HARPER’S INDOOR BOOK FOR BOYS
[Illustration: WOOD-WORKING]
HARPER’S
INDOOR BOOK
FOR BOYS
BY
JOSEPH H. ADAMS
AUTHOR OF
“HARPER’S ELECTRICITY BOOK FOR BOYS”
AND JOINT AUTHOR OF
“HARPER’S OUTDOOR BOOK FOR BOYS”
WITH MANY ILLUSTRATIONS
[Illustration]
HARPER & BROTHERS PUBLISHERS
NEW YORK AND LONDON
MCMVIII
Copyright, 1908, by HARPER & BROTHERS.
_All rights reserved._
Published April, 1908.
CONTENTS
PAGE
INTRODUCTION xi
Part I
WOOD-WORKING
CHAPTER I—CARPENTRY 3
TOOLS: HOW TO USE THEM—THE WORK-BENCH—A TOOL-RACK—A
TOOL-CHEST—JOINTS—A LOW BENCH—A HIGH BENCH—A STEP-BENCH—A
SHOE-BOX—A SHOE-BLACKING-BOX—A SHOE-BLACKING-LEDGE—AN EASEL—A
CLOTHES-TREE—HANGING BOOK-SHELVES—A CORNER CABINET—A CHAIR—A
TABLE—A SETTLE—A SUSPENDED SETTLE—A COAL AND WOOD BOX—A
FLAT-IRON HOLDER—AN UMBRELLA-STAND—A PLANT-BOX—A FINAL WORD
CHAPTER II—WOOD-CARVING 38
METHOD AND MATERIAL—TOOLS—A CARVER’S BENCH—CHIP-CARVING—A
FRAME FOR A SMALL CLOCK—OTHER DESIGNS—RELIEF-CARVING—MOULDINGS
CHAPTER III.—FRETWORK AND WOOD-TURNING 56
THE TOOLS—THE PRACTICE OF THE ART—THE PREPARATION OF THE
WORK—A MATCH-SAFE—A WALL-BRACKET—A FRETWORK-BOX—OTHER
DESIGNS—WOOD-TURNING
CHAPTER IV—PICTURE MOUNTING AND FRAMING 71
A DUTCH HEAD MOUNTING—A DARK CARD MOUNTING—A TRIPLE
MOUNTING—PLAIN FRAMING—A SPORTING MOUNT—A ROUND-ROBIN
MOUNTING
Part II
METAL-WORKING
CHAPTER V.—VENETIAN AND FLORENTINE METAL-WORK 81
TOOLS AND MATERIAL—A LAMP-SCREEN—PATTERN-MAKING—A
STANDARD SCREEN—A CANDLESTICK—A CANDELABRA—A FAIRY LAMP—A
BURNED-MATCH HOLDER—A PHOTOGRAPH-FRAME—A HANDKERCHIEF-BOX—A
SIGN-BOARD—DOUBLE DOORWAY GRILLE—A MOORISH LANTERN
CHAPTER VI.—METAL-BOUND WORK 103
A METAL-BOUND BOX—A WOOD-HOLDER—A PLANT-BOX—A COAL-BOX—A
TABLE-LAMP—A HANGING-LAMP—A HANGING-PLANT BOX
CHAPTER VII.—DECORATIVE HARDWARE 115
MATERIALS AND TOOLS—ESCUTCHEONS—SHORT HINGE-STRAPS—LONG
HINGE-STRAPS—DRAWER-PULLS AND HANDLE-PLATES—DOOR-PLATES—LARGE
LOCK-PLATES—DOOR-KNOCKERS AND MISCELLANEOUS ORNAMENTS
CHAPTER VIII.—WIRE-WORK 125
A BIRD-CAGE BRACKET—A PHOTOGRAPH EASEL—A MATCH-BOX—A FAIRY
LAMP—A PICTURE-FRAME—A GLOVE-BOX—A WINDOW-GRILLE
CHAPTER IX.—GAS AND ELECTRIC SHADES 133
A SIMPLE GAS-SHADE—ANOTHER GAS-SHADE—A METAL SHADE—AN
ELECTRIC-LIGHT SCREEN—A BELL-SHAPED SHADE—A PEAR-SHAPED SHADE—A
DOME-SHAPED SHADE—ANOTHER DINING-ROOM SHADE—A CANOPY—A PANEL
SHADE
CHAPTER X.—RELIEF ETCHING 139
EQUIPMENT—THE TECHNIQUE OF THE PROCESS—THE ACID SOLUTION—SOME
TYPICAL DESIGNS
Part III
HOUSEHOLD ARTS
CHAPTER XI.—CLAY-MODELLING AND PLASTER-CASTING 151
TOOLS AND METHODS—THE TECHNIQUE OF THE ART—GLUE AND GELATINE
MOULDS—HOLLOW CASTING—MODELLING A FOOT—BAS-RELIEF MODELLING—A
MEDALLION HEAD—COIN AND METAL CASTS—PLASTER-CASTING IN
GENERAL—HOW TO FIND AND MOUNT SIGNETS
CHAPTER XII.—PYROGRAPHY 170
FIRE-ETCHING ON WOOD AND LEATHER—EXPLANATION OF METHODS—A
PLATINUM-POINT OUTFIT—A VARIETY OF WORK ON WOOD—SUGGESTIVE
DESIGNS—LEATHER-WORK
CHAPTER XIII.—BOOKBINDING AND EXTRA-ILLUSTRATION 186
SHEETS AND SIGNATURES—THE TOOLS—THE PRACTICE OF THE
ART—REBINDING BOOKS—HOW TO EXTRA-ILLUSTRATE A BOOK—A
CIRCULATING LIBRARY
CHAPTER XIV.—MAGIC LANTERNS AND STEREOPTICONS 203
A HOME-MADE MAGIC LANTERN—A STEREOPTICON—LANTERN SLIDES BY
CONTACT-PRINTING—LANTERN SLIDES BY REDUCTION
CHAPTER XV.—PRINTING, STAMPING, AND EMBOSSING 222
A SIMPLE FLAT-BED PRESS—AN UPRIGHT PRESS—A
LEVER-PRESS—STAMPING—EMBOSSING
Part IV
ROUND ABOUT THE HOUSE
CHAPTER XVI.—A HOUSE GYMNASIUM 237
INDOOR PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT—DUMB-BELLS—INDIAN
CLUBS—CALISTHENIC WANDS AND BALL-BARS—SWINGING-RINGS—TRAPEZE
BARS—PARALLEL BARS—A FLOOR HORIZONTAL BAR—STRIKING-BAGS—A
MEDICINE-BALL—PULLEY-WEIGHTS AND EXERCISERS—AN ATTIC GYMNASIUM
CHAPTER XVII.—A MINIATURE THEATRE 259
ARRANGEMENT AND LIGHTING—SCENERY AND EQUIPMENT—THE PUPPETS
CHAPTER XVIII.—FITTING UP A BOY’S ROOM 267
SIMPLE METHODS AND MATERIALS—A PLAIN CHAIR—AN ODD CHAIR—A
MORRIS CHAIR—A SETTLE—A BOX-DESK—A WRITING-TABLE—A WHATNOT—A
TREASURE-CHEST—STUDYING-TABLE AND STOOL
CHAPTER XIX.—PAINTING, DECORATING, AND STENCILLING 283
HOW TO MIX AND USE PAINTS—SCHEMES OF DECORATION—DECORATING
A BEDROOM—A BOY’S ROOM—ANOTHER PLAN FOR A ROOM—A
NURSERY—STENCILLING
CHAPTER XX.—NOOKS FOR BOOKS 302
A VARIETY OF PRACTICAL DESIGNS—A WALL-RACK—A BOOK-NEST—ANOTHER
BOOK-RACK—A CORNER-NOOK—A BOOK-TOWER—HANGING-SHELVES—A
BOOK-CASTLE—A BOOK-CHAIR—A BOOK-TABLE—A MAGAZINE-RACK—A BOX
BOOK-CASE—A NURSERY BOOK-RACK—ANOTHER BOOK-RACK—A HANDY PIECE
OF FURNITURE—A BOOK-LEDGE AND STOOL
CHAPTER XXI.—CLOCKS AND TIMEPIECES 321
DESIGNS AND MATERIALS—A BRACKET-CLOCK—A MANTEL-CLOCK—A
WALL-CLOCK—A HIGH WALL-CLOCK—AN ODD MANTEL-CLOCK—A
SHELF-CLOCK—AN OLD-STYLE TIMEPIECE
CHAPTER XXII.—SCREENS, SHOE-BOXES, AND WINDOW SEATS 331
A LIGHT-SCREEN—A FIRE-SCREEN—A SHOE-SCREEN—A BEDROOM-DOOR
SCREEN—A HEAVY FIRE-SCREEN—A WINDOW-SEAT WITH UNDER LEDGE—A
SHOE-BOX SEAT—A DRESSING-ROOM SETTLE—A SHORT SETTLE—A
FOOT-REST—A COMBINATION SHOE-BOX AND SEAT—A DOUBLE SHOE-BOX AND
SEAT—A CURVED-BACK WINDOW-SEAT—A WINDOW-SEAT AND SHOE-BOX
CHAPTER XXIII.—HOUSEHOLD CONVENIENCES 347
A PLATE-RAIL—A CUP AND PLATE RACK—A CUP AND PLATE PYRAMID—A
BUTLER’S TRAY—CUP-PINS AND BRUSH-RACK—LOCK-SHELVES—A
VEGETABLE-BIN—A SPOON-BAR AND SAUCEPAN-RACK—A MEDICINE-CHEST—A
CONVENIENT PLANT-TRAY—AN INDISPENSABLE CLOTHES-PRESS—A DIVAN—A
CORNER DRESSING-TABLE
INTRODUCTION
The success of Harper’s _Outdoor Book for Boys_ seems to insure a
welcome for an indoor handy book, equally practical and comprehensive,
which shall show how leisure time indoors can be spent most pleasantly
and profitably. When stress of weather, or the coming of long winter
evenings, or any other reason gives the indoor part of life a larger
importance, this indoor handy book will be found an invaluable
companion. Good books and good games have their value always, but
there is also a large place for the joy of actual accomplishment. It
is good to do things. It is worth while to learn to use hands and eyes
in the production of working results. And when, as in the case of the
explanation of this book, achievement goes hand in hand with amusement,
it is clear that Mr. Adams and his associates are the best of companions
for an indoor day or evening.
Expensive tools and apparatus are not called for. A boy should have good
but not necessarily costly tools, and he should take proper care of them.
Furthermore, whether his working-place is in his room or elsewhere, he
should feel that he is put upon his honor to remove any rubbish and to
avoid injury to floor or walls. Let us understand at the outset that
