History from first conquest by the Romans, 300 B.C., down to
the present Prince--Fruits of the last campaign--Education--The
military system--Legal administration--Crime--Government--The educated
classes.
The district which corresponds most nearly to Montenegro of the
present day comes first into notice when the Romans attacked Queen
Teuta and drove her back beyond the modern Podgorica in the third
century B.C. From this time onwards Roman influence made
itself felt strongly in the Praevalitana, an outlying province of
Illyria, and the city of Dioclea--whose ruins still exist in the
neighbourhood of Podgorica, and which was to play such an important
part in the germ state of Crnagora, or the "Land of the Black
Mountain"--rose into being. Diocletian, the famous divider of the
Roman Empire, was born there, and the city became the capital of the
district to which it gave the name. The triumvirs placed the
border-line of the Eastern and Western divisions at Skodra, or
Scutari, as the Europeans call it. Under the early empire, the land
was perpetually changing from East to West, but when the Western
division fell under the weight of barbarian invasions Uin 476 A.D.,
it was finally incorporated in the East. This was a momentous
decision, for the manners and habits of the people still remain tinged
with Eastern life, and in the ninth century it secured their adhesion
to the Eastern Church, which influences their policy to the present
time. The principality of Dioclea, or Zeta, as it soon became called,
was one of the confederate Serb states formed by Heraclius in 622
A.D., to act as a buffer state against the inroads of the Avars. Each
state was ruled by a Zupan or Prince who owed allegiance to the Grand
Zupan, the head of the heptarchy. But the confederation was very
loose, the rival chieftains fighting amongst one another for the
supremacy, for the Serb race has ever been noted for its lack of unity
and corresponding love of freedom. The famous Bulgarian Czar Samuel,
_circa_ 980, who had overrun the rest of the Serb states, and made for
himself a great empire, found that he was powerless to conquer the
warlike John Vladimir of the Zeta; and again, nearly a century later,
in 1050, we find the Zeta Zupa so powerful that their Prince assumes
the title of King of Servia, and is confirmed in his right by Gregory
VII., the famous Pope Hildebrand. Dissensions then broke out again,
and for the next hundred years the land owned the sway of the Greek
Empire. The two most celebrated Serb kings--Stefan Nemanja (1143) and
Stefan Dusan (1336-1356)--both ascended to the head of the
confederation from the principality of the Zeta. The latter raised the
Serb kingdom to its zenith, and formed an ephemeral empire which bears
many a resemblance to that of Napoleon. Montenegro had all this time
been steadily growing, and on the accession of Dusan to Servia, the
district of the Zeta fell to the Balsic, who proved themselves to be a
strong and competent race of rulers. They increased their territories
to such an extent that, at the time of the battle of Kossovo, they
could boast to ruling over all the land from Ragusa to the mouth of
the Drin, including the present West Montenegro and Southern
Hercegovina, with Skodra as the capital. After the overthrow of the
great Servian Empire on the field of Kossovo, Montenegro became
entirely independent of outside suzerainty, and from the year 1389 to
the present day, is the only Balkan state which has successfully
defied the invasions of the Turk. The Balsic engaged themselves in
several fruitless wars with Venice, by which they lost Skodra, so
that, when their line died out and the succession fell to Stefan
Crnoievic (the name Crnoievic, Black Prince, is supposed by some to be
the origin of the name Crnagora or Black Mountain), a new capital must
perforce be built, at the northern end of the lake, called Zabljak.
Stefan Crnoievic allied himself with Skenderbeg, the King of Albania,
and within twelve years is said to have fought over fifty battles
with the Turks who, in their impotent rage, poured army after army
into the land, but entirely failed to break the courage of this brave
little people. His people gave him the title of Voivoda of the Zeta,
but the limits of his principality seem to have been very undefined.
The position of his son Ivan was, however, of greater danger, for in
1444 the kingdom of Hungary had fallen before the Turk, and they
captured Constantinople nine years later; after this Servia, Bosnia,
Albania (on the death of Skenderbeg), and Hercegovina were overrun in
quick succession. In 1484 Ivan found himself obliged to burn his
capital of Zabljak, and retire into the more inaccessible mountain
fastnesses of the Katunska, the district round Cetinje. Cetinje itself
was chosen by Ivan as his new centre, and though hardly pressed, he
inflicted many severe defeats upon the Turks. Arrived in his new
capital, he called his braves together, and told them that if they
would surrender to the foe, they must find a new Prince, for, as for
himself, he preferred death. So this little band of warriors, and they
could not have numbered more than eight thousand fighting men, swore
to resist this almighty foe to death--not to attack, but to resist. It
must have been an impressive scene, this compact between Prince and
people, and later history bears out fully how nobly the descendants of
these mountain warriors have kept to their oath. For they, alone, of
all the Balkan states, have successfully repulsed the Turk, who,
though often seemingly victorious, has returned home with shattered
armies and full of impotent rage.
