[1] See Captain C.R. Day, _Descriptive Catalogue of Musical
Instruments_ (London, 1891), p. 233.
[2] See Hone's _Everyday Book_, i. 1248.
CHINGFORD, an urban district in the Epping parliamentary division of
Essex, England, 101/2 m. N. of London (Liverpool Street station) by the
Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 4373. It lies between the river Lea
and the western outskirts of Epping Forest. The church of All Saints has
Early English and Perpendicular remains. Queen Elizabeth's or Fair Mead
hunting lodge, a picturesque half-timbered building, is preserved under
the Epping Forest Preservation Act. A majestic oak, one of the finest
trees in the Forest, stands near it. Buckhurst Hill (an urban district;
pop. 4786) lies to the N.E.
CHINGLEPUT, or CHENGALPAT, a town and district of British India, in the
Madras presidency. The town, situated 36 m. by rail from Madras, had a
population in 1901 of 10,551. With Chandragiri in North Arcot,
Chingleput was once the capital of the Vijayanagar kings, after their
overthrow by the Mussulmans at Talikota in 1565. In 1639 a chief,
subject to these kings, granted to the East India Company the land on
which Fort St George now stands. The fort built by the Vijayanagar kings
in the 16th century was of strategic importance, owing to its swampy
surroundings and the lake that flanked its side. It was taken by the
French in 1751, and was retaken in 1752 by Clive, after which it proved
invaluable to the British, especially when Lally in his advance on
Madras left it unreduced in his rear. During the wars of the British
with Hyder Ali it withstood his power, and afforded a refuge to the
natives; and in 1780, after the defeat of Colonel W. Baillie, the army
of Sir Hector Munro here found refuge. The town is noted for its
manufacture of pottery, and carries on a trade in rice.
The DISTRICT OF CHINGLEPUT surrounds the city of Madras, stretching
along the coast for about 115 m. The administrative headquarters are at
Saidapet. Area, 3079 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 1,312,122, showing an increase
of 9% in the decade. Salt is extensively manufactured all along the
coast. Cotton and silk weaving is also largely carried on, and there are
numerous indigo vats, tanneries and an English cigar factory.
CHIN HILLS, a mountainous district of Upper Burma. It lies on the border
between the Lushai districts of Eastern Bengal and Assam and the plains
of Burma, and has an area of 8000 sq. m. It is bounded N. by Assam and
Manipur, S. by Arakan, E. by Burma, and W. by Tippera and the Chittagong
hill tracts. The Chins, Lushais and Kukis are to the north-east border
of India what the Pathan tribes are to the north-west frontier. In 1895
the Chin Hills were declared a part of the province of Burma, and
constituted a scheduled district which is now administered by a
political officer with headquarters at Falam. The tract forms a
parallelogram 250 m. from N. to S. by 100 to 150 m. wide. The country
consists of a much broken and contorted mass of mountains, intersected
by deep valleys. The main ranges run generally N. to S., and vary in
height from 5000 to 9000 ft., among the most important being the Letha
or Tang, which is the watershed between the Chindwin and Manipur rivers;
the Imbukklang, which divides the Sokte tribe from the Whenchs and sheds
the water from its eastern slopes into Upper Burma and that from its
western slopes into Arakan; and the Rong-klang, which with its
prolongations is the main watershed of the southern hills, its eastern
slopes draining into the Myittha and thus into the Chindwin, while the
western fall drains into the Boinu river, which winding through the
hills discharges itself eventually in the Bay of Bengal. The highest
peak yet discovered is the Liklang, between Rawywa and Lungno, some 70
m. S. of Haka (nearly 10,000 ft.).
It is supposed that the Kukis of Manipur, the Lushais of Bengal and
Assam, and the Chins originally lived in Tibet and are of the same
stock; their form of government, method of cultivation, manners and
customs, beliefs and traditions all point to one origin. The slow
speech, the serious manner, the respect for birth and the knowledge of
pedigrees, the duty of revenge, the taste for and the treacherous
method of warfare, the curse of drink, the virtue of hospitality, the
clannish feeling, the vice of avarice, the filthy state of the body,
mutual distrust, impatience under control, the want of power of
combination and of continued effort, arrogance in victory, speedy
discouragement and panic in defeat, are common traits. The Chins,
Lushais and Kukis were noted for the secrecy of their plans, the
suddenness of their raids, and their extraordinary speed in retreating
to their fastnesses. After committing a raid they have been known to
march two days and two nights consecutively without cooking a meal or
sleeping, so as to escape from any parties which might follow them.
The British, since the occupation of Upper Burma, have been able to
penetrate the Chin-Lushai country from both sides at once. The
pacification of the Chin Hills is a triumph for British
administration. Roads, on which Chin coolies now readily work, have
been constructed in all directions. The rivers have been bridged; the
people have taken up the cultivation of English vegetables, and the
indigenous districts have been largely developed. The Chin Hills had a
population (1901 census) of 87,189, while the Chins in Burma totalled
179,292. The Pakokku Chin Hills, which form a separate tract, have an
area of 2260 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 13,116. (J. G. SC.)
CHINKIANG, or CHEN-KIANG-FU, a treaty port of China, in the province of
Kiang-su, on the Yangtsze-kiang above Shanghai, from which it is distant
160 m. It is in railway communication both with Shanghai and Nanking (40
m. distant), and being at the point where the Grand Canal running N. and
S. intersects the Yangtsze, which runs E. and W., is peculiarly well
situated to be a commercial entrepot. The total value of exports and
imports for 1904 was L4,632,992; estimated pop. 168,000. In the war of
1842 it yielded to the British only after a desperate resistance. It was
laid waste by the T'aip'ing rebels in 1853, and was recaptured by the
imperial forces in 1858.
CHINO-JAPANESE WAR (1894-95). The causes of this conflict arose out of
the immemorial rivalry of China and Japan for influence in Korea. In the
16th century a prolonged war in the peninsula had ended with the failure
of Japan to make good her footing on the mainland--a failure brought
about largely by lack of naval resources. In more modern times (1875,
1882, 1884) Japan had repeatedly sent expeditions to Korea, and had
fostered the growth of a progressive party in Seoul. The difficulties of
1884 were settled between China and Japan by the convention of Tientsin,
wherein it was agreed that in the event of future intervention each
should inform the other if it were decided to despatch troops to the
peninsula. Nine years later the occasion arose. A serious rebellion
induced the Korean government to apply for military assistance from
China. Early in June 1894 a small force of Chinese troops were sent to
Asan, and Japan, duly informed of this action, replied by furnishing her
minister at Seoul with an escort, rapidly following up this step by the
despatch of about 5000 troops under Major-General Oshima. A complicated
situation thus arose. Chinese troops were present in Korea by the
request of the government to put down rebellion. The Japanese controlled
the capital, and declined to recognize Korea as a tributary of China.