the explanation in these pages can be followed at very little expense,
but in this work, as in everything else, common-sense is necessary. To
use one tool for work to which another is adapted, or to neglect one’s
implements, or allow them to get wet and to rust or to become hopelessly
dulled or nicked, is a sign of shiftlessness. A good workman always takes
care of his tools, and he also keeps his work-bench in order. The very
mention of work in a boy’s room, or even indoors, may excite fears of
disorder on the part of the mother; but experience has shown that with
care on the part of the boy, and some concessions from the mother, these
fears are groundless.
It is desirable that a boy should have a place, whether it be in the
cellar or attic, or a corner of his room, definitely devoted to his own
work. It is also a useful training for him to feel that he is put upon
honor both to confine his work to his own bounds, and also to “tidy up”
whenever he leaves his task. With a little patience and oversight all
this can be adjusted to the mutual satisfaction of the household and the
boy.
In addition to the training in various directions which we have
indicated, the suggestions in these pages will help the boy to make
things which are useful—to become a contributor to his home. A glance at
the Table of Contents shows, under “Wood-working,” an introduction to
the use of carpenters’ tools, and instructions in making picture-frames
and ornamented wood-carving. Of late years ornamental work for lamps,
sconces, hinges, and a variety of purposes has steadily grown in
favor, and the second division of the book tells how a great variety
of decorative and useful objects in metal may be made. When so much
experience has been gained, the boy can readily take up more advanced
work, such as modelling in clay, and plaster casting; bookbinding, and
the kindred craft of extra-illustration; pyrography, or decorative work
in burnt wood; printing, stamping, and embossing; and the construction
and use of the stereopticon. In Part IV. the young craftsman is shown how
he may employ the technical knowledge he has acquired in the fitting up
and decoration of his room; in the building and operating of a miniature
theatre; in the installation of a home gymnasium; and in the making
of various objects of ornament and utility for the household. Amateur
photography has been purposely omitted, since there are many excellent
and practical manuals on the subject that have been published by the
various camera manufacturers for gratuitous distribution. It is easy
to see the possibilities for usefulness, for beauty, and for amusement
in the home, which are brought within reach in these pages; and these
instructions also represent possibilities for earning money. In, schools
where manual training receives attention, and, indeed, in any school
library, this book will prove peculiarly useful.
Here, as in the _Outdoor Handy Book_, it has been kept in mind that there
will be neither fun nor profit in doing these things unless the way is
made clear, and it is certain that the desired results will follow if
the directions are carried out. Everything, therefore, has been tested,
and all the instructions are put in simple, practical form. It is a
friendly, well-tried, and reliable household companion that comes to
young Americans in Harper’s _Indoor Book for Boys_.
Part I
WOOD-WORKING
Chapter I
CARPENTRY
Carpentry, or the science of making things out of wood, is the oldest
and comes the closest to us of any of the applied arts and crafts.
The earliest men made clubs at least. Later they began to build, to
construct, and it is interesting to remember that this ability to
construct is a faculty shared with man by the animals. There are many
species of birds that build well-designed nests; the spider is a weaver;
the bee is a geometrician; the ant is a tunnel builder; the beaver,
in the construction of his dams and breakwaters, displays engineering
ability of a high order. The vital difference between the animal and the
human intelligence lies in the fact that the latter is progressive. The
spider weaves just the same pattern to-day that he did when the Pyramids
were young; the mathematical section of the bee cell is invariable; the
mud-swallows build the same kind of houses as their remotest ancestors.
The common explanation is that instinct and not reason guides the animal
in his work, and instinct is a reproductive faculty, not an inventive
one. It is for man alone to progress from the crude beginnings of an art
to its highest and most perfect development.
Perhaps the first and most urgent need of all living creatures is for
shelter. The oriole weaves his hanging nest; the beaver constructs his
wonderfully domed house; primitive man builds his hut of interlaced
boughs. But it is man alone who is not content with the first crude
efforts; he is constantly aiming after something more substantial and
better adapted to his increasing needs. So man becomes the true builder,
and as wood is the simple and almost universally obtainable material,
carpentry, or the art of working in wood, stands at the head of the
applied sciences upon which the civilization of the race depends.
The average boy takes to carpentry as naturally as ducks take to water,
and beginning with the tacks a baby boy will hammer in a board, the
young builder goes on from the simple to the more complex forms until
he attains the full mastery of his material and his tools. He has now
obtained the dignity of manhood; he is a maker of things.
Once proficient in the art of cutting, joining, and fastening wood-work,
and in the use and care of tools, a boy may begin to call himself a
carpenter. But he must learn to work systematically and accurately if
he is ever to become a genuine craftsman. In the first place, he should
understand the possibilities and limitations of his tools. He should
never use a chisel for a screw-driver, nor drive nails with the butt
end of a plane. Good tools should have good care. Inanimate things that
they are, they yet resent ill-usage, and retaliate, in their own way,
by becoming dull and otherwise unfit for their work. Indeed, a good
carpenter may be known by the condition of his tool-chest and work-bench.
Carpentry, when properly carried on, is a most fascinating occupation
for out-of-school hours, especially in the winter season, when bad
weather keeps one indoors. Needless to say, it may be made a profitable
way of passing time as well as an amusing one.