[Illustration: SKETCH MAP OF MONTENEGRO.]
In their need they applied to Venice for help, quoting the great
assistance that they were rendering her in occupying the Turks; but
the Queen of Cities, who was at that moment occupied in patching up a
treaty with the Sultan, turned a deaf ear to their entreaties.
Montenegro found then, for the first time--and all through her history
she was destined to find the same--that she must fight her battles
alone. Allies have used her always for their own ends and then
shamefully deserted her. Yet all through the spirit of indomitable
courage has never deserted the children of Crnagora, for they could
never forget the oath which their forefathers had sworn for them.
Ivan, after several great victories, was left to end his days in
peace. He spent his years well in strengthening the land, both in the
arts of war and peace. In Obod, which is close to Rijeka, he erected a
printing press, some twenty years after Caxton had set up his in
Westminster, and though it was afterwards burnt by the Turks, still
the remembrance of it remains right glorious in Montenegrin memory.
The last Crnoievic relinquished his home for Venice. He had married a
Venetian wife, who, among the bleak mountains of the Katunska, was
pining for the sun and warmth of her native city. But before leaving
he laid down the lines for a powerful regime. A Prince-Bishop, or
Vladika, was placed at the head of affairs, but, to help him in his
difficult task, there was created a second office, that of Civil
Governor, who was to hold a subordinate position. This office was
abolished in 1832 by Peter II., on the treachery of the Civil Governor
Radonic, who was found to have intrigued with the Austrians.
From 1616 to 1696 the Vladikas were elective, and under their
quarrelsome rule Cetinje was twice burnt and phoenix-like rose again
from its ashes. The Turkish armies, though partially victorious,
usually met with disaster and ruin before reaching their own territory
again; and we read of one notable occasion when Soliman Pasha, with an
army of 80,000 men, had sacked Cetinje. On his way home he was
surprised by the two tribes of Kuc and Klementi, and annihilated. But
as time went on it became necessary from political reasons to change
the system of government from election to heredity, and the choice
fell on the Lord of Njegusi Danilo Petrovic, whose reign (1696-1735)
is chiefly memorable for the Montenegrin vespers of the Turks and
Turkish renegades, who had rendered so much assistance to Kiuprili
Pasha in one of his terrible invasions. But a crushing defeat of the
Turks in 1706 gave the land peace for thirty years.
In 1767 an adventurer named Stefan Mali sprang himself upon the land.
He claimed to be the murdered Peter III. of Russia, and easily imposed
himself upon the gullible Montenegrin. But he had the interests of
Montenegro sincerely at heart, and proved an excellent ruler. His
imposture was exposed by Catherine II., but owing to the weakness of
the Petrovic heir, the people determined to keep him as their ruler.
He fell a victim to the assassin's knife at the instigation of the
Pasha of Scutari. His successor, Peter Petrovic, the famous St. Peter
of Montenegrin history, was a firm and courageous ruler, who made his
influence felt throughout the courts of Europe. Austria, Russia, and
England did not scruple to avail themselves of his help and then, as
seems to be the Montenegrin fate, left him in the lurch. He defied the
armies of the great Napoleon, who came to fear him and his warlike
clan insomuch that he was even offered terms of friendship. But the
proud mountaineer would have none of it. He now turned his hand, under
the influence of Russia, which was then very real, to the
consolidation of the land, and slept in peace with his fathers.
His successor, Peter II., carried on the struggle with the Turks, who
proposed an increase of territory and a Turkish title in return for
the acknowledgment of suzerainty. "As long as my people defend me,"
was the proud answer, "I need no Turkish title to my throne; if they
desert me, such a title would avail me little." War was the effect of
this retort, but the Turks gained nothing by it, and peace was soon
made.
The danger of the power of Austria came now to be fully recognised.
After the Napoleonic wars, Austria had retained Cattaro and Spizza,
and trouble now broke out over some land near Budua. The Montenegrins
fell upon the Austrians, and fierce conflicts ensued, but Peter, who
had gained an extraordinary hold over his subjects, forbade them to
continue. Hostilities, however, continued in a desultory fashion for
some time.
Peter was followed by Danilo II., a weak ruler, but his reign is
famous for two events--the cession of the spiritual authority of the
Prince-Bishop to an Archbishop and the "Great Charter" of Montenegro.
