Henry Cornelius Agrippa--Joseph Francis Borri--Urban Grandier--Dr.
Dee--Edward Kelly--John Darrell.
Superstition is a deformed monster who dies hard; and like Loki of the
Sagas when the snake dropped poison on his forehead, his writhings
shook the world and caused earthquakes. Now its power is well-nigh dead.
"Superstition! that horrible incubus which dwelt in darkness,
shunning the light, with all its racks and poison-chalices, and foul
sleeping-draughts, is passing away without return." [Footnote: Carlyle.]
But society was once leavened with it. Alchemy, astrology, and magic
were a fashionable cult, and so long as its professors pleased their
patrons, proclaimed "smooth things and prophesied deceits," all went
well with them; but it is an easy thing to offend fickle-minded folk,
and when the philosopher's stone and the secret of perpetual youth after
much research were not producible, the cry of "impostor" was readily
raised, and the trade of magic had its uncertainties, as well as its
charms.
Our first author who suffered as an astrologer, though it is extremely
doubtful whether he was ever guilty of the charges brought against him,
was Henry Cornelius Agrippa, who was born at Cologne in 1486, a man of
noble birth and learned in Medicine, Law, and Theology. His supposed
devotion to necromancy and his adventurous career have made his story a
favourite one for romance-writers. We find him in early life fighting in
the Italian war under the Emperor Maximilian, whose private secretary
he was. The honour of knighthood conferred upon him did not satisfy
his ambition, and he betook himself to the fields of learning. At the
request of Margaret of Austria, he wrote a treatise on the Excellence of
Wisdom, which he had not the courage to publish, fearing to arouse the
hostility of the theologians of the day, as his views were strongly
opposed to the scholasticism of the monks. He lived the roving life of a
mediaeval scholar, now in London illustrating the Epistles of St. Paul,
now at Cologne or Pavia or Turin lecturing on Divinity, and at another
time at Metz, where he resided some time and took part in the government
of the city. There, in 1521, he was bereaved of his beautiful and noble
wife. There too we read of his charitable act of saving from death a
poor woman who was accused of witchcraft. Then he became involved in
controversy, combating the idea that St. Anne, the mother of the Blessed
Virgin, had three husbands, and in consequence of the hostility raised
by his opinions he was compelled to leave the city. The people used to
avoid him, as if he carried about with him some dread infection, and
fled from him whenever he appeared in the streets. At length we see
him established at Lyons as physician to the Queen Mother, the Princess
Louise of Savoy, and enjoying a pension from Francis I. This lady seems
to have been of a superstitious turn of mind, and requested the learned
Agrippa, whose fame for astrology had doubtless reached her, to consult
the stars concerning the destinies of France. This Agrippa refused, and
complained of being employed in such follies. His refusal aroused the
ire of the Queen; her courtiers eagerly took up the cry, and "conjurer,"
"necromancer," etc., were the complimentary terms which were freely
applied to the former favourite. Agrippa fled to the court of Margaret
of Austria, the governor of the Netherlands under Charles V., and was
appointed the Emperor's historiographer. He wrote a history of the
reign of that monarch, and during the life of Margaret he continued his
prosperous career, and at her death he delivered an eloquent funeral
oration.
But troubles were in store for the illustrious author. In 1530 he
published a work, _De Incertitudine et Vanitate Scientiarum et Artium,
atque Excellentiâ Verbi Dei Dedamatio_ (Antwerp). His severe satire upon
scholasticism and its professors roused the anger of those whom with
scathing words he castigated. The Professors of the University of
Louvain declared that they detected forty-three errors in the book; and
Agrippa was forced to defend himself against their attacks in a
little book published at Leyden, entitled _Apologia pro defencione
Declamationis de Vanitate Scientiarum contra Theologistes Lovanienses_.