Tools
The tools that a boy will need in order to do good joiner-work should be
the same as carpenters use, but they may be smaller and not so cumbersome
to handle. The set of tools in a chest, put up for the use of children
and sold at toyshops, are not the sort that can be relied upon for good
carpentry work, since they are usually dull and made of soft steel that
will not hold an edge. Possibly the manufacturer thinks that he is
justified in turning out this kind of rubbish, bearing in mind the old
saying, “Children should not play with edged tools.” But the boy who is
old enough to take up carpentry in earnest is entitled to the use of good
and serviceable implements, and without them it is hardly worth while
starting at the business.
Competition has brought down the cost of good tools to a point where
they are not beyond the means of the average boy who is prepared to save
his pocket-money. It is better to purchase only a small kit at first,
and then to add to it from time to time, until the complete outfit is
obtained.
Good tools may be purchased at nearly every hardware shop or general
store throughout the country. For ordinary work you will require a
good rip and cross-cut saw, with twenty and twenty-four inch blades,
respectively; a claw-hammer, and a smaller one; a wooden mallet for
chisels, and to knock together the lap joints of wood; a jack and a
smoothing plane; a compass-saw; a brace and several sizes of bitts,
ranging from a quarter to one inch in diameter; a draw-knife; a square;
awls; pliers; a rule; several firmer-chisels, and a screw-driver. There
are many other useful tools, but they may be added as they are required.
It is a difficult matter to instruct a boy, by written description, how
to handle tools; and rather than attempt it, I should advise the young
workman to watch a carpenter at his work. Most carpenters are quite
willing to have you follow their movements, and many of them will even
offer advice, if they see that you are really interested. But remember
that a good workman never likes to have a boy meddle with his tools, and
you should not ask foolish or unnecessary questions.
Perhaps there is a carpenter’s shop near your home in which the owner may
let you work occasionally (if you keep out of his way), and where, in
the atmosphere of the craft, you will make faster progress than you can
possibly do at home with no one to tell or show you how things should be
done.
The Work-bench
One of the indispensable pieces of equipment for the boy carpenter is a
good work-bench. The bench must be substantially made, and provided with
a planing-stop, a vise, and a drawer in which to keep small tools, nails,
screws, and the various odds and ends that are employed in carpentry.
To begin with, obtain four spruce or white-wood sticks, three inches
square and thirty-six inches long, planed on all sides. These are for the
legs. You will also need two pieces of clear pine, or white-wood, three
feet long and six inches wide, and two more the same length and three
inches wide. These pieces should be one and an eighth inches thick, and
planed on all sides and edges.
[Illustration: FIG. 1. FIG. 2. FIG. 3. FIG. 4. FIG. 5.]
Lay two of the legs on the floor, three feet apart, and join the ends
with one of the six-inch strips. Six inches up from the free ends fasten
a narrow strip, as shown in Fig. 2 A. This finishes one of the end
supports. Flat-headed iron screws, two and a half inches long, should be
used for the unions, and a tighter joint may be secured by also using
glue.
Prepare, in similar fashion, the other pair of legs, and, with two pieces
of clear pine, or white-wood, five feet long, eight inches wide, and
seven-eighths of an inch thick, bind the four legs together, as shown in
Fig. 3. You should allow the boards to project six inches beyond the legs
at both ends. These pieces are the side-rails, or aprons, and they should
be securely fastened with glue and screws to the upper end of each leg.
At the back of the bench arrange two braces of wood, three inches wide
and seven-eighths of an inch thick, as shown in Fig. 3. Bevelled laps are
to be cut in the side of two legs, as shown in Fig. 2 B, into which the
ends of the strips will fit flush. The upper ends of the strips are to
be mitred (cut at an angle), and attached to the inside of the apron, as
shown in Fig. 3.
For the top of the bench use clear pine planking not less than one inch
in thickness. This should be fitted closely together, and fastened to the
cross-pieces with stout screws.
From hard-wood a piece should be shaped for a vise-jaw thirty-two inches
long, three inches wide at the bottom, and seven inches wide at the top.
Near the bottom of the jaw an oblong hole should be cut to receive the
end of a sliding piece, which in turn is provided with several holes
for a peg to fit into. A corresponding oblong hole is cut near the foot
of one leg, through which the piece containing the holes will pass. This
last regulates the spread of the jaw. This construction may be seen
in Fig. 4, and its final position is shown in the illustration of the
finished bench (Fig. 1).
Near the top of the jaw a hole is cut to receive the screw that is turned
with the lever-stick to tighten the jaw. A bench-screw may be purchased
at any hardware store, and fitted to the work-bench. If it should prove
too much of an undertaking for the youthful workman, a carpenter will put
it in place at a trifling cost. The wood screws are the cheapest, but the
steel ones are the most satisfactory, and will cost about one dollar for
a small one.
From the apron (at the front of the bench) a piece should be cut fifteen
inches long and six inches wide. This opening will admit a drawer of the
same width and height, and as deep as may be desired. Twenty-four inches
will be quite deep enough.
Rabbets are cut in the ends of a front piece, and the sides are let
into them, as shown in Fig. 5. The bottom and back are fastened in with
screws, and the drawer is arranged to slide on runners that are fastened
across the bench inside the aprons, as shown in the upper corner of Fig.
3.
At the front of the drawer a cove may be cut out, and a thin plate of
iron screwed fast across the top of it, so that the fingers may be passed
in behind the plate to pull out the drawer (Fig. 5). It will not do to
use a projecting drawer-pull, as that would interfere with pieces of
work when clamped in the vise. In planing strips, or boards, that are
too long for the vise to hold securely, a wooden peg, inserted in a hole
at the opposite end of the apron from the vise, will be found convenient.
Two or three holes may be made for boards of different widths, and the
peg adjusted to the proper one as occasion requires.
A planing-stop, with teeth, may be purchased at a hardware store and set
in place near the vise-jaw. The complete bench will then be ready for use.
A Tool-rack
For the accommodation of chisels, gouges, screw-drivers, awls,
compass-saws, pliers, and other small tools a tool-rack will be found
convenient. It should be fastened against the wall immediately over the
work-bench.
The one shown in Fig. 6 is thirty-six inches long and twelve inches high,
with a ledge projecting two inches from the back-board. A leather strap
is caught along the upper part of the board with nails to form loops,
into which the tools are slipped.
The ledge is made from two strips of wood. One of them, one and a
half inches in width, is cut with a saw, as shown in Fig. 7, and the
superfluous wood, between the saw-cuts, is removed with a chisel. When
all the notches are cut, a narrow strip, half an inch in width, is
screwed fast to the notched strip. The ledge is then attached to the
lower edge of the back-board with long screws, as indicated in the
illustration.
A Tool-cabinet
The hanging tool-cabinet shown in Fig. 8 should be constructed with two
doors of nearly equal size, so that four instead of two surfaces may be
available, against which to hang tools.
The body part of the chest is thirty inches high, twenty inches wide,
and nine inches deep, outside measure. It is made of wood three-quarters
of an inch in thickness, fastened together with screws and glue, and
varnished to improve its appearance.
The right side of the cabinet is but three and a half inches wide, and to
this the inner door is made fast with hinges, so that it will swing in
against a stop-moulding on the opposite side, as shown at A in Fig. 9. A
small bolt will fasten the door in place when shut in, and on both sides
of this door hooks and pegs may be arranged for the reception of tools.
The back-board of the cabinet may be used for hanging saws, squares, and
other flat tools, as indicated in Fig. 8.
The outer door is provided with a side-strip (Fig. 9 B) of such size
that when the doors are closed in and locked the appearance of the chest
will be uniform, with a cross-section appearing, as shown in Fig. 9 C.
With a little careful planning and figuring it will not be a difficult
matter to construct this cabinet. Take particular care to have the doors
fit snugly and close easily. The doors will keep their shape better if
they are made from narrow matched boards, held together at the ends with
battens, or strips, nailed across the ends of the boards, as shown in
Fig. 9 D. Two-inch wrought butts will be heavy enough for the doors, and
a cabinet-lock at the edge of the outer door will make all secure.
