, ii. 99
abundance of species of, ii. 100
food of medusæ, ii. 101
Medusa-buds, development of, ii. 95
Medusiform zooids of hydrozoa, ii. 88, 89
Melanconiei, characters of the group of, i. 281, 282
Melanogaster, the red truffle of Bath, i. 268
Melanospermeæ, characters of, i. 181
marine forests of, i. 244
structure of the, i. 244, _et seq._
Mercury, conditions under which he may be habitable, i. 55
Mercury, its feeble affinity for iron, i. 98
Meridion circulare, structure and development of, i. 200, 201
Merulius lacrymans, the cause of dry rot in wood, i. 266
Mesocarpus, reproduction of, i. 217
Mesogloias, structure of, i. 245
Metals and their properties, i. 3
alkaline metals, i. 3
of alkaline earths, i. 3
from non-alkaline earths, i. 4
avidity of some of them for oxygen, i. 4
metals whose oxides are not reducible by heat, i. 4
diatomic metals, i. 4
triatomic metals, i. 5
conduction of heat and radiation, i. 5
vaporization, i. 5
spectra of volatilized metals, i. 64
coloured light obtained from the combustion of the salts of different
metals, i. 132
spectrum of, not always the same, i. 145
number of the metals of which the spectra has been determined i. 147
metals shown to exist in the sun, i. 151-153
and not to exist in it, i. 154
metals contained in every plant, i. 414
Meteorites probably not of solar origin, i. 153
Mica, opacity of, to the invisible rays, i. 65
Mignonette, weight of the perfume of, i. 45
Mildew of the vine, hop, &c., i. 295
the black mildews of the Azores and Ceylon, i. 297
Miliola, structure and habitat of, ii. 30
abundance of, in the seas of the Eocene period, ii. 31
Miliolidæ, characters of the order, ii. 30
Milk sap of plants, i. 425
vessels of plants, i. 417
Milleporæ complanata or palmipora, structure of, ii. 141
Mimosa pudica, irritability of the tissues of, i. 432
Mind and matter connection between, ii. 5
Molecules of matter, i. 2
cohesion of, i. 25
unit of mechanical force, i. 26
causes of the ethereal undulating motions of, i. 34, 35
_See_ Atoms
Mollusca, structure, habitat, and mode of reproduction of, ii. 229, _et
seq._
shells of the, ii. 232
naked, ii. 240
winged, ii. 240
Monas corpusculus, extreme minuteness of, ii. 63, 67
and of its ova, ii. 67
Monocotyledonous, or endogenous plants, structure, growth, and
reproduction of, i. 383
seeds of this class, i. 383
stems, or axes, i. 384
remarkable plants belonging to the monocotyledons, i. 387
Monostoma, or one-mouthed medusæ, structure and mode of reproduction
of, ii. 97
Monormia, habitat and structure of, i. 212
Moon, interception of the heat radiated by the full, by the earth’s
atmosphere, i. 55
its effect on the higher regions of the atmosphere, i. 55
chemical power of the moon’s light, i. 55
Moonstone, or adularia, fluorescent property of, i. 66
Moonwort, structure, and habitat of, i. 366
Morchella esculenta, the morel, i. 291
katsup made from, i. 292
Mordants for fixing dyes in cotton cloth, i. 125
Morphine, the probable narcotic principle of opium, i. 427
Mother-of-pearl, composition of, ii. 234
Motion, effect of, on molecular arrangement, i. 91
Moulds, fungus, on various substances, i. 285
Mucedines, structure of the, i. 283
the origin of all fermentation, i. 289
Mucorini, or moulds, structures of the, i. 296
habitat of the, i. 296, 297
Muriatic acid, formation of, i. 20
action of, upon ammonia, i. 120
Musci, or Mosses, structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 3
antheridia of, i. 324
sporangia of, i. 325
gemmæ or buds, i. 327
leaves of, i. 330
aquatic mosses, i. 331
peat, i. 333
uses of mosses, i. 334
Muscle, structure and functions of, ii. 2
functions of the muscles, ii. 5
electric currents formed in the muscles, ii. 7
muscular respiration, ii. 8
Mushrooms, i. 261
mycelium, or spawn, i. 262
Musk, power of absorption of radiant heat by the perfume of, i. 45
Mussel, structure of the gills of the common, ii. 230
Mycelium or mushroom spawn, i. 261, 262
Mysis, or opossum shrimps, structure of, ii. 199
Myxogastres, structure, habitat, and reproduction of, i. 269, 270
their Amœba-like motions, i. 270
N
Naïs, structure and habitat of the, ii. 152, 153
Naphtha, manufacture of, i. 120
uses to which it is applied, i. 120
sources of, in various parts of the world, i. 126