But she proposed that the two powers should unite to suppress the
disturbance and to inaugurate certain specified reforms. China
considered that the measures of reform must be left to Korea herself.
The reply was that Japan considered the government of Korea "lacking in
some of the elements which are essential to responsible independence."
By the middle of July war had become inevitable unless the Peking
government were willing to abandon all claims over Korea, and as Chinese
troops were already in the country by invitation, it was not to be
expected that the shadowy suzerainty would be abandoned.
At Seoul the issue was forced by the Japanese minister, who delivered an
ultimatum to the Korean government on the 20th of July. On the 23rd the
palace was forcibly occupied. Meanwhile China had despatched about 8000
troops to the Yalu river. The outbreak of war thus found the Japanese
in possession of Seoul and ready to send large forces to Korea, while
the Chinese occupied Asan (about 40 m. south of the capital), and had a
considerable body of troops in Manchuria in addition to those despatched
to the Yalu river. To Japan the command of the sea was essential for the
secure transport and supply of her troops. Without it the experience of
the war of the 16th century would be repeated. China, too, could only
utilize overland routes to Korea by submitting to the difficulties and
delays entailed. To both powers the naval question was thus important.
By the time war was finally declared (August 1) hostilities had
already begun. On the 25th of July Oshima set out from Seoul to attack
the Chinese at Asan. On the 29th he won a victory at Soeng-hwan, but
the Chinese commander escaped with a considerable part of his forces
by a detour to Ping-Yang (Phyong-Yang). Meanwhile a portion of the
Japanese fleet had encountered some Chinese warships and transports
off Phung-Tao, and scored an important success, sinking, amongst other
vessels, the transport "Kowshing" (July 25). The loss of more than
1000 Chinese soldiers in this vessel materially lightened Oshima's
task. The intention of the Chinese to crush their enemies between
their forces at Asan and Ping-Yang was completely frustrated, and the
Japanese obtained control of all southern Korea.
Reinforcements from Japan were now pouring into Korea, in spite of the
fact that the rival navies had not yet tried conclusions, and General
Nozu, the senior Japanese officer present, soon found himself in a
position to move on Ping-Yang. Three columns converged upon the place
on the 15th of September, and in spite of its strong walls carried it,
though only after severe fighting.
Nearly all the troops on either side had been conveyed to the scene of
war by sea, though the decisive contest for sea supremacy was still to
be fought. The Chinese admiral Ting with the Northern Squadron (which
alone took part in the war) had hitherto remained inactive in
Wei-hai-wei, and on the other side Vice-Admiral Ito's fleet had not
directly interfered with the hostile transports which were reinforcing
the troops on the Yalu. But two days after the battle of Ping-Yang,
Ting, who had conveyed a large body of troops to the mouth of the
Yalu, encountered the Japanese fleet on his return journey off
Hai-Yang-Tao on the 17th of September. The heavy battleships
"Chen-Yuen" and "Ting-Yuen" constituted the strongest element of the
Chinese squadron, for the Japanese, superior as they were in every
other factor of success, had no vessels which could compare with these
in the matter of protection. Ting advanced in a long irregular line
abreast; the battleships in the centre, the lighter vessels on the
wings. Ito's fast cruisers steamed in line ahead against the Chinese
right wing, crushing their weaker opponents with their fire. In the
end the Chinese fleet was defeated and scattered, but the two heavy
battleships drew off without serious injury. This battle of the Yalu
gave Japan command of the sea, but Ito continued to act with great
caution. The remnants of the vanquished fleet took refuge in Port
Arthur, whence after repairs Ting proceeded to Wei-hai-wei.
The victory of Ping-Yang had cleared Korea of the Chinese troops, but
on the lower Yalu--their own frontier--large forces threatened a
second advance. Marshal Yamagata therefore took the offensive with his
1st army, and on the 24th and 25th of October, under great
difficulties--though without serious opposition from the enemy--forced
the passage of the river and occupied Chiulien-cheng. Part of the
Chinese force retired to the north-east, part to Feng-hwang-cheng and
Hsiu-yuen (Siu-Yen). The Japanese 1st army advanced several columns
towards the mountains of Manchuria to secure its conquests and prepare
for a future advance. General Tachimi's brigade occupied
Feng-hwang-cheng on the 29th of October. On the 7th of November a
column from the Yalu took Takushan, and a few days later a converging
attack from these two places was made upon Hsiu-yuen, which was
abandoned by the Chinese. Meanwhile Tachimi, skirmishing with the
enemy on the Mukden and Liao-Yang roads, found the Chinese in force. A
simultaneous forward move by both sides led to the action of
Tsao-ho-ku (November 30), after which both sides withdrew--the Chinese
to the line of the mountains covering Hai-cheng, Liao-Yang and Mukden,
with the Tatar general Ikotenga's force, 14,000 strong, on the
Japanese right north-east of Feng-hwang-cheng; and the Japanese to
Chiulien-cheng, Takushan and Hsiu-yuen. The difficulties of supply in
the hills were almost insurmountable, and no serious advance was
intended by the Japanese until January 1895, when it was to be made in
co-operation with the 2nd army. This army, under Marshal Oyama, had
been formed in September and at first sent to Chemulpo as a support to
the forces under Yamagata; but its chief task was the siege and
capture of the Chinese fortress, dockyard and arsenal of Port Arthur.