[Illustration: FIG. 6. FIG. 7. FIG. 8. FIG. 9. FIG. 10.]
On the inside of the outer door some tool-pegs may be arranged. Near the
bottom a bitt-rack should be fitted, with a leather strap formed into
loops, as described for the tool-rack. Under each loop a hole should be
bored in a strip of wood, into which the square end of the bitts will
fit, and thus insure their orderly position. For chisels a similar set of
pockets may be designed as shown in Fig. 8.
A Tool-chest
The tool-chest shown in Fig. 10 is twenty-eight inches long, fifteen
wide, and twelve inches high. This is a good size for the accommodation
of a moderate-sized kit of tools. The interior fittings should include
two or three trays arranged to rest on runners and to slide back and
forth, so that tools may be reached at the bottom of the chest without
removing the trays.
Obtain a pine or white-wood board fifteen inches wide, and free from
knots or sappy places. Cut two pieces twenty-eight inches long, and two
shorter ones twelve inches long. These will form the top, bottom, and
ends. Cut out the front and back pieces twenty-eight inches long and
twelve inches wide; then with glue and screws form a box, and let it
stand a day until the glue is hard. Make the joints as perfect and tight
as possible, so as to present a good appearance; then mark a line around
the box two and a half inches from the top.
With a rip-saw cut the cover free from the body, and plane the rough
edges of the cut, so that the cover will fit the body snugly. Bind the
lid and the top and bottom edges of the chest with a strip of wood
three-eighths of an inch in width, as shown in the illustration; to look
well, the corners should be mitred. The lid is attached to the chest
with stout hinges, and a lock is arranged at the front. Stout handles at
the sides will be found a convenience.
Two or three coats of olive-green paint, with a slightly darker shade for
the bands, will improve the appearance of the chest. To keep the hardware
from rusting, the lock, hinges, and handles should receive a coat or two
of black paint.
Joints
One of the first lessons for the young carpenter to learn will be that of
making wood joints. Without good joiner-work there is no such thing as
carpentry, and it is the sign-manual of the competent artificer. There
are a great variety of joints employed in carpentry, but many of them are
too complicated for the boy carpenter to make, and the simple forms will
answer every reasonable requirement.
The easiest joint to make is the straight, or box, joint. It is
constructed by butting the end of one board against the edge of another
and nailing, or screwing, them fast.
Fig. 11 shows a lap-joint made by cutting away a portion of the wood on
opposite sides of the ends which are to be joined. When fastened the
wood will appear as a continuous piece. For corners and angles, where a
mitre-box is not available, the lap-joint is a very good substitute, and
for many uses it is stronger than the mitred-joint, and, therefore, to be
preferred.
Fig. 12 is another form of lap-joint, where the end of a strip is
embedded in the surface of a stout piece of wood. This joint will be
found useful in furniture work, and also for frame construction in
general.
Fig. 13 is a bevelled lap-joint, and is used for timbers and posts,
particularly under conditions where the joint can be reinforced by
another piece of wood at one or two sides.
Fig. 14 shows a mortise and tenon. The hole in the upright piece is the
mortise and the shaped end on the stick is the tenon. The shaped end
should fit the hole accurately, and the joint is usually held with a
pin, or nails, driven through the side of the upright piece and into the
body of the stick embedded in the mortise. The mortise and tenon is used
extensively in framing, and for doors, window-sashes, and blinds. In
cabinet work it is indispensable.
Fig. 15 is the mitred-joint. In narrow wood it is usually cut in a
mitre-box with a stiff back-saw to insure accuracy in the angles. The
mitred-joint is employed for picture-frames, screens, mouldings, and all
sorts of angle-joints.
Fig. 16 is the tongue-and-groove joint, and is cut on the edges of boards
that are to be laid side by side, such as flooring, weather-boards,
and partitions. Before wood-working machinery came into general
use the tongues and grooves were all hand-cut with planes, but a
tongue-and-groove plane is now almost obsolete, all this class of
building material being mill finished.
Fig. 17 A is a rabbet. It is cut on the edges of wood, and another
similarly shaped piece fits into it. It is also useful where wood laps
over some other material, such as glass or metal. The inner moulding of
picture-frames are always provided with a rabbet, behind which the edge
of the glass, picture, and backing-boards will fit.
[Illustration: JOINTS, RABBETS, AND BENCHES
FIG. 11. FIG. 12. FIG. 13. FIG. 14. FIG. 15. FIG. 16. FIG. 17. FIG. 18.
FIG. 19. FIG. 20. FIG. 21. FIG. 22. FIG. 23.]
Fig. 17 B is a rabbet-joint made with a rabbet and groove. It is a good
one to employ for box corners, and where the edges of two pieces of wood
come together.
Fig. 18 is the dovetail-joint used for boxes, drawer corners, chests,
and sometimes in cabinet work, where the corners are to be covered with
mouldings or edging-strips.
Fig. 19 is the straight dovetail employed in the cheap construction of
small boxes for hardware, groceries, and other wares. Since the edges are
straight, this is the easier one to make, but care must be taken to have
the fitting accurate.
A Low Bench
Small benches are useful to work upon when sawing, nailing, and matching
boards; and they are handy for many purposes about the house. The low
bench shown in Fig. 20 is fifteen inches high and twelve inches wide, and
the top is twenty-two inches long. The foot-pieces are cut as shown in
Fig. 21, and at the upper end at each side a piece is cut out to let in
the side-aprons. The aprons are three inches wide and seven-eighths of an
inch thick; they are held to the foot-pieces with glue and screws. In the
top a finger-hole is cut so that the bench may be quickly picked up and
the more easily handled.
A High Bench
The high bench shown in Fig. 22 is twelve inches square and twenty-four
inches high, with a top fourteen inches square. The wood is seven-eighths
of an inch thick, and all the joints are made with screws. A hand-hole
is cut in the top with a compass or key-hole saw, and all the edges are
sand-papered to round them off.
A Step-bench
A step-bench will be found useful for various purposes. It does not take
up so much room as a step-ladder and affords a more solid footing. The
bench shown in Fig. 23 is thirty inches high, fifteen inches wide, and
eighteen inches deep. The uprights that support the sides are five inches
wide; the treads of the first and second steps are six inches wide, and
that of the top step eight inches wide. The wood is seven-eighths of
an inch thick, planed on both sides, and all the unions are made with
screws. The cross-brace at the back and near the bottom is set into laps
cut in the edges of the upright supports, and to prevent the support and
side-pieces from spreading, stanchion-bars may be screwed fast to the
sides, under the first tread, and to the foot of the uprights.
Two or three coats of paint will finish these benches and make them fit
for use about the house.
A Shoe-box
A shoe-box and seat (Fig. 24) is a useful piece of furniture in any
bedroom. Two boxes, purchased at a grocery store, may be made to serve
the purpose, but for a really neat and workmanlike job the frame should
be constructed of boards three-quarters or seven-eighths of an inch in
thickness. A good size for the shoe receptacle is twenty-four inches
high, fifteen inches deep, and sixteen inches wide. The seat-box should
be thirty inches long, and fifteen inches high and deep.
[Illustration: FIG. 24. FIG. 24 A.]
These boxes are to be attached to each other with stout screws, and a
back the length of the two boxes, and having a rounded corner is to be
securely fastened to the rear of each box, as shown in Fig. 24 A. In the
shoe-box two shelves are screwed fast, and to the lower box a corner
should be arranged on hinges so that it may be raised from the front. The
back and seat and also the top of the shoe-box should be covered with
denim, under which a padding of hair or cotton may be placed. The denim
should be caught down with carriage-buttons and string, the latter being
passed through holes made in the wood and tied at the underside. Around
the front and sides a flounce of cretonne or denim may be gathered,
and hung from the top edge of the box and seat. If finished with gimp
and brass-headed tacks it will present a good appearance. Where the
drop-curtain at the edge of the shoe-box meets the seat the fabric is to
be divided, in order that it may be drawn to one side when taking out or
replacing shoes.
[Illustration: FIG. 25. FIG. 26. FIG. 27.]