Danilo's reforms, however, led the Turk again to attack his invincible
foe, only again to end in great disaster. But in the Crimean War
Montenegro, greatly to the disgust of the people, did not participate,
and in the Congress which followed Danilo was offered a Turkish title
and the hated Turkish protectorate. His willingness to accept this led
to the formation of a strong opposition party who demanded war.
Fortune was on their side, and the Turks invaded Montenegro. The
command fell to Mirko, who from his former exploits had gained the
name of the "Sword of Montenegro." A battle was fought at Grahovo,
which will ever live in memory as the Montenegrin Marathon. The Turks
were completely crushed by a small force of Montenegrins, and peace
followed. His brief reign was brought to a close at Cattaro, in 1861,
by an assassin's bullet, and Nicolas, his nephew, reigned in his
stead.
War broke out again on the Hercegovinian insurrection of the following
year, the results of which were disastrous in a high degree to
Montenegro. Even the famous Mirko, the father of Prince Nicolas, after
sixty battles, could do no more, and the Convention of Scutari (1862)
brought the war to a close. It was settled that Mirko, as the
firebrand, must leave the country, and various other clauses appear in
the Convention, few of which seem to have been strictly adhered to. It
needed another war to settle the Turco-Montenegrin border.
The land now enjoyed the blessings of peace for fourteen years, which
included a severe famine and an outbreak of cholera. Help was now,
however, forthcoming from all sides in the shape of corn and money. In
1869 it was with great difficulty that the Prince could restrain his
warlike subjects from aiding the revolted Krivosejans. The Emperor of
Austria fully recognised the harm which Montenegro could have done
him, and signalised his thanks by the gift of an Austrian Order. But
the Montenegrins could not be restrained at the outbreak of the
Hercegovinian revolt, and flocked to the standards of their brothers.
The Porte's remonstrances were met with a curt demand for the cession
of Hercegovina, and Prince Nicolas published at the same time an
offensive and defensive alliance with Servia.
Immediately after this (1876) he declared war. Success followed his
arms everywhere. A short armistice was concluded, but nothing further
came of it, and the war proceeded. The Prince in person stormed the
town of Niksic. Podgorica and its fertile plain fell into the hands of
the conquerors, and then in quick succession Antivari and Dulcigno
were forced to yield. He was about to commence the siege of Scutari
when news came of the armistice between Russia and Turkey. The war had
shown that no deteriorating element had sprung up among the people;
they had fought as their ancestors had fought before them, and covered
their name with glory and renown. Montenegro had gained a European
reputation from this war, and the Porte, bowing to force of
circumstances, finally recognised her independence. For five weary
centuries had this struggle continued, and it is owing to the talent
of their present ruler that the consummation of their hopes has been
brought about. Free they always have been, but an acknowledgment of
their freedom has ever been set aside. At last they have attained
their object. The Turk no longer regards them as an insubordinate
province, and it is more than likely that their former hatred of the
Turk will pass away, for they have another enemy, who is pressing at
their doors on three sides. The terms of the Berlin Congress granted
to Montenegro Zabljak, Spuz, Podgorica, and Antivari. Dulcigno was to
be restored to the Turks, and in exchange Gusinje and Plava were to be
added to Montenegro. But the Albanian communities refused the lordship
of Montenegro, and Dulcigno was granted to the Prince after a great
naval demonstration of the Powers in 1880.
The result of this campaign was that Prince Nicolas found his little
kingdom increased from an area of 2,580 square kilometres, containing
a population of 178,000 inhabitants, to over 9,000 square kilometres
and a population of at least 240,000. In the last twenty-five years it
has increased to quite another 100,000 inhabitants.
War has never again seriously threatened Montenegro, and Prince
Nicolas has been enabled to devote all his energies to the improvement
of the land.
There is now no district, however wild and cut off it may be, without
its school, attendance at which is purely voluntary. Right well have
the people availed themselves of this chance of education, and a
sliding scale of school fees permits even the poorest peasant to send
his son as well as his more wealthy brother.
The teachers have a seminary at Cetinje, which they must first attend,
and a gymnasium on the German and Austrian system can be visited, for
those boys who wish to extend their education to an European standard.
The same boys usually visit some Russian University, occasionally
Vienna or Belgrade, and return to their native land as doctors,
engineers, or lawyers, and supply the learned professions.
At Cetinje there is a further High School for Girls, founded by the
Empress Marie of Russia in 1869.