The Liao-Tong peninsula was guarded by the walled city of Kinchow and
the forts of Ta-lien-wan (Dalny under the Russian regime, and Tairen
under the Japanese) as well as the fortifications around Port Arthur
itself. On the 24th of October the disembarkation of the 2nd army
began near Pi-tsze-wo, and the successive columns of the Japanese
gradually moved towards Kinchow, which was carried without difficulty
on the 6th of November. Even less resistance was offered by the modern
forts of Ta-lien-wan. The Japanese now held a good harbour within a
few miles of the main fortress. Here they landed siege artillery, and
on the 17th of November the advance was resumed. The attack was made
on the 19th at dawn. Yamaji's division (Nogi's and Nishi's brigades)
after a trying night march assaulted and carried the western defences
and moved upon the town. Hasegawa in the centre, as soon as Yamaji
began to appear in rear of his opponents in the northern forts, pushed
home his attack with equal success, and by 3 P.M. practically all
resistance was at an end. The Japanese paid for this important success
with but 423 casualties. Meanwhile the Chinese general Sung, who had
marched from Hai-cheng to engage the 2nd army, appeared before
Kinchow, where he received on the 22nd a severe repulse at the hands
of the Japanese garrison. Marshal Oyama subsequently stationed his
advanced guard towards Hai-cheng, the main body at Kinchow, and a
brigade of infantry at Port Arthur. Soon after this overtures of peace
were made by China; but her envoy, a foreigner unfurnished with
credentials, was not received by the Tokyo government.
The Japanese 1st army (now under General Nozu) at Antung and
Feng-hwang-cheng prepared, in spite of the season, to move across the
mountains, and on the 3rd of December General Katsura left Antung for
Hai-cheng. His line of march was by Hsi-mu-cheng, and strong flank
guards followed parallel routes on either side. The march was
accomplished safely and Hai-cheng occupied on the 13th of December. In
the meantime Tachimi had moved northward from Feng-hwang-cheng, in
order to distract the attention of the Chinese from Hai-cheng, and
there were some small engagements between this force and that of
Ikotenga, who ultimately retired beyond the mountains to Liao-Yang.
Sung had already left Kai-ping to secure Hai-cheng when he heard of
the fall of that place; his communications with Ikotenga being now
severed, he swerved to the north-west and established a new base at
Niu-chwang. Once on his new line Sung moved upon Hai-cheng. As it was
essential that he should be prevented from joining forces with
Ikotenga, General Katsura marched out of Hai-cheng to fight him. At
Kang-wang-tsai (December 19th) the Chinese displayed unusual
steadiness, and it cost the Japanese some 343 casualties to dislodge
the enemy. The victors returned to Hai-cheng exhausted with their
efforts, but secure from attack for some time to come. The advanced
troops of the 2nd army (Nogi's brigade) were now ready to advance, and
only the Kai-ping garrison (left behind by Sung) barred their junction
with Katsura. At Kai-ping (January 10th) the resistance of the Chinese
was almost as steady as at Kang-wang-tsai, and the Japanese lost 300
killed and wounded in their successful attack. In neither of these
actions was the defeated force routed, nor did it retire very far. On
the 17th of January and again on the 22nd Ikotenga attacked Hai-cheng
from the north, but was repulsed.
Meanwhile the 2nd army, still under Oyama, had undertaken operations
against Wei-hai-wei, the second great fortress and dockyard of
northern China, where Admiral Ting's squadron had been refitting since
the battle of the Yalu; and it was hoped that both armies would
accomplish their present tasks in time to advance in the summer
against Peking itself. On the 18th of January a naval demonstration
was made at Teng-chow-fu, 70 m. west of Wei-hai-wei, and on the 19th
the Japanese began their disembarkation at Yung-cheng Bay, about 12 m.
from Wei-hai-wei. The landing was scarcely opposed, and on the 26th
the Japanese advance was begun. The south-eastern defences of
Wei-hai-wei harbour were carried by the 6th division, whilst the 2nd
division reached the inner waters of the bay, driving the Chinese
before them. The fleet under Ito co-operated effectively. On the night
of the 4th-5th of February the Chinese squadron in harbour was
attacked by ten torpedo boats. Two boats were lost, but the
armour-clad "Ting-Yuen" was sunk. On the following night a second
attack was made, and three more vessels were sunk. On the 9th the
"Ching-Yuen" was sunk by the guns in one of the captured forts. On the
12th Admiral Ting wrote to Admiral Ito offering to surrender, and then
took poison, other officers following his example. Wei-hai-wei was
then dismantled by the Japanese, who recovered the remnant of the
Chinese squadron, including the "Chen Yuen," and the 2nd army
concentrated at Port Arthur for the advance on Peking.
While this campaign was in progress the Chinese despatched a second
peace mission, also with defective credentials. The Japanese declined
to treat, and the mission returned to China. In February the Chinese
made further unsuccessful attacks on Hai-cheng. Yamaji near Kai-ping
fought a severe action on the 21st, 22nd and 23rd of February at
Taping-shan against a part of Sung's army under General Ma-yu-kun.
This action was fought with 2 ft. of snow on the ground, the
thermometer registering zero F., and no less than 1500 cases of
frost-bite were reported. It was the intention of General Nozu, after
freeing the Hai-cheng garrison from Ikotenga, to seize Niu-chwang
port. Two divisions converged on An-shan-chan, and the Chinese,
threatened in front and flank, retired to Liao-Yang. Meanwhile two
more attacks on Hai-cheng had been repulsed. The 3rd and 5th divisions
then moved on Niu-chwang, and Yamaji's 1st division at Kai-ping joined
in the advance. The column from An-shan-chan stormed Niu-chwang, which
was obstinately defended, and cost the stormers nearly 400 men. All
three divisions converged on Niu-chwang port (Ying-kow), and the
final engagement took place at Tien-chwang-tai, which was captured on
the 9th of March. The Chinese forces in Manchuria being thoroughly
broken and dispersed, there was nothing to prevent the Japanese from
proceeding to the occupation of Peking, since they could, after the
break-up of the ice, land and supply large forces at Shan-hai-kwan,
within 170 m. of the capital. Two more Japanese divisions were sent
out, with Prince Komatsu as supreme commander. Seven divisions were at
Port Arthur ready to embark, when negotiations were reopened. Li
Hung-Chang proceeded to Shimonoseki, where the treaty was signed on
the 17th of April 1895. An expedition was sent towards the end of
March to the Pescadores, and later the Imperial Guard division was
sent to Formosa.
It is impossible to estimate the Chinese losses in the war. The
Japanese lost 4177 men by death in action or by sickness, and 56,862
were wounded or disabled by sickness, exclusive of the losses in the
Formosa and Pescadores expeditions. Nearly two-thirds of these losses
were incurred by the 1st army in the trying winter campaign in
Manchuria.