A coat of shellac, or paint, will cover such parts of the wood-work as
are not hidden by the upholstery. Fig. 24 shows the finished article of
furniture.
A Shoe-blacking-box
Every boy should own a shoe-blacking-box, such as is shown in Fig.
25. Otherwise, the brushes and blacking-box are apt to get widely
separated, and are never at hand when they are wanted. Moreover, it is
a slovenly practice to use a chair or stool as a foot-rest when engaged
in polishing one’s shoes, since the blacking is sure to discolor and
dirty whatever it touches. This shoe-blacking-box is twenty-four inches
high and eighteen inches square, the compartment being four inches deep.
Four sticks, two inches square and twenty-four inches long, will form the
legs. Each stick should be cut away at one end three-quarters of an inch
deep for a distance of five inches, as shown in Fig. 26, so that when the
side boards are fastened to them the joints will be flush. Two sides of
each stick should thus be cut away, and the small end of the stick may be
tapered slightly. The side boards, of three-quarter-inch wood and five
inches wide, are screwed fast to the top of the legs.
A bottom sixteen and a half inches square is cut from boards and fastened
inside the frame, where it is held in place with steel-wire nails driven
through the lower edge of the side boards and into the edge of the
bottom, all around.
Four brackets are cut and fastened with screws at each side of the box,
under the side boards. A cover is made and hinged to the box, where it is
prevented from falling too far back by a chain attached to the underside
of the lid and to the inside of the box.
Over the front edge of the box bend a strip of zinc and tack it fast to
both the in and outside of the front board. This will prevent shoes from
chafing the wood away, and is easily cleaned when muddied up.
With a thin piece of wood make a division in the box at one side, where
blacking and daubers may be kept. Also a drawer may be fitted to slide
in and out under the box. It should be constructed, as described for the
work-bench, and arranged to work on runners fastened to the inside of
the legs. Screw-eyes or staples should be driven into the ends of the
brushes and daubers, so that they may be hung up in an orderly manner on
hooks set in the wall immediately over the ledge.
A few thin coats of olive-green or light-brown paint will add to the
appearance of this shoe-blacking-box, and the owner should take pride in
keeping it clean, and the brushes in good order.
A Shoe-blacking-ledge
In a cellar where one of the chimneys is built with a recess, a
shoe-blacking-ledge may be made from four boards five inches wide. The
bottom is slatted, so that dirt will fall through. Fig. 27 shows quite
clearly how this can be done. One end is partitioned off to hold the box
of blacking.
The ledge is twenty-four inches high, and the front board is bound with a
strip of zinc along the upper edge. The blacking-brushes may be kept in
the tray, but it is a better plan to hang them up against the brick-work
on steel nails. If the brushes are to be kept inside the tray, a lid
should be made and hinged to the back strip of the tray. When the lid is
raised it may be held against the brick wall with a wooden button.
An Easel
Boys who have a talent for drawing and painting would undoubtedly like
to have an easel on which to work, and a good strong one may be made, at
moderate cost, in the following manner (Fig. 28).
Obtain four pieces of clear white pine six feet long, two and a half
inches wide, and seven-eighths of an inch in thickness. These should be
planed on all sides. Two of the sticks should be tapered off at one end,
and slightly bevelled at the other. Nine inches from the top and twelve
inches up from the bottom laps are to be cut in the sticks at the back,
as shown in Fig. 29. Into these the ends of cross-pieces will fit. If the
concealed lap is too bothersome to make, it can be cut clear across the
sticks, as shown in Fig. 30. Glue and screws will make a strong joint.
[Illustration: FIG. 28. FIG. 29. FIG. 30. FIG. 31. FIG. 32. FIG. 33.
FIG. 34.]
The remaining long stick is the back support, or leg, and is to be hinged
to the upper cross-piece. With this leg the easel may be pitched at any
angle, and to prevent it from going back too far a guide-chain should
be attached to the leg, and the ends secured to the back of each upright
with staples. Holes are bored along the uprights at even distances apart,
and two wooden pegs are cut to fit snugly in the holes, and so hold a
drawing-board or canvas-stretcher.
A Clothes-tree
A clothes-tree is a most serviceable article of furniture, and helps a
boy to form habits of neatness and orderliness in the care of his wearing
apparel. To make the one shown in Fig. 31 obtain a clear pine or ash
stick one and a half inches square and five feet long for the upright,
or staff. Also two pieces eighteen inches long, two inches wide, and
three-quarters of an inch thick for the feet; and four braces twelve
inches long, one and a half inches wide, and three-quarters of an inch in
thickness.
Cut a lap in the middle of each foot-piece, as shown in Fig. 32, and with
glue and screws fasten them securely together, as shown in Fig. 33. Screw
this foot fast to the bottom of the upright stick, and strengthen the
four projecting feet with braces bevelled at the ends, so that they will
rest against the upright and on the foot, where they can be fastened with
screws, as shown in Fig. 34. Under the end of each foot, the half of a
small wooden ball, or a castor, may be arranged to raise the tree from
the floor. With a chisel and plane taper the top of the upright stick, as
shown in Fig. 31.
At a hardware store purchase eight hooks and arrange them in alternating
pairs, as shown in the drawing. The wood-work should be shellacked or
painted to give it a finished appearance.
When hanging clothes upon this tree place the coat, vest, and trousers
on the lower hooks, the shirt and underclothing on the hooks next above,
and on the top hooks the necktie and collar and cuffs. When dressing, the
clothing needed first will then be the nearest to hand.
Hanging Book-shelves
In a room where space cannot be given up to a standing bookcase, it
may be possible to arrange a set of shelves to form a book-rack that
will hang against the wall. The construction of the hanging shelves
shown in Fig. 35 is very simple, and will require but a few boards, two
wall-strips, and a few yards of strong rope.
For the shelves, obtain five pine boards eight inches wide, seven-eighths
of an inch thick, and from three to four feet long; also two pine strips
three inches wide, an inch thick, and four feet long. In the rear edge of
each board, at the ends, cut notches three inches long and an inch wide,
as shown in Fig. 35 A, into which the wall-strips will fit. Round off the
top of each wall-strip and screw them fast to the notched edges of the
shelves, first boring gimlet holes in both strips and shelves to prevent
splitting of the wood.
Half-inch holes at the top of each wall-strip will admit the suspension
rope, which is of manila, and half an inch in diameter. Knot one end of
the rope and pass it up through holes made at the outer corners of each
shelf, and finally through the hole at the top of the wall-strips, and
cut it off three inches back of the hole. With a gouge-chisel a groove
should be made at the back of the wall-strip for an inch or two below
the hole, so that the rope end may be carried down and ravelled out. It
can then be glued and held fast to the wood with staples. Where the rope
passes through the hole in each shelf, drive several long steel-wire
nails into the edge and end of the board, allowing the nails to pass
through the rope and into the wood.
Paint or varnish the wood-work, and securely anchor the wall-plates with
stout screws driven into the frame timbers, through the lath and plaster
of the wall.
A Corner Cabinet
A corner cabinet of odd design and simple construction is shown in Fig.
36. The total height of the wall-plates should be thirty-four inches,
and at the top the shelf measures eighteen inches across. Each shelf is
rounded out at the front so as to afford more surface on which to place
books and bric-à-brac. The ends of each shelf are securely attached to
the side or wall-plates with screws, thus insuring a perfect anchorage
and a strong construction.
Fig. 37 is a plan showing the shape of the sides or wall-plates. At
the widest part they should measure twelve inches across. Fig. 38 is a
plan of the top shelf, which is followed in shape by the others. They
decrease, however, in size as they near the bottom. The notch at the
middle of each shelf breaks the long curved line in a pleasing manner.
Two light metal rods from which curtains hang may be arranged under
the top shelf and the one next the bottom. Shellac or paint of some
appropriate shade will add to the appearance of this useful piece of
furniture.
[Illustration: HANGING BOOK-SHELVES AND CHAIR CABINET
FIG. 35. FIG. 35 A. FIG. 36. FIG. 37. FIG. 38. FIG. 39. FIG. 40.]