As the older men have not enjoyed in their youth the advantages of an
education which is now placed within the reach of all, lecturers are
sent round the country, and on Sundays, in wild and cut-off districts,
a man can be seen lecturing to a group of rough mountaineers who are
listening intently. These Government lecturers teach the shepherds how
to safeguard their sheep and cattle from disease; the lowland peasants
are initiated into the mysteries of vine-growing (every Montenegrin
family must plant a vine and attend to it) and tobacco-planting, and
general information is given to all.
The Army has been thoroughly reorganised, and is now, thanks to the
gift of the Czar, armed with the most modern magazine rifle and
officered by men who undergo a training in the armies of Russia,
Italy, or France.
The army system is of the simplest. The actual standing army consists
of one battalion and a force of artillery, but during the year 4,000
men pass through its ranks and receive a most efficient training. The
men return to their homes at the end of four months' training, but
drill weekly continues, on Sundays, till the age limit of sixty is
reached, when their arms have to be returned to the Government, who
again serve them out to the next recruit. Thus the recruit comes
equipped for his four months' training, and takes his arms home with
him at the conclusion, and is responsible for their good condition.
Each man receives a certain number of cartridges, for which he must
always be able to account, so that every able-bodied man is an
efficient and well-armed soldier capable of taking the field at any
moment.
The smartest men become non-commissioned officers, and carry the
insignia of their rank on their caps back to private life, where they
become again the instructors of the local militia companies. There are
two classes of commissioned officers--the officer of the standing
army, trained in a Continental army, and who wears a distinctive
uniform, and at least one of these is detailed for service in all the
militia centres; and the militia officer, who receives his training
with the standing battalion or batteries.
Thus at a preconcerted signal, by trumpet and bonfires at night, and
in some districts by a salvo of rifles, the whole Montenegrin Army can
be mobilised at any given spot within the time that the furthest
detachment can travel to the place of rendezvous. An example of the
rapidity and ease of this mobilisation was once given to the late
Crown Prince Rudolf of Austria, at Cetinje, when an army, drawn from
every part of the country, equipped and ready for the field, was
assembled within thirty-six hours of the first alarm. There is no
commissariat, for each soldier supplies his own food, or rather his
wife will keep him supplied in a lengthy campaign; no cavalry, for
they are useless; and no heavy artillery.
Law is administered by district courts for the more serious cases,
with a Supreme Court of Appeal at Cetinje. There are no lawyers or
costs; each man brings his own case and witnesses in civil matters,
and criminals are dealt with summarily--that is to say, his district
captain sends him in chains to Podgorica, where he receives his final
sentence. The smaller district captains and "kmets," or mayors, have a
limited amount of jurisdiction, and can inflict punishments, either in
fines or short terms of imprisonment. They also settle all minor cases
of dispute.
The central, and soon to be the only, prison is at Podgorica. The
majority of prisoners are undergoing different sentences, with and
without chains, for murders in connection with the vendetta, according
to the circumstances. A man who defends his honour, who kills his
slanderer, is very lightly punished.
Against only one class of offender does Prince Nicolas exercise his
autocratic powers, _i.e._ the political offender, with whom he is
relentless. Such men are thrown into prison, interred in dark cells
without trial, and can languish till death sets them free. In this
respect the Prince is harsh, and according to Western ideas barbaric,
though local circumstances fully excuse his seeming cruelty. The
smallness of the prison at Podgorica shows more forcibly than anything
else the remarkable lack of crime in the land. At present (1902)
dangerous lunatics are confined in the common prison, but an asylum is
rapidly nearing completion.
The government is autocratic. A senate, composed of the different
ministers, exists in Cetinje, but all powers are jealously held by the
Prince. He appoints the ministers and all the higher officials of the
land, and only recently have the people been granted the right to
elect the kmets.
Montenegrin engineers now build the roads in place of Austrians and
Russians, and the difficulties that they meet with and surpass at
every turn are sufficient evidence of their capabilities. Foreign
doctors and professors are yearly becoming more rare. In fact,
Montenegro is rapidly becoming self-supporting and self-educating.
Literature, always in olden times in advance of the surrounding lands,
is fostered by the Prince, himself a scholar and a poet of no mean
order. Two weekly papers in Cetinje and Niksic have a large
circulation.
Under Prince Nicolas' fatherly care the country improves in a
wonderful manner from year to year. Roads are planned to connect the
whole land, which only lack of funds are hindering from completion,
and a railway is projected to connect the towns of Niksic, Podgorica,
and Rijeka with Antivari and the sea.
When Prince Nicolas shall be called to his fathers his son, Prince
Danilo, will worthily carry on the work so nobly begun by his father,
for he is a man imbued with the ideas of Western improvements and
civilisation.