The most important works dealing with the war are: Vladimir,
_China-Japan War_ (London, 1896); Jukichi Inouye, _The Japan-China
War_ (Yokohama, &c., 1896); du Boulay, _Epitome of the China-Japanese
War_ (London, 1896), the official publication of the British War
Office; Atteridge, _Wars of the Nineties_, pp. 535-636 (London, 1899);
von Kunowski and Fretzdorff, _Der japanisch-chinesische Krieg_
(Leipzig, 1895); von Mueller, _Der Krieg zwischen China und Japan_
(Berlin, 1895); Bujac, _Precis de quelques campagnes contemporaines:
II. La Guerre sino-japonaise_ (Paris and Limoges).
CHINON, a town of western France, capital of an arrondissement in the
department of Indre-et-Loire, on the right bank of the Vienne, 32m. S.W.
of Tours on the State railway. Pop. (1906) 4071. Chinon lies at the foot
of the rocky eminence which is crowned by the ruins of the famous
castle. Its narrow, winding streets contain many houses of the 15th and
16th centuries. The oldest of its churches, St Mexme, is in the
Romanesque style, but only the facade and nave are left. The church of
St Etienne dates from the 15th century, that of St Maurice from the
12th, 15th and 16th centuries. The castle, which has undergone
considerable modern restoration, consists of three portions. That to the
east, the Chateau de St Georges, built by Henry II. of England, has
almost vanished, only the foundation of the outer wall remaining. The
Chateau du Milieu (11th to 15th centuries) comprises the keep, the
Pavilion de l'Horloge and the Grand Logis, in the principal apartment of
which the first meeting between Joan of Arc and Charles VII. took place.
Of the Chateau du Coudray, which is separated by a moat from the Chateau
du Milieu, the chief remains are the Tour du Moulin (10th century) and
two less ancient towers. A statue of Rabelais, who was born in the
vicinity of the town, stands on the river-quay. Chinon has trade in
wheat, brandy, red wine and plums. Basket and rope manufacture, tanning
and cooperage are among its industries. Chinon (Caino) existed before
the Roman occupation of Gaul, and was from early times an important
fortress. It was occupied by the Visigoths, and subsequently, after
forming part of the royal domain, came to the counts of Touraine and
from them to the counts of Anjou. Henry II. often resided in the castle,
and died there. The place was taken by Philip Augustus in 1205 after a
year's siege.
CHINOOK, a tribe of North American Indians, dwelling at the mouth of the
Columbia river, Washington. They were fishermen and traders, and used
huge canoes of hollowed cedar trunks. The tribe is practically extinct,
but the name survives in the trade language known as "Chinook jargon."
This has been analysed as composed of two-fifths Chinook, two-fifths
other Indian tongues, and the rest English and Canadian French; but the
proportion of English has tended to increase. The Chinookan linguistic
family includes a number of separate tribes.
The name CHINOOK is also applied to a wind which blows from W. or N.
over the slopes of the Rocky Mountains, where it descends as a dry wind
warm in winter and cool in summer (cf. _Foehn_). It is due to a cyclone
passing northward, and continues from a few hours to several days. It
moderates the climate of the eastern Rockies, the snow melting quickly
on account of its warmth and vanishing on account of its dryness, so
that it is said to "lick up" the snow from the slopes.
See Gill, _Dictionary of Chinook Jargon_ (Portland, Ore., 1891); Boas,
"Chinook Texts," in _Smithsonian Report_, Bureau of Ethnology
(Washington, 1894); J.C. Pilling, "Bibliography of Chinookan
Languages," _Smithsonian Report_, Bureau of Ethnology (Washington,
1893); Horatio Hale, _Manual of Oregon Trade Language_ (London, 1890);
G.C. Shaw, _The Chinook Jargon_ (Seattle, 1909); _Handbook of American
Indians_ (Washington, 1907).
CHINSURA, a town of British India, on the Hugli river, 24 m. above
Calcutta, formerly the principal Dutch settlement in Bengal. The Dutch
erected a factory here in 1656, on a healthy spot of ground, much
preferable to that on which Calcutta is situated. In 1759 a British
force under Colonel Forde was attacked by the garrison of Chinsura on
its march to Chandernagore, but in less than half an hour the Dutch were
entirely routed. In 1795, during the Napoleonic wars, the settlement was
occupied by a British garrison. At the peace of 1814 it was restored to
the Dutch. It was among the cessions in India made by the king of the
Netherlands in 1825 in exchange for the British possessions in Sumatra.
Hugli College is maintained by government; and there are a number of
schools, several of which are carried on by Scottish Presbyterian
missionaries. Chinsura is included in the Hugli municipality.
CHINTZ, a word derived from the Hindu _ch[=i]nt_, spotted or variegated.
This name was given to a kind of stained or painted calico produced in
India. It is now applied to a highly glazed printed calico, commonly
made in several colours on a light ground and used for bed hangings,
covering furniture, &c.
CHIOGGIA, a town and episcopal see of Venetia, Italy, in the province of
Venice, from which it is 181/2 m. S. by sea. Pop. (1901) 21,384 (town),
31,218 (commune). It is inhabited mostly by fishermen, and is situated
upon an island at the S. end of the lagoons. It is traversed by one main
canal, La Vena. The peculiar dialect and customs of the inhabitants
still survive to some extent. It is of earlier origin than Venice, and
indeed is probably identical with the Roman Portus Aedro, or Ebro,
though its name is derived from the Roman Fossa Claudia, a canalized
estuary which with the two mouths of the Meduacus (Brenta) went to form
the harbour. In 672 it entered the league of the cities of the lagoons,
and recognized the authority of the doge. In 809 it was almost destroyed
by Pippin, but in 1110 was made a city, remaining subject to Venice,
whose fortunes it thenceforth followed. It was captured after a
determined resistance by the Genoese in 1379, but recovered in 1380.
Chioggia is connected by rail with Rovigo, 35 m. to the south-west.
(T. AS.)
_Naval War of Chioggia (1378-80)._--The naval war of 1378-1380, carried
on by Venice against the Genoese and their allies, the lord of Carrara
and the king of Hungary, is of exceptional interest as one in which a
superior naval power, having suffered disaster in its home waters, and
having been invaded, was yet able to win in the end by holding out till
its squadrons in distant seas could be recalled for its defence.