When fastening this cabinet to the wall, care should be taken to pass the
screws securely into the studding or uprights. Otherwise the screws might
pull out under the accumulated weight, and a fall would be disastrous to
both the cabinet and its contents.
A Chair
The construction of a chair is perhaps as interesting as anything in
carpentry. The one shown in Fig. 39 may be made from either soft or
hard-wood, the joints being all open and simple to cut.
The legs are two inches square, the seat is sixteen inches square and
eighteen inches high, and the back posts are thirty-six inches long. The
front and back posts are cut out, as shown in Fig. 40 A and B. These
receive the cross-pieces that bind the legs and back together. The posts
are two inches wide and three-quarters of an inch thick. The side braces
are set two inches up from the floor and the back one four inches. The
front brace is let into the rear of the front legs, and is eight inches
from the floor to the lower edge.
The seat is made from matched boards, and the back, ten inches wide,
is made from a single board, all the joints being glued and screwed
together. Chairs that are made in shops usually have the joints dowelled
or mortised, but the lap-joint is the easiest and strongest one to make.
Take care, however, that the cuts are accurately sawed, and that the
cross-pieces fit the laps so snugly that a mallet is necessary to help
drive the strips home.
The seat and back of this chair may be covered with denim, leather, or
other upholstery material, drawn over curled hair, or cotton may be used
for padding, and fastened down around the edges with large flat-headed
tacks or upholstery nails. Shellac, varnish, or paint may be used to give
the wood-work a good appearance.
A Table
It is not so difficult as it may seem to make a good strong table, but
care and perseverance must be exercised to obtain a satisfactory result.
When constructing a table bear in mind that every joint should be made to
fit accurately; otherwise it will quickly rack and become useless. The
proportions and shape for a serviceable table are shown in Fig. 41. Only
well-seasoned wood should be employed, and it should be free from knots
or sappy places.
For the legs, obtain four sticks thirty-three inches long and two and a
half inches square. From two sides, near the end of each stick, cut the
wood away for five inches to a depth of seven-eighths of an inch, as
shown (at the top) in Fig. 40 B. Now cut two boards five inches wide and
forty-two inches long, and four more thirty inches long for the frame.
Six inches from the uncut ends of the legs saw and chisel out laps, so
that two of the thirty-inch lengths will fit into them, and with two
long and two short boards unite the legs, thereby forming a frame thirty
inches wide, forty-two inches long, and thirty-three inches high. An
under-shelf may be made twelve inches wide and long enough to extend two
or three inches over the cross-strips.
The table top extends over the framework for three inches all around,
and it is made of narrow tongue-and-grooved boards driven together
and screwed down to the band around the top, formed by the thirty and
forty-two-inch boards. To finish this top nicely it may be covered with
felt, or with imitation leather, in old-red, green, or brown shades,
caught under the edge and made fast with stout tacks.
A Settle
A comfortable settle (Fig. 42), for the piazza or yard, may be made from
pine, white-wood, cypress, or almost any other wood that may be at hand.
It is fifty-four inches long, eighteen inches wide, and the seat is
eighteen inches above the ground. The sides are made from strips three
inches wide and seven-eighths of an inch thick, as shown in Fig. 43 A.
The arms are twenty inches long, six inches broad at the front, and cut
the shape shown in Fig. 43 B. The notches or laps cut in the rear posts
are to let in the strips forming the back and lower brace.
The joints should be made with screws rather than nails, as they hold
better and do not work loose. Small brackets support the arms at the
front corner posts, and a batten at the middle strengthens the back of
the settle. A close inspection of the drawings will show the joints
clearly and indicate how the frame is put together. A few coats of paint
will finish the wood nicely, or it may be stained and varnished if the
wood has a pretty grain. Cushions and a sofa-pillow or two will add to
the comfort of this commodious seat.
[Illustration: FIG. 41. FIG. 42. FIG. 43. FIG. 44. FIG. 45.]
A Suspended Settle
A suspended settle (Fig. 44) is a convenient piece of piazza furniture,
and not a difficult thing for the young carpenter to make.
The corner posts are two and a half inches square, and the boards used
in its construction are seven-eighths of an inch thick and four inches
wide. The seat is forty-two inches long and eighteen inches wide, and
the back is fifteen inches high from the seat. The arms are cut as shown
in Fig. 43 B, and securely screwed to the corner posts. The frame-pieces
supporting the seat-boards are let into the back and front posts, in
which laps have been cut, as shown at Fig. 45 A and B. They should be
securely fastened with flat-headed screws. Both the rail to which the
backing-boards are attached and the rear ends of the arms are let into
the corner post and fastened with screws.
The seat is suspended from the ceiling of the piazza on four chains that
may be purchased at a hardware store or from a ship-chandler, or they may
be made by a blacksmith from iron three-eighths of an inch in diameter.
If it is not possible to obtain the chains, rope may be substituted, but
it will not look or last so well.
Two yokes bolted to the top of the back posts and eye-straps for the
front posts will anchor the chains securely to the settle. The yoke is
shown at Fig. 45 C, and the eye-strap at Fig. 45 D. A bolt passed through
the top of the rear posts and through the holes in the yoke will secure
the latter firmly, and a nut will prevent it from slipping loose. Holes
are made in the arms, and the eye-straps are passed down through them and
attached to the front corner posts with screws, as shown in Fig. 44. The
back of the settle is composed of boards four inches wide and placed an
inch apart.
A Coal and Wood Box
A combination box for coal and wood may be made from an ordinary
shoe-box, the sides and one end being cut down as shown in Fig. 46;
but a more serviceable one is constructed of boards seven-eighths of an
inch thick, planed on both sides, and with the joints securely glued and
screwed.
The sides are twenty-six inches long and twelve inches high at the back.
At the front they are but four inches high. A back-piece ten inches wide
and twelve inches high is cut and fastened in place, and a front strip
four inches high is also made fast with glue and long, slim screws.
A division-board is placed in the middle of the box, as indicated by the
line of screw-heads, and a bottom, ten by twenty-four inches, is held in
place with screws passed through the lower edge of the front, back, and
sides, and into the edges of the bottom.
A lid the width of the box is hinged to a cross-strip over the partition.
A handle at the lower end will make it easy to lift the lid. Blocks with
the corners rounded off will serve as feet, one at each corner.
Thin stain and two coats of varnish will finish the wood-work on the
outside. A coat or two of asphaltum varnish will be better for the inside.
Sticks of wood for the open fire or kindling for the grate fire may
be kept in the square receptacle, while under the lid at least two
bucketfuls of coal may be stowed away. If the fuel-holder is used only at
the open fire, logs may be stood on end in the square box, and kindling
may be kept in the covered half.
A Flat-iron Holder
A rack of shelves to hold flat-irons may be made of white-wood or pine
seven-eighths of an inch thick, the several pieces being securely
fastened together with screws. Two side-plates are cut four inches wide
and thirty inches long. The tops are bevelled and the bottom of each
piece is curved, as shown in Fig. 47.
[Illustration: FIG. 46. FIG. 47. FIG. 48. FIG. 49.]
The shelves are two inches wide and eighteen inches long. They are spaced
eight inches apart, having the front edge flush with the edge of the
side-plates, and leaving a space two inches wide from the rear edge to
the wall. Wall-plates two inches wide are let into the rear edge of the
side-plates two inches above the shelves. Against these the bottom of the
irons will rest.
A top and a bottom board, cut as shown in the illustration, are to be
attached to the wall-plates, and the complete rack of shelves should be
fastened to the kitchen or laundry wall with stout screws set firmly into
the studding.
Two coats of olive-green or brown paint will finish this holder nicely,
or it may be painted any color to match the wood-work in the kitchen or
laundry.
An Umbrella-stand
An umbrella-stand does not occupy much space, and it is a convenient
receptacle for umbrellas, canes, ball-bats, and golf-clubs (Fig. 48).