naphtha procured by the distillation of petroleum, i. 127
Naphthalin, production of, i. 127
Narcotics, exciting, known to almost all people, however savage, i. 427
Navicula, structure of, i. 198
Naviculæ, spontaneous locomotion of, i. 202
Nebulæ, spectra of various, i. 158-160, 163
constitution of the, i. 163
probable existence of primordial nebulous matter according to the
theories of Sir W. Herschel and La Place, i. 164
Nectria, characters of the genus, i. 295
Nectria Peziza, structure of, i. 295
Nematoid entozoa, structure and mode of reproduction of, ii. 146
Nemertes gigas, or great band worm, nervous system of, ii. 158
Neotteæ, characters of the British tribe of, i. 397, 398
Neottia Nidus-avis, structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 400
Nephrolepis tuberosa, characters and habitat of, i. 348
Nereis, structure of, ii. 157
Nereis diversicolor, mode of reproduction of, ii. 160
Nereocystis Lutkeana, structure and habitat of, i. 249
Nerve-force of animals, ii. 4, 6
chemical powers generated by, ii. 6
Nerves of animals, structure and functions of, ii. 5
electric currents in the, ii. 7
structure and functions of the brain and spinal cord, ii. 8
the nervous systems of the higher and lower animals, ii. 9-11
Nervous system of animals, ii. 5
Nickel, i. 4, 5
crystals of, formed artificially by electricity, i. 74
effect of heat on the magnetism of, i. 77
atomic weight of, compared with that of hydrogen, i. 100
Nidulariacei, characters of the order of, i. 272, 273
structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 273
habitat of, i. 273
Nitella flexilis, structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 312
Nitophyllum, structure and fronds of, i. 238, 239
Nitric acid, combination forming, i. 95
Nitrogen gas, i. 12
combination of nitrogen with chlorine, i. 20
absorptive power of, i. 39, 41
fulminates compounds of, i. 92
number of combinations of, with oxygen, i. 95
atomic weight of, compared with that of hydrogen, i. 100
one of the illuminants in coal gas, i. 118
spectrum analysis of, i. 140, 145
in high temperature, i. 144
binoxide of, combination forming, i. 95
chloride of, catalysis of, i. 91
iodide of, catalysis of, i. 91
protoxide of, or laughing gas, combination forming, i. 95
Nitrous oxide, absorption of, radiant heat by, i. 41, 43
combination forming, i. 95
Noctiluca miliaris, structure and mode of propagation of, ii. 73, 74
Noctiluci, their food, i. 205
Nodosaria, characters of the genus, ii. 39
Nodosaria rugosa, shell of, ii. 28
structure of, ii. 39
Nodosaria spinicosta, form of, ii. 28
structure of, ii. 39
Nostoc commune, wide distribution of, i. 212
Nostochineæ, structure and habitat of, i. 211
reproduction of, i. 212
wide distribution of, i. 212
Nullipores, structure and habitat of, i. 142
Nummulites, structure of the, ii. 44-46
circumstances favouring their existence in the Tertiary period, ii.
53
O
Ocean, force exerted in the creation of the, i. 31
Octoblepharum albidum, leaves of, i. 330
Octopods, structure of, ii. 245
Octopus vulgaris, or poulpe, structure of, ii. 245-247
Odonthalia, structure of, i. 242
Œdogonium capillare, reproduction of, i. 216
Oïdium, structure and habitat of, i. 290
Oïdium Tuckeri, or vine mildew, fungus producing, i. 295
Oils, dead, manufacture of, i. 120
essential, chemical combinations forming, i. 97
vegetable, i. 422
formation of fixed and essential, artificially, i. 424
Oleandra, characters of the genus, i. 347
Oleandra neriiformis, structure of, i. 347
Olefiant gas, absorptive power of, i. 39, 40, 41
amount of absorptive power, i. 41
great absorption of, i. 47
formation of, i. 97
amount of carbon in, i. 105
one of the illuminants in coal gas, i. 118
chemical composition of, i. 128
Olefiant oil, i. 104
Olive oil, i. 422
Onion, structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 388
Oniscus, common wood-louse or slater, structure of the, ii. 202
Onoclea, characters of the genus, i. 348
Onoclea sensibilis, characters and habitat of, i. 348
Oolina claxata, shell of, ii. 48
Opacity in liquids and solids synonymous with accord, i. 37
causes of opacity, i. 37
Operculina, structure of, ii. 38, 46
an instance of an individual combined with a common life, ii. 38.