When the war began in the spring of 1378, Venice was mainly concerned
for the safety of its trading stations in the Levant and the Black
Sea, which were exposed to the attacks of the Genoese. The more
powerful of the two fleets which it sent out was despatched into the
eastern Mediterranean under Carlo Zeno, the bailiff and captain of
Negropont. A smaller force was sent to operate against the Genoese in
the western Mediterranean, and was placed under the command of Vettor
Pisani. The possessions of Venice on the mainland, which were then
small, were assailed by Francesco Carrara and the Hungarians. Her only
ally in the war, Bernabo Visconti of Milan, gave her little help on
this side, but his mercenaries invaded the territory of Genoa. The
danger on land seemed trifling to Venice so long as she could keep the
sea open to her trade and press the war against the Genoese in the
Levant.
During the first stage of the war the plans of the senate were carried
out with general success. While Carlo Zeno harassed the Genoese
stations in the Levant, Vettor Pisani brought one of their squadrons
to action on the 30th of May 1378 off Punta di Anzio to the south of
the Tiber, and defeated it. The battle was fought in a gale by 10
Venetian against 11 Genoese galleys. The Genoese admiral, Luigi de'
Fieschi, was taken with 5 of his galleys, and others were wrecked.
Four of the squadron escaped, and steered for Famagusta in Cyprus,
then held by Genoa. If Pisani had directed his course to Genoa itself,
which was thrown into a panic by the defeat at Anzio, it is possible
that he might have dictated peace, but he thought his squadron too
weak, and preferred to follow the Genoese galleys which had fled to
Famagusta. During the summer of 1378 he was employed partly in
attacking the enemy in Cyprus, but mainly in taking possession of the
Istrian and Dalmatian towns which supported the Hungarians from fear
of the aggressive ambition of Venice. He was ordered to winter on the
coast of Istria, where his crews suffered from exposure and disease.
Genoa, having recovered from the panic caused by the disaster at
Anzio, decided to attack Venice at home while the best of her ships
were absent with Carlo Zeno. She sent a strong fleet into the Adriatic
under Luciano Doria. Pisani had been reinforced early in the spring of
1378, but when he was sighted by the Genoese fleet of 25 sail off Pola
in Istria on the 7th of May, he was slightly outnumbered, and his
crews were still weak. The Venetian admiral would have preferred to
avoid battle, and to check an attack on Venice itself, by threatening
the Genoese fleet from his base on the Istrian coast. He was forced
into battle by the commissioner (_proveditore_) Michael Steno, who as
agent of the senate had authority over the admiral. The Venetians were
defeated with the loss of all their galleys except six. Luciano Doria
fell in the battle, and the Genoese, who had suffered severely, did
not at once follow up their success. On the arrival of his successor,
Pietro Doria, with reinforcements, they appeared off the Lido, the
outer barrier of the lagoon of Venice, in July, and in August they
entered on a combined naval and military attack on the city, in
combination with the Carrarese and the Hungarians. The Venetians had
closed the passages through the outer banks except at the southern
end, at the island of Brondolo, and the town of Chioggia. The barrier
here approaches close to the mainland, and the position facilitated
the co-operation of the Genoese with the Carrarese and Hungarians, but
Chioggia is distant from Venice, which could only be reached along the
canals across the lagoon. The Venetians had taken up the buoys which
marked the fairway, and had placed a light squadron on the lagoon. The
allies, after occupying the island of Brondolo, attacked, and on the
13th of August took the town of Chioggia with its garrison of 3000
men.
There appeared to be nothing to prevent the enemy from advancing to
the city of Venice except the difficult navigation of the lagoon. The
senate applied for peace, but when the Genoese replied that they were
resolved to "bit and bridle the horses of Saint Mark" the Venetians
decided to fight to the end. Vettor Pisani, who had been imprisoned
after the defeat at Pola, but who possessed the confidence of the
people and the affection of the sailors, was released and named
commander-in-chief against the wish of the aristocracy. Under his
guidance the Venetians adopted a singularly bold and ingenious policy
of offensive defence. The heavy Genoese vessels were much hampered by
the shallow water and intricate passages through the lagoon. By taking
advantage of their embarrassment and his own local knowledge, Pisani
carried out a series of movements which entirely turned the tables on
the invaders. Between the 23rd and 25th of August he executed a
succession of night attacks, during which he sank vessels laden with
stores not only in the canals leading through the lagoon to Venice,
but in the fairways leading from Chioggia to the open sea round both
ends of the island of Brondolo. The Genoese were thus shut in at the
very moment when they thought they were about to besiege Venice.
Pisani stationed the galleys under his command in the open sea outside
Brondolo, and during the rest of the year blockaded the enemy closely.
The distress of the Venetians themselves was great, but the Doge
Andrea Contarini and the nobles set an example by sharing the general
hardships, and taking an oath not to return to Venice till they had
recovered Chioggia. Carlo Zeno had long since been ordered to return,
but the slowness and difficulty of communication and movement under
14th century conditions delayed his reappearance. The besiegers of
Chioggia were at the end of their powers of endurance, and Pisani had
been compelled to give a promise that the siege would be raised, when
Zeno's fleet reached the anchorage off Brondolo on the 1st of January
1380. The attack on Chioggia was now pressed with vigour. The Genoese
held out resolutely in the hope of relief from home. But the resources
of Genoa had been taxed to fit out the squadrons she had already sent
to sea. It was not until the 12th of May 1380 that her admiral, Matteo
Maruffo, was able to reach the neighbourhood of Brondolo with a
relieving force. By this time the Venetians had recovered the island,
and their fleet occupied a fortified anchorage from which they refused
to be drawn. Maruffo could do nothing, and on the 24th of June 1380
the defenders of Chioggia surrendered. The crisis of the war was past.
Venice, being now safe at home, recovered the command of the sea, and
before the close of the year was able to make peace as a conqueror.
AUTHORITIES.--S. Romanin, _Storia documentata di Venezia_ (Venice,
1855); W.C. Hazlitt, _History of the Venetian Republic_ (London,
1860); Horatio F. Brown, _Venice_ (London, 1893). (D.H.)