In spite of such powerful friends as the Papal Legate, Cardinal
Campeggio, and Cardinal de la Marck, Prince Bishop of Liège, Agrippa was
vilified by his opponents, and imprisoned at Brussels in 1531. The
fury against his book continued to rage, and its author declares in
his Epistles: "When I brought out my book for the purpose of exciting
sluggish minds to the study of sound learning, and to provide some new
arguments for these monks to discuss in their assemblies, they repaid
this kindness by rousing common hostility against me; and now by
suggestions, from their pulpits, in public meetings, before mixed
multitudes, with great clamourings they declaim against me; they rage
with passion, and there is no impiety, no heresy, no disgrace which
they do not charge me with, with wonderful gesticulations--namely, with
clapping of fingers, with hands outstretched and then suddenly drawn
back, with gnashing of teeth, by raging, by spitting, by scratching
their heads, by gnawing their nails, by stamping with their feet, they
rage like madmen, and omit no kind of lunatic behaviour by means of
which they may arouse the hatred and anger of both prince and people
against me."
The book was examined by the Inquisition and placed by the Council of
Trent on the list of prohibited works, amongst the heretical books of
the first class. Erasmus, however, spoke very highly of it, and declared
it to be "the work of a man of sparkling intellect, of varied reading
and good memory, who always blames bad things, and praises the good."
Schelhorn declares that the book is remarkable for the brilliant
learning displayed in it, and for the very weighty testimony which it
bears against the errors and faults of the time.
Our author was released from his prison at Brussels, and wrote another
book, _De occulta Philosophia_ (3 vols., Antwerp, 1533), which enabled
his enemies to bring against him the charge of magic. Stories were told
of the money which Agrippa paid at inns turning into pieces of horn and
shell, and of the mysterious dog which ate and slept with him, which was
indeed a demon in disguise and vanished at his death. They declared he
had a wonderful wand, and a mirror which reflected the images of persons
absent or dead.
The reputed wizard at length returned to France, where he was imprisoned
on a charge of speaking evil of the Queen Mother, who had evidently
not forgotten his refusal to consult the stars for her benefit. He was,
however, soon released, and after his strange wandering life our author
ended his labours in a hospital at Grenoble, where he died in 1535.
In addition to the works we have mentioned, he wrote _De Nobilitate et
Proecellentia Faeminei Sexus_ (Antwerp, 1529), in order to flatter his
patroness Margaret of Austria, and an early work, _De Triplici Ratione
Cognoscendi Deum_ (1515). The monkish epigram, unjust though it be, is
perhaps worth recording:--
"Among the gods there is Momus who reviles all men; among the heroes
there is Hercules who slays monsters; among the demons there is Pluto,
the king of Erebus, who is in a rage with all the shades; among the
philosophers there is Democritus who laughs at all things, Heraclitus
who bewails all things, Pyrrhon who is ignorant of all things, Aristotle
who thinks that he knows all things, Diogenes who despises all things.
But this Agrippa spares none, despises all things, knows all things, is
ignorant of all things, bewails all things, laughs at all things, rages
against all things, reviles all things, being himself a philosopher, a
demon, a hero, a god, everything."
The impostor Joseph Francis Borri was a very different character. He was
a famous chemist and charlatan, born at Milan in 1627, and educated by
the Jesuits at Rome, being a student of medicine and chemistry. He lived
a wild and depraved life, and was compelled to retire into a seminary.
Then he suddenly changed his conduct, and pretended to be inspired by
God, advocating in a book which he published certain strange notions
with regard to the existence of the Trinity, and expressing certain
ridiculous opinions, such as that the mother of God was a certain
goddess, that the Holy Spirit became incarnate in the womb of Anna, and
that not only Christ but the Virgin also are adored and contained in the
Holy Eucharist. In spite of the folly of his teaching he attracted many
followers, and also the attention of the Inquisition. Perceiving his
danger, he fled to Milan, and thence to a more safe retreat in Amsterdam
and Hamburg. In his absence the Inquisition examined his book and passed
its dread sentence upon its author, declaring that "Borri ought to be
punished as a heretic for his errors, that he had incurred both the
'general' and 'particular' censures, that he was deprived of all honour
and prerogative in the Church, of whose mercy he had proved himself
unworthy, that he was expelled from her communion, and that his effigy
should be handed over to the Cardinal Legate for the execution of the
punishment he had deserved." All his heretical writings were condemned
to the flames, and all his goods confiscated. On the 3rd of January,
1661, Borri's effigy and his books were burned by the public
executioner, and Borri declared that he never felt so cold, when he knew
that he was being burned by proxy. He then fled to a more secure asylum
in Denmark. He imposed upon Frederick III., saying that he had found
the philosopher's stone. After the death of this credulous monarch Borri
journeyed to Vienna, where he was delivered up to the representative of
the Pope, and cast into prison. He was then sent to Rome, and condemned
to perpetual imprisonment in the Castle of St. Angelo, where he died
in 1685. His principal work was entitled _La Chiave del gabineito del
cavagliere G. F. Borri_ (The key of the cabinet of Borri). Certainly the
Church showed him no mercy, but perhaps his hard fate was not entirely
undeserved.