Ophioglossaceæ, characters of the group, i. 365
Ophioglossum, characters of the genus, i. 365
Ophioglossum vulgatum, structure and habitat of, i. 365
Ophionyx, structure of, ii. 173
Ophiuridæ, or snake stars, structure of, ii. 172, 173
power of reproducing rays, ii. 173
Ophrys apifera, or bee ophrys, structure and mode of reproduction of,
i. 397
Ophrys, fly, structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 396
Opium, alkaloids obtained from, i. 427
almost universal use of, in the East, i. 427
Orange, amount of radiant heat absorbed by the perfume of, i. 44
fructification of the, i. 381
Oranges, fungus of decayed, i. 290
Orbitolite, characters of the, ii. 33
a fossil gigantic one found in Canada, ii. 54
Orbitolites complanatus, structure of, ii. 33, 34
development and varieties of, ii. 35, 36
habitat of, ii. 36
Orchids, their structure, habitat, and mode of reproduction, i. 388-403
theoretical structure of, i. 403
Orchil, whence obtained, i. 303
from what obtained, i. 124
Orchis mascula, structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 389, _et
seq._
Orchis pyramidalis, structure and mode of reproduction of, i. 393, _et
seq._
Oscillatoria littoralis, structure and motions of, i. 213
Oscillatoria spiralis, motions of, i. 213
Oscillatoriæ, structure, habitat, and motions of, i. 213
reproduction of, i. 214
Osmunda regalis, structure and habitat of, i. 363
Osmundineæ, characters of, i. 363
sporangia of, i. 343
characters of the group, i. 345
Ostrapods, characters of the, ii. 207
Otolites of Gastropoda, ii. 236
Otolites of Thaumantias, ii. 93
Ovulata, siliceous skeleton of, ii. 60
Oxalic acid, former and present modes of making, i. 116
produced by lichens, i. 303
synthetical formation of, i. 424
Oxygen, i. 6-11
effect of the combination of the atoms of oxygen and carbon in
combustion, i. 30
absorptive power of ozonized oxygen, i. 43
absorptive power of, i. 39, 41
proportion of oxygen to hydrogen in the composition of water, i. 94
limit to the number of combustions of, with nitrogen, i. 95
weight of the atoms of, in the peroxide of manganese, i. 99
weight of the atoms of, compared with those of hydrogen, i. 99, 100
spectrum analysis of, i. 139
inhalation and exhalation of, by plants, i. 416, 417
Oysters, iodine found in, i. 19
Ozone, i. 7
effect of the combination of ozone and oxygen in the absorption of
radiant heat, i. 43
Prof. Tyndall’s conjecture as to the production of ozone, i. 44
its affinity for iodine, i. 96
its possible effect on the solar spectrum, i. 132
production of, i. 17
P
Padina Pavonia, or Peacock’s tail laver, structure of, i. 247
Pagurus, or hermit crab, structure and mode of reproduction of, ii. 197
Palm, stem or axis of a, i. 384
growth and reproduction of palms, i. 384, 385
Palmoglœa macrococca, structure and development of, i. 182
Palmyra palm, growth of the stem of, i. 385
Pandanus or screw pine, roots and habitat of, i. 387
Papillaris, siliceous skeleton of, ii. 60
Paraffin, i. 105
crystals of, how produced, i. 127
Paraffin oil and candles, i. 119, 127
Paramœcium caudatum, cilia and mouth of, ii. 68, 69
immense propagation of, ii. 74
Parkeriaceæ, or Ceratopteridineæ, structure and habitat of, i. 363
Parmelia saxatilis, structure and habitat of, i. 305
Parmeliacei, structure of the, i. 302
characters of the group, i. 304
Parmelia parcolerina, yellow dye obtained from the, i. 124
Parmelia parietina, dye obtained from, i. 303
Passalus cornutus, parasitic fungus in the stomach of, i. 274
Patchouli, amount of radiant heat absorbed by the perfume of, i. 44
Patellidæ, or limpets, structure, food, and habitat of, ii. 238, 239
Paulia perforata, organs of reproduction of, i. 301
Pea mildew, fungus producing the, i. 295
Peach, cause of blistered leaves of the, i. 291
Pear, cause of blistered leaves of the, i. 291
Pearl oyster, nacreous lining of shell of, ii. 234
Pease, caseine obtained from, i. 125
Peat, and peat mosses, i. 333
Pecten, or scallop, eyes of the, ii. 235
Pediastrum, structure and development of, i. 194
Pedicellaria globosa, structure of, ii. 180
Pelagia, structure and mode of reproduction of, ii. 97
Peltigeri, characters of the group, i. 305
Peneroplis, structure of, ii. 31, 32
Penicillia mould, structure of the, i. 285
Penicillium armeniacum, spores of, i. 285, 286
Penicillium candidum, production of, i. 287
Penicillium glaucum, structure and habitat of, i. 286, 287
its polymorphous character, i. 287
in the yeast of beer, i. 288
its production of acetic fermentation, i. 288
Pennatula phosphorea, structure and habitat of, ii. 128
modes of reproduction of, ii. 129