CHIOS, an island on the west coast of Asia Minor, called by the Greeks
Chios ([Greek: Chios, 's te Chio]) and by the Turks Saki Adasi; the soft
pronunciation of [CHI] before [iota] in modern Greek, approximating to
_sh_, caused [Greek: Chio] to be Italianized as Scio. It forms, with the
islands of Psara, Nikaria, Leros, Calymnus and Cos, a sanjak of the
Archipelago vilayet. Chios is about 30 m. long from N. to S., and from 8
to 15 m. broad; pop. 64,000. It well deserves the epithet "craggy"
([Greek: paipaloessa]) of the Homeric hymn. Its figs were noted in
ancient times, but wine and gum mastic have always been the most
important products. The climate is healthy; oranges, olives and even
palms grow freely. The wine grown on the N.W. coast, in the district
called by Strabo Ariusia, was known as _vinum Arvisium_. Early in the
7th century B.C. Glaucus of Chios discovered the process of welding iron
([Greek: kollesis]: see J.G. Frazer's _Pausanias_, note on x. 16. 1,
vol. v. pp. 313-314), and the iron stand of a large crater whose parts
were all connected by this process was constructed by him, and preserved
as one of the most interesting relics of antiquity at Delphi. The long
line of Chian sculptors (see GREEK ART) in marble bears witness to the
fame of Chian art. In literature the chief glory of Chios was the school
of epic poets called Homeridae, who helped to create a received text of
Homer and gave the island the reputation of being the poet's birthplace.
The chief town, Chios (pop. 16,000), is on the E. coast. A theatre and a
temple of Athena Poliuchus existed in the ancient city. About 6 m. N. of
the city there is a curious monument of antiquity, commonly called "the
school of Homer"; it is a very ancient sanctuary of Cybele, with an
altar and a figure of the goddess with her two lions, cut out of the
native rock on the summit of a hill. On the west coast there is a
monastery of great wealth with a church founded by Constantine IX.
Monomachus (1042-1054). Starting from the city and encompassing the
island, one passes in succession the promontory Posidium; Cape Phanae,
the southern extremity of Chios, with a harbour and a temple of Apollo;
Notium, probably the south-western point of the island; Laii, opposite
the city of Chios, where the island is narrowest; the town Bolissus (now
Volisso), the home of the Homerid poets; Melaena, the north-western
point; the wine-growing district Ariusia; Cardamyle (now Cardhamili);
the north-eastern promontory was probably named Phlium, and the
mountains that cross the northern part of the island Pelinaeus or
Pellenaeus.
The history of Chios is very obscure. According to Pherecydes, the
original inhabitants were Leleges, while according to other accounts
Thessalian Pelasgi possessed the island before it became an Ionian
state. The name Aethalia, common to Chios and Lemnos in very early
times, suggests the original existence of a homogeneous population in
these and other neighbouring islands. Oenopion, a mythical hero, son
of Dionysus or of Rhadamanthus, was an early king of Chios. His
successor in the fourth generation, Hector, united the island to the
Ionian confederacy (Pausan. vii. 4), though Strabo (xiv. p. 633)
implies an actual conquest by Ionian settlers. The regal government
was at a later time exchanged for an oligarchy or a democracy. The
names of two tyrants, Amphiclus and Polytecnus, are mentioned. The
products of the island were largely exported on the ships of Miletus,
with which city Chios formed a close mercantile alliance in opposition
to the rival league of Phocaea and Samos. Similar commercial
considerations determined the Chians in their attitude towards the
Persian conquerors: in 546 they submitted to Cyrus as eagerly as
Phocaea resisted him; during the Ionian revolt their fleet of 100 sail
joined the Milesians in offering a desperate opposition at Lade (494).
The island was subsequently punished with great rigour by the
Persians. The Chian ships, under the tyrant Strattis, served in the
Persian fleet at Salamis. After its liberation in 479 Chios joined the
Delian League and long remained a firm ally of the Athenians, who
allowed it to retain full autonomy. But in 413 the island revolted,
and was not recaptured. After the Peloponnesian War it took the first
opportunity to renew the Athenian alliance, but in 357 again seceded.
As a member of the Delian League it had regained its prosperity, being
able to equip a fleet of 50 or 60 sail. Moreover, it was reputed one
of the best-governed states in Greece, for although it was governed
alternately by oligarchs and democrats neither party persecuted the
other severely. It was not till late in the 4th century that civil
dissension became a danger to the state, leaving it a prey to Idrieus,
the dynast of Caria (346), and to the Persian admiral Memnon (333).
During the Hellenistic age Chios maintained itself in a virtually
independent position. It supported the Romans in their Eastern wars,
and was made a "free and allied state." Under Roman and Byzantine rule
industry and commerce were undisturbed, its chief export at this time
being the Arvisian wine, which had become very popular. After
temporary occupations by the Seljuk Turks (1089-1092) and by the
Venetians (1124-1125, 1172, 1204-1225), it was given in fief to the
Genoese family of Zaccaria, and in 1346 passed definitely into the
hands of a Genoese _maona_, or trading company, which was organized in
1362 under the name of "the Giustiniani." This mercantile brotherhood,
formerly a privileged class, alone exploited the mastic trade; at the
same time the Greeks were allowed to retain their rights of
self-government and continued to exercise their industries. In 1415
the Genoese became tributary to the Ottomans. In spite of occasional
secessions which brought severe punishment upon the island (1453,
1479), the rule of the Giustiniani was not abolished till 1566. Under
the Ottoman government the prosperity of Chios was hardly affected.
But the island underwent severe periods of suffering after its capture
and reconquest from the Florentines (1595) and the Venetians
(1694-1695), which greatly reduced the number of the Latins. Worst of
all were the massacres of 1822, which followed upon an attack by some
Greek insurgents executed against the will of the natives. In 1881
Chios was visited by a very severe earthquake in which over 5600
persons lost their lives and more than half the villages were
seriously damaged. The island has now recovered its prosperity. There
is a harbour at Castro, and steam flour-mills, foundries and tanneries
have been established. Rich antimony and calamine mines are worked by
a French undertaking, and good marble is quarried by an Italian
company.
AUTHORITIES.--Strabo xiv. pp. 632 f.; Athenaeus vi. 265-266; Herodotus
i. 160-165, vi. 15-31; Thucydides viii. 14-61; _Corpus Inscr.