The tragic death of Urban Grandier shows how dangerous it was in the
days of superstition to incur the displeasure of powerful men, and
how easily the charge of necromancy could be used for the purpose of
"removing" an obnoxious person. Grandier was curé of the Church of St.
Peter at Loudun and canon of the Church of the Holy Cross. He was a
pleasant companion, agreeable in conversation, and much admired by the
fair sex. Indeed he wrote a book, _Contra Caelibatum Clericorum_, in
which he strongly advocated the marriage of the clergy, and showed that
he was not himself indifferent to the charms of the ladies. In an evil
hour he wrote a little book entitled _La cordonnière de Loudun_, in
which he attacked Richelieu, and aroused the undying hatred of the great
Cardinal. Richelieu was at that time in the zenith of his power, and
when offended he was not very scrupulous as to the means he employed to
carry out his vengeance, as the fate of our author abundantly testifies.
In the town of Loudun was a famous convent of Ursuline nuns, and
Grandier solicited the office of director of the nunnery, but happily he
was prevented by circumstances from undertaking that duty. A short time
afterwards the nuns were attacked with a curious and contagious frenzy,
imagining themselves tormented by evil spirits, of whom the chief was
Asmodeus. [Footnote: This was the demon mentioned in Tobit iii. 8,
17, who attacked Sarah, the daughter of Raguel, and killed her seven
husbands. Rabbinical writers consider him as the chief of evil spirits,
and recount his marvellous deeds. He is regarded as the fire of impure
love.] They pretended that they were possessed by the demon, and accused
the unhappy Grandier of casting the spells of witchcraft upon them.
He indignantly refuted the calumny, and appealed to the Archbishop of
Bordeaux, Charles de Sourdis. This wise prelate succeeded in calming the
troubled minds of the nuns, and settled the affair.
In the meantime the vengeful eye of Richelieu was watching for an
opportunity. He sent his emissary, Councillor Laubardemont, to Loudun,
who renewed the accusation against Grandier. The amiable cleric, who
had led a pious and regular life, was declared guilty of adultery,
sacrilege, magic, witchcraft, demoniacal possession, and condemned to
be burned alive after receiving an application of the torture. In the
market-place of Loudun in 1643 this terrible sentence was carried into
execution, and together with his book, _Contra Caelibatum Clericorum_,
poor Grandier was committed to the flames. When he ascended his funeral
pile, a fly was observed to buzz around his head. A monk who was
standing near declared that, as Beelzebub was the god of flies, the
devil was present with Grandier in his dying hour and wished to bear
away his soul to the infernal regions. An account of this strange and
tragic history was published by Aubin in his _Histoire des diables
de Loudun, ou cruels effets de la vengeance de Richelieu_ (Amsterdam,
1693).
Our own country has produced a noted alchemist and astrologer, Dr.