To make one it will require four pieces of clear pine or white-wood
thirty inches long, ten inches wide, and half an inch in thickness. There
is also a bottom board nine and a half inches square and seven-eighths of
an inch thick, to which the lower ends of the boards are to be screwed
fast. A high, narrow box is to be formed of the boards, one side of each
board being attached to the edge of the next one, as the illustration
shows. Shellac or varnish will give the wood-work a pleasing finish,
especially if it is white-wood, cypress, or spruce.
A design may be worked out on one side with large oval-headed hobnails
painted black. These may be purchased at a shoemakers for a few cents a
paper. The design should first be drawn on thin brown paper and held on
the wood with pins. The nails are driven along the lines of the ornament,
but before they are hammered home, the paper should be torn away so that
none of it is caught under the nail-heads.
A zinc tray six inches high, and made to fit in the bottom of the box,
will hold the drippings from wet umbrellas. Rings soldered at the top
edge of the tray will permit it to be removed for cleaning.
A Plant-box
For growing plants and flowers that always look well around a piazza
rail, the plant-box shown in Fig. 49 will be found useful. One or more
boxes may be made from pine boards an inch thick and eight inches wide.
The boxes should be six inches deep, outside measure, and they may be as
long as desired to fill the spaces between the piazza posts.
Straight or box joints are made at the corners and fastened with screws.
The inside of the boxes should be treated to several successive coats of
asphaltum varnish to render them water-proof. Several small holes must be
bored in the bottom of each box to drain off surplus moisture, and the
boxes and supports may be painted a color to match the trimmings of the
house.
To anchor the boxes, screw a batten to the balustrade, on which the inner
edge of the box may rest. The outer edge is supported by means of braces
attached firmly to the underside of the box and to the piazza floor, as
shown in the illustration. Two small brackets attached to the underside
of the box and to the batten will hold the box in place and prevent it
from slipping off the top of the batten.
A Final Word
The few objects shown and described in this chapter are, of course, but
a small part of the things a wide-awake boy will think of and wish to
make. The principles involved in these examples, however, will apply to
scores of other things that may be constructed. Once these simpler forms
of workmanship are mastered the young craftsman will go forward naturally
to the higher exercise of his art. Carpentry is a fascinating occupation,
and it is well worth while, since its results are of practical use and
value.
Chapter II
WOOD-CARVING
A knowledge of drawing and modelling will be most helpful to the young
carver, as then the outline of ornament can be readily drawn, while to
carve objects from wood the art of modelling form is most desirable.
If the beginner possesses a knowledge of form acquired by drawing
and modelling, the art of wood-carving may be readily and quickly
mastered; but even if these advantages should be lacking, it is possible
that considerable progress can be made by those who will follow the
instructions given on these pages.
The most important feature of carving is the ability to sharpen and
maintain the little tools, and when this is mastered, more than half the
difficulty has been overcome. The dexterity to handle, with a firm and
sure hand, the various chisels and gouges comes, of course, with practice
only.
It is better to begin with a soft wood. Pine, poplar, button-wood,
cypress, or red woods are all of close grain and are easy to work. The
harder woods, and those with a very open grain—such as chestnut, ash, and
oak—should not be carved until the first principles are learned in the
softer woods.
Carving takes time, and it is not an art that can be quickly mastered,
unless it be the chip-and-line variety. But this last can hardly be
compared to the more beautiful relief-carving, with its well-modelled
form and undercutting.
A boy may learn the first principles of carving, using only his small,
flat carpenter’s chisels and gouges; but for more advanced work he
will need the regular carving-chisels. These latter are sharpened on
both sides, while the carpenter’s chisels are ground on one side only.
Nevertheless, some very good work has been done by boys who had nothing
better than a small gouge, a flat chisel, and a penknife. The true artist
can work in any material and with the most indifferent of implements.
Tools
At the start a numerous assortment of tools will not be necessary, as the
flat work and chip-carving will naturally be the first department of the
art to be taken up by the young carver.
Six or eight chisels constitute a good set, and those shown from Fig.
1 to 6 will answer very well. Fig. 1 is a plain, flat chisel with a
straight edge, as shown at A; it is commonly called a firmer. Fig. 2 is
also a flat tool, but possessing an angle or oblique edge; it is commonly
called a skew-firmer. Figs. 3 and 4 are gouges. Fig. 5 is a V gouge, and
Fig. 6 is a grounder. G, H, I, J, and K are gouges of various circles. L
is an angle, or V, gouge. M, N, and O are gouges of various curves, and
P, Q, and R are V gouges of various widths and angles. These last are
used for furrows, chip-carving, and lining.
[Illustration: A FIG. 1.
B FIG. 2.
C FIG. 3.
D FIG. 4.
E FIG. 5.
F FIG. 6.
G H I J K L M N O P Q R]
A flat felt or denim case should be made for the tools, so that they may
be kept in good order. It is made of two strips of the goods, one wider
than the other. Two edges are brought together and sewed, and lines of
stitching form pockets for the chisels. The flap left by the wider strip
of goods is folded over the chisel ends, and the pockets containing the
tools may be rolled up and tied with tape-strings. When opened it will
appear as shown in Fig. 7. The edges of chisels kept in this manner
are insured against injury and rust, since the case protects them from
atmospheric moisture.
The stones needed for sharpening the tools will be an ordinary flat
oil-stone (preferably a fine-grained India stone), and two or three
Turkey or Arkansas slips, four or five inches long, having the shapes
shown in Fig. 8. A, with the rounded edges, is for the gouge tools; B,
with the sharp edges, is for V-shaped tools; and any of the flat chisels
may be sharpened on the regular oil-stone, C.
In Fig. 9 end views of some slips are shown. A and B are round-edged
slips for gouge-chisels; C and D are angle stones for V chisels; while
small, flat tools may be finished on the sides. These stones are held in
the hand, and lightly but firmly rubbed against both surfaces of a tool
to give it the fine cutting edge.
In Fig. 10 an oil-stone in a case is shown. A boxed cover fits over it
and protects it from grit and dust. This is important, for often a little
gritty dust will do more harm to the edge of a fine tool than the stone
can do it good.
The other tools necessary to complete the kit will be several clamps,
similar to those shown in Figs. 11 and 12, and a fret-saw (Fig. 13). If
you happen to possess a bracket-machine or jig-saw the fret-saw will not
be necessary. A glue-pot will also be found useful.
[Illustration: FIG. 7. FIG. 8. FIG. 9. FIG. 10. FIG. 11. FIG. 12. FIG.
13.]
The first essential to good, clean cutting is that the tools shall be
absolutely sharp and in a workmanlike condition. It is often the case
that an amateur’s tools are in such a state that no professional carver
could produce satisfactory results with them. And yet the variety of
carving tools is so limited that if the difficulties of sharpening a
firmer and gouge are mastered the task is practically ended.
If the tools should be unusually dull they must first be ground on a
grindstone, and as carvers’ tools are sharpened on both sides, they must
be ground on both sides. The firmers may be sharpened on the oil-stone
laid flat on the bench, but the gouges must be held in the hand, in order
to sharpen the inside curve with a slip. The outer curve can be sharpened
on the flat oil-stone, or held in the hand and dressed with the flat side
of a slip. Great care must be taken to give the tools a finished and
smooth edge. When they have reached the proper degree of sharpness it
will be an easy matter to cut across the grain of white pine, leaving a
furrow that is entirely smooth and almost polished.
In the use of the oil-stone and slips, neat’s-foot oil, or a good, thin
machine oil, should be employed. Astral oil is too thin, but the oil
sold in small bottles for sewing-machines or bicycles will answer every
purpose. Water should not be used, as it would spoil the stones, and not
produce the sharp edge on the tools.
The finest stones are the best for use, and although they take longer to
give the keen edge required, they will be found the most satisfactory in
the end. Avoid grit and dust on the stones, and before using them they
should be wiped off with an oiled rag. The beginner must not consider any
pains too great to make himself thorough master of the tools, and to keep
a perfect edge on all of them.
The tools being in proper condition, the next step is to acquire a
knowledge of the best methods of handling them. It will require some
time and practice to become thoroughly familiar with the manner in which
tools are used, and, if it is possible, it would be well to watch some
carver at work.