Atticarum_, iv. (2), pp. 9, 10; H. Houssaye in _Revue des deux
mondes_, xlvi. (1876), pp. 1 ff.; T. Bent in _Historical Review_
(1889), pp. 467-480; Fustel de Coulanges, _L'Ile de Chio_ (ed.
Jullian, Paris, 1893); for coinage, B.V. Head, _Historia numorum_
(Oxford, 1887), pp. 513-515, and NUMISMATICS: _Greek_. (E. GR.;
M. O. B. C.)
CHIPPENDALE, THOMAS (d. 1779), the most famous of English cabinetmakers.
The materials for the biography of Chippendale are exceedingly scanty,
but he is known to have been the son of Thomas Chippendale I., and is
believed to have been the father of Thomas Chippendale III. His father
was a cabinet-maker and wood-carver of considerable repute in Worcester
towards the beginning of the 18th century, and possibly he originated
some of the forms which became characteristic of his son's work. Thus a
set of chairs and settees was made, apparently at Worcester, for the
family of Bury of Knateshill, at a period when the great cabinetmaker
could have been no more than a boy, which are practically identical with
much of the work that was being turned out of the family factory as late
as the 'sixties of the 18th century. Side by side with the Queen Anne or
early Georgian feeling of the first quarter of the 18th century we find
the interlaced splats and various other details which marked the
Chippendale style. By 1727 the elder Chippendale and his son had removed
to London, and at the end of 1749 the younger man--his father was
probably then dead--established himself in Conduit Street, Long Acre,
whence in 1753 he removed to No. 60 St Martin's Lane, which with the
addition of the adjoining three houses remained his factory for the rest
of his life. In 1755 his workshops were burned down; in 1760 he was
elected a member of the Society of Arts; in 1766 his partnership with
James Ranni was dissolved by the latter's death.
It has always been exceedingly difficult to distinguish the work
executed in Chippendale's factory and under his own eye from that of the
many copyists and adapters who throughout the second half of the 18th
century--the golden age of English furniture--plundered remorselessly.
Apart from his published designs, many of which were probably never made
up, we have to depend upon the very few instances in which his original
accounts enable us to earmark work which was unquestionably his. For
Claydon House, the seat of the Verneys in Buckinghamshire, he executed
much decorative work, and the best judges are satisfied that the Chinese
bedroom there was designed by him. At Harewood House, the seat of the
earl of Harewood in Yorkshire, we are on firmer ground. The house was
furnished between 1765 and 1771, and both Robert Adam and Chippendale
were employed upon it. Indeed, there is unmistakable evidence to show
that certain work, so closely characteristic of the Adams that it might
have been assigned to them without hesitation, was actually produced by
Chippendale. This may be another of the many indications that
Chippendale was himself an imitator, or it may be that Adam, as
architect, prescribed designs which Chippendale's cabinetmakers and
carvers executed. Chippendale's bills for this Adam work are still
preserved. Stourhead, the famous house of the Hoares in Wiltshire,
contains much undoubted Chippendale furniture, which may, however, be
the work of Thomas Chippendale III.; at Rowton Castle, Shropshire,
Chippendale's bills as well as his works still exist.
Our other main source of information is _The Gentleman and Cabinet
Maker's Director_, which was published by Thomas Chippendale in 1754.
This book, the most important collection of furniture designs issued up
to that time in England, contains one hundred and sixty engraved plates,
and the list of subscribers indicates that the author had acquired a
large and distinguished body of customers. The book is of folio size;
there was a second edition in 1759, and a third in 1762.
In the rather bombastic introduction Chippendale says that he has been
encouraged to produce the book "by persons of distinction and taste, who
have regretted that an art capable of so much perfection and refinement
should be executed with so little propriety and elegance." He has some
severe remarks upon critics, from which we may assume that he had
already suffered at their hands. Perhaps, indeed, Chippendale may have
been hinted at in the caustic remarks of Isaac Ware, surveyor to the
king, who bewailed that it was the misfortune of the world in his day
"to see an unmeaning scrawl of C's inverted and looped together, taking
the place of Greek and Roman elegance even in our most expensive
decorations. It is called French, and let them have the praise of it!
The Gothic shaft and Chinese bell are not beyond nor below it in
poorness of imitation." It is the more likely that these barbs were
intended for Chippendale, since he was guilty not only of many essays in
Gothic, but of a vast amount of work in the Chinese fashion, as well as
in the flamboyant style of Louis XV. The _Director_ contains examples of
each of the manners which aroused the scorn of the king's surveyor.
Chippendale has even shared with Sir William Chambers the obloquy of
introducing the Chinese style, but he appears to have done nothing worse
than "conquer," as Alexandre Dumas used to call it, the ideas of other
people. Nor would it be fair to the man who, whatever his occasional
extravagances and absurdities, was yet a great designer and a great
transmuter, to pretend that all his Chinese designs were contemptible.
Many of them, with their geometrical lattice-work and carved tracery,
are distinctly elegant and effective. Occasionally we find in one piece
of furniture a combination of the three styles which Chippendale most
affected at different periods--Louis XV., Chinese and Gothic--and it
cannot honestly be said that the result is as incongruous as might have
been expected. Some of his most elegant and attractive work is derived
directly from the French, and we cannot doubt that the inspiration of
his famous ribbon-backed chair came directly from some of the more
artistic performances in rococo.