Dee, whose fame extended to many lands. He was a very learned man and
prolific writer, and obtained the office of warden of the collegiate
church of Manchester through the favour of Queen Elizabeth, who was
a firm believer in his astrological powers. His age was the age of
witchcraft, and in no county was the belief in the magic power of
the "evil eye" more prevalent than in Lancashire. Dr. Dee, however,
disclaimed all dealings with "the black art" in his petition to the
great "Solomon of the North," James I., which was couched in these
words: "It has been affirmed that your majesty's suppliant was the
conjurer belonging to the most honourable privy council of your
majesty's predecessor, of famous memory, Queen Elizabeth; and that he
is, or hath been, a caller or invocater of devils, or damned spirits;
these slanders, which have tended to his utter undoing, can no longer
be endured; and if on trial he is found guilty of the offence imputed to
him, he offers himself willingly to the punishment of death; yea,
either to be stoned to death, or to be buried quick, or to be burned
unmercifully." In spite of his assertions to the contrary, the learned
doctor must have had an intimate acquaintance with "the black art," and
was the companion and friend of Edward Kelly, a notorious necromancer,
who for his follies had his ears cut off at Lancaster. This Kelly used
to exhume and consult the dead; in the darkness of night he and his
companions entered churchyards, dug up the bodies of men recently
buried, and caused them to utter predictions concerning the fate of the
living. Dr. Dee's friendship with Kelly was certainly suspicious. On the
coronation of Queen Elizabeth, he foretold the future by consulting
the stars. When a waxen image of the queen was found in
Lincoln's-Inn-Fields, which was a sure sign that some one was
endeavouring to cast spells upon her majesty, Dr. Dee pretended that
he was able to defeat the designs of such evil-disposed persons, and
prevent his royal mistress feeling any of the pains which might be
inflicted on her effigy. In addition his books, of which there were
many, witness against him. These were collected by Casaubon, who
published in London in 1659 a _résumé_ of the learned doctor's works.
Manchester was made too hot, even for the alchemist, through the
opposition of his clerical brethren, and he was compelled to resign his
office of warden of the college. Then, accompanied by Kelly, he wandered
abroad, and was received as an honoured guest at the courts of many
sovereigns. The Emperor Rodolphe, Stephen, King of Poland, and other
royal personages welcomed the renowned astrologers, who could read the
stars, had discovered the elixir of life, which rendered men immortal,
the philosopher's stone in the form of a powder which changed the bottom
of a warming-pan into pure silver, simply by warming it at the fire,
and made the precious metals so plentiful that children played at quoits
with golden rings. No wonder they were so welcome! They were acquainted
with the Rosicrucian philosophy, could hold correspondence with the
spirits of the elements, imprison a spirit in a mirror, ring, or stone,
and compel it to answer questions. Dr. Dee's mirror, which worked such
wonders, and was found in his study at his death in 1608, is now in
the British Museum. In spite of all these marvels, the favour which
the great man for a time enjoyed was fleet and transient. He fell into
poverty and died in great misery, his downfall being brought about
partly by his works but mainly by his practices.
Associated with Lancashire demonology is the name of John Darrell, a
cleric, afterwards preacher at St. Mary's, Nottingham, who published
a narrative of the strange and grievous vexation of the devil of seven
persons in Lancashire. This remarkable case occurred at Clayworth in the
parish of Leigh, in the family of one Nicholas Starkie, whose house was
turned into a perfect bedlam. It is vain to follow the account of the
vagaries of the possessed, the howlings and barkings, the scratchings of
holes for the familiars to get to them, the charms and magic circles of
the impostor and exorcist Hartley, and the godly ministrations of the
accomplished author, who with two other preachers overcame the evil
spirits.
Unfortunately for him, Harsnett, Bishop of Chichester, and afterwards
Archbishop of York, doubted the marvellous powers of the pious author,
Dr. Darrell, and had the audacity to suggest that he made a trade of
casting out devils, and even went so far as to declare that Darrell and
the possessed had arranged the matter between them, and that Darrell had
instructed them how they were to act in order to appear possessed.
The author was subsequently condemned as an impostor by the Queen's
commissioners, deposed from his ministry, and condemned to a long term
of imprisonment with further punishment to follow. The base conduct
and pretences of Darrell and others obliged the clergy to enact the
following canon (No. 73): "That no minister or ministers, without
license and direction of the bishop, under his hand and seal obtained,
attempt, upon any pretence whatsoever, either of possession or
obsession, by fasting and prayer, to cast 'out any devil or devils,
under pain of the imputation of imposture, or cozenage, and deposition
from the ministry." This penalty at the present day not many of the
clergy are in danger of incurring.