The chisels should always be held with one hand on the handle, with two
fingers of the other hand near the edge of the tool. This is to give
sufficient pressure at the end to keep it down to the wood, while the
hand on the handle gives the necessary push to make the tool cut.
A Carver’s Bench
A carver’s bench is a necessity for the young craftsman, but if it is not
possible to get one, a heavy, wooden-top kitchen table will answer almost
as well. The proper kind of a bench gives greater facility for working,
since it is more solid and the height is better than that of an ordinary
table. Any boy who is handy with tools can make a bench in a short time
of pine or white wood, the top being of hard-wood. If the joiner-work is
not too difficult to carry out, it would be better to make the legs and
braces of hard-wood also, to lend weight and solidity to the table.
[Illustration: FIG. 14.]
The wood should be free from knots and sappy places, and as heavy as it
is possible to get it, so as to make a really substantial bench. The top
should measure four feet long and thirty inches wide, and not less than
one inch and a half in thickness. The framework must be well made, and
the corner-posts and braces securely fastened with lap-joints, glue,
and screws. The top of the bench should be thirty-nine inches high, and
to one side of the bench a carpenter’s vise may be attached, as shown
in Fig. 14. The jaw of the vise is seven inches wide, one and an eighth
inches thick, and thirty-four inches long. It is hung as described for
the carpenter’s bench (see Carpentry, Chapter I.). A wood or steel screw
may be purchased at a hardware store, and set near the top and into
the solid apron side-rail. The posts are four inches thick, and the
cross-pieces and rails should be of seven-eighth-inch hard-wood four
inches wide. The top overhangs the framework two inches all around, thus
forming a ledge, to which the plates of wood or panels may be bound with
the clamps and bench-screws. Where a clamp cannot be used, a cleat,
as shown in Fig. 11, is screwed fast to the top of the table, and the
projecting ear catches the edge of the wood and holds it securely.
A coat of varnish or paint on the legs and braces will finish this bench
nicely, and it will then be ready for the young workman’s use.
Chip-carving
To begin with, it is best to work on a simple pattern that can be
followed easily.
[Illustration: _Fig. 15 A._]
Get a piece of yellow pine, white-wood, or cypress seven-eighths of an
inch thick, six inches wide, and twelve inches long. On a piece of smooth
paper draw one-half of a pattern similar to the one shown in Fig. 15 A;
or you may use any other simple design that is free in line and open
in the ornament. Upon the wood lay a sheet of transfer-paper, with the
black surface down, and on top of the transfer-sheet the paper bearing
the design. Go over all the lines with a hard lead-pencil, bearing down
firmly on the point, so that the lines will be transferred to the wood.
Turn the design around and repeat the drawing, so that the wood will
bear the complete pattern. Clamp the wood to one side or corner of the
bench with three or four clamps. Do not screw the clamps directly on the
wood, but place between the jaw and the wood a piece of heavy card-board,
or another piece of thin wood, to prevent the clamps from bruising the
surface of the panel.
First, with a small V, or gouge-chisel, cut the lines; after that the
leaves, using a flat, or spade, chisel. Two curved incisions will shape
out the leaf, and the angle through the centre describes the main vein.
The chipping may be shallow or deep, as a matter of choice, but more
effect may be had by cutting fairly deep.
[Illustration: _Fig. 15 B._]
The finished result will appear as shown in the illustration of the
chip-carved panel (Fig. 15 B). For light ornamenting or drawer-panels,
fancy boxes, and picture-frames, this form of carving may be made both
pleasing and effective. Moreover, its mastery leads naturally to the more
artistic relief-carving.
A Frame for a Small Clock
[Illustration: _Fig. 16._]
[Illustration: _Fig. 17._]
Get one of the little nickel-plated clocks (sold at sixty cents and
upwards). Lay it down on a smooth piece of soft wood—pine or cedar—about
seven by eight inches. Mark around it closely with a lead-pencil, and
cut out the circular opening with your knife. If you happen to have a
fret-saw or suitable tools, you can make it of hard-wood. Smooth nicely
with sand-paper. The clock must fit closely into the opening. You will
find Fig. 16 very easy to do. Cut out the lines, being careful not to let
the tool slip when cutting with the grain. Dilute the walnut stain with
turpentine, and paint the design inside the lines; the grooves prevent
the color spreading. Let it dry. The next day, with a wad of cotton or
piece of canton flannel, rub on some varnish. Soft wood absorbs it very
rapidly at first until the pores are filled. When quite dry, sand-paper
nicely. Then rub again with varnish, a little at a time. Keep raw
linseed-oil near you in a cup; dip one finger of your left hand in this
when the work becomes sticky, and apply to the pad; it helps to spread
the varnish. Rub briskly with a circular motion. The varnish will dry
quickly, when it must have a final polish; this brings out the beauty of
the grain. If carefully done, your work will resemble inlaying.
Some Other Designs
The daisy design (Fig. 17) is charming when finished, and has the
additional merit of being easy. Cut the daisy form from a visiting-card,
and mark around it. Stain the centre much darker than the petals.
Table-tops, jewel-boxes, calendar frames, chairs, etc., may be purchased
already polished, and outlined in some dainty pattern. A finer tool (No.
11, 1/64) comes for this kind of work. Of course it cannot be stained,
but if desired the background may be stamped with a star-pointed “marker”
to give the design prominence.
These patterns may be adapted for the decoration of glove-boxes,
bread-plates, knife-boxes, stools, blotting-books, card-cases,
match-boxes, music-portfolios, and many other things, which will sell
well at fancy fairs, or be highly appreciated as presents.
Relief-carving
Relief-carving differs from the chip work in that the ornament is raised
instead of being cut in. Solid relief-carving, such as appears on panels,
box-covers, and furniture, is produced either by cutting the background
away or by carving the ornament separately and then gluing it onto the
surface of the article to be decorated. Of course, this latter process is
only a makeshift, and the first method is the really artistic one.
It is best to begin with something simple and then go on to the more
complicated forms of ornamental work. A neat pattern for a long panel is
shown in Fig. 18 A. This panel is twelve inches long and four and a half
inches wide.
[Illustration: _Fig. 18 A._]
On a smooth piece of paper draw one-half of the design and transfer it
to the wood, as described for the chip-carved panel. Clamp the wood to a
corner of the bench and, with a small wooden mallet and both firmer and
gouge-chisels, cut down on the lines and into the face of the wood. Then,
with the gouges and grounding-tool, cut away the background to a depth
of one-eighth of an inch or more, until a result is obtained similar to
that shown in Fig. 18 B. The entire design and edge of the panel will
then be in relief, but its surface will be flat and consequently devoid
of artistic feeling. With the flat and extra flat gouge-chisels begin to
carve some life into the ornament. A little practice will soon enable the
young craftsman to observe which parts should be high and which should be
low. The intermediate surfaces should be left neutral, or between high
and low relief. This finishing process depends for its effect upon the
good taste and feeling of the craftsman; it is the quality that gives
artistic beauty and meaning to the work. The panel, when completed,
should have the appearance shown in Fig. 18 C.
[Illustration: _Fig. 18 B._]
As already stated, the general effect of relief-carving may be also
obtained through the “applied” method, a simpler and less tedious
process, but neither so artistic nor so substantial.
[Illustration: _Fig. 18 C._]
[Illustration: _Fig. 19 A._]
The design is transferred to a thin piece of wood and cut out with a fret
or jig saw. Fig. 19 A shows a suitable pattern for this class of work.
The pieces are then glued in position on a thick piece of wood, and the
“feeling” carved in after the fashion already indicated. This “applied”
carving may be used on the panels of small drawers, cabinets, and boxes
of various sizes and shapes. The inventive boy will be able to design
patterns for himself, or they may be cheaply bought. Fig. 19 B shows the
effect of the finished work.
[Illustration: _Fig. 19 B._]
Mouldings
In Fig. 20 some designs are given for carved mouldings, and at the side,
end views are shown.