The primary characteristic of his work is solidity, but it is a solidity
which rarely becomes heaviness. Even in his most lightsome efforts, such
as the ribbon-backed chair, construction is always the first
consideration. It is here perhaps that he differs most materially from
his great successor Sheraton, whose ideas of construction were eccentric
in the extreme. It is indeed in the chair that Chippendale is seen at
his best and most characteristic. From his hand, or his pencil, we have
a great variety of chairs, which, although differing extensively in
detail, may be roughly arranged in three or four groups, which it would
sometimes be rash to attempt to date. He introduced the cabriole leg,
which, despite its antiquity, came immediately from Holland; the claw
and ball foot of ancient Oriental use; the straight, square,
uncompromising early Georgian leg; the carved lattice-work Chinese leg;
the pseudo-Chinese leg; the fretwork leg, which was supposed to be in
the best Gothic taste; the inelegant rococo leg with the curled or
hoofed foot; and even occasionally the spade foot, which is supposed to
be characteristic of the somewhat later style of Hepplewhite. His
chair-backs were very various. His efforts in Gothic were sometimes
highly successful; often they took the form of the tracery of a church
window, or even of an ovalled rose window. His Chinese backs were
distinctly geometrical, and from them he would seem to have derived some
of the inspiration for the frets of the glazed book-cases and cabinets
which were among his most agreeable work. The most attractive feature of
Chippendale's most artistic chairs--those which, originally derived from
Louis Quinze models, were deprived of their rococo extravagances--is the
back, which, speaking generally, is the most elegant and pleasing thing
that has ever been done in furniture. He took the old solid or slightly
pierced back, and cut it up into a light openwork design exquisitely
carved--for Chippendale was a carver before everything--in a vast
variety of designs ranging from the elaborate and extremely elegant, if
much criticized, ribbon back, to a comparatively plain but highly
effective splat. His armchairs, however, often had solid or stuffed
backs. Next to his chairs Chippendale was most successful with settees,
which almost invariably took the shape of two or three conjoined chairs,
the arms, backs and legs identical with those which he used for single
seats. He was likewise a prolific designer and maker of book-cases,
cabinets and escritoires with doors glazed with fretwork divisions. Some
of those which he executed in the style which in his day passed for
Gothic are exceedingly handsome and effective. We have, too, from his
hand many cases for long clocks, and a great number of tables, some of
them with a remarkable degree of Gallic grace. He was especially
successful in designing small tables with fretwork galleries for the
display of china. His mirrors, which were often in the Chinese taste or
extravagantly rococo, are remarkable and characteristic. In his day the
cabinetmaker still had opportunities for designing and constructing the
four-post bedstead, and some of Chippendale's most graceful work was
lavished upon the woodwork of the lighter, more refined and less
monumental four-poster, which, thanks in some degree to his initiative,
took the place of the massive Tudor and the funereally hung Jacobean
bed. From an organ case to a washhand-stand, indeed, no piece of
domestic furniture came amiss to this astonishing man, and if sometimes
he was extravagant, grotesque or even puerile, his level of achievement
is on the whole exceedingly high.
Since the revival of interest in his work he has often been criticized
with considerable asperity, but not always justly. Chippendale's work
has stood the supreme test of posterity more completely than that of any
of his rivals or successors; and, unlike many men of genius, we know him
to have been warmly appreciated in his lifetime. He was at once an
artist and a prosperous man of business. His claims to distinction are
summed up in the fact that his name has by general consent been attached
to the most splendid period of English furniture.
Chippendale was buried on the 13th of November 1779, apparently at the
church of St Martin-in-the-Fields, and administration of his intestate
estate was granted to his widow Elizabeth. He left four children, Thomas
Chippendale III., John, Charles and Mary. He was one of the assignees in
bankruptcy of the notorious Theresa Cornelys of Soho Square, of whom we
read in Casanova and other scandalous chronicles of the time. Thomas
Chippendale III. succeeded to the business of his father and
grandfather, and for some years the firm traded under the style of
Chippendale & Haig. The factory remained in St Martin's Lane, but in
1814 an additional shop was opened at No. 57 Haymarket, whence it was in
1821 removed to 42 Jermyn Street. Like his father, Thomas Chippendale
III. was a member of the Society of Arts; and he is known to have
exhibited five pictures at the Royal Academy between 1784 and 1801. He
died at the end of 1822 or the beginning of 1823. (J. P. -B.)
CHIPPENHAM, a market town and municipal borough in the Chippenham
parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, 94 m. W. of London by the
Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 5074. Chippenham is governed by a
mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 361 acres. It lies in a
hollow on the south side of the Upper Avon, here crossed by a
picturesque stone bridge of 21 arches. St Andrew's church, originally
Norman of the 12th century, has been enlarged in different styles. A
paved causeway running for about 4 m. between Chippenham Cliff and Wick
Hill is named after Maud Heath, said to have been a market-woman, who
built it in the 15th century, and bequeathed an estate for its
maintenance. After the decline of its woollen and silk trades,
Chippenham became celebrated for grain and cheese markets. There are
also manufactures of broadcloth, churns, condensed milk,
railway-signals, guns and carriages; besides bacon-curing works, flour
mills, tanneries and large stone quarries. Bowood, the seat of the
marquess of Lansdowne, is 3-1/2 m. S.E. of Chippenham. Lanhill barrow,
or Hubba's Low, 2-1/2 m. N.W., is an ancient tomb containing a
_kistvaen_ or sepulchral chamber of stone; it is probably British,
though tradition makes it the grave of Hubba, a Danish leader.
Chippenham (_Chepeham, Chippeham_) was the site of a royal residence
where in 853 AEthelwulf celebrated the marriage of his daughter
AEthelswitha with Burhred, king of Mercia. The town also figured
prominently in the Danish invasion of the 9th century, and in 933 was
the meeting-place of the witan. In the Domesday Survey Chippenham
appears as a crown manor and is not assessed in hides. The town was
governed by a bailiff in the reign of Edward I., and returned two
members to parliament from 1295, but it was not incorporated until 1553,
when a charter from Mary established a bailiff and twelve burgesses and
endowed the corporation with certain lands for the maintenance of two
parliamentary burgesses and for the repair of the bridge over the Avon.
In 1684 this charter was surrendered to Charles II., and in 1685 a new
charter was received from James II., which was shortly abandoned in
favour of the original grant. The Representation Act of 1868 reduced the
number of parliamentary representatives to one, and the borough was
disfranchised by the Redistribution Act of 1885. The derivation of
Chippenham from _cyppan_, to buy, implies that the town possessed a
market in Saxon times. When Henry VII. introduced the clothing
manufacture into Wiltshire, Chippenham became an important centre of the
industry, which has lapsed. A prize, however, was awarded to the town
for this commodity at the Great Exhibition of 1851.
CHIPPEWA[1] FALLS, a city and the county-seat of Chippewa county,
Wisconsin, U.S.A., on the Chippewa river, about 100 m. E. of St Paul,
Minnesota, and 12 m. N.E. of Eau Claire, Wisconsin. Pop. (1890) 8670;
(1900) 8094; (1910, census) 8893. It is served by the Minneapolis, St
Paul & Sault Ste Marie, the Chicago & North-Western, and the Chicago,
Milwaukee & St Paul railways, and by the electric line to Eau Claire.
The first settlement on the site was made in 1837; and the city was
chartered in 1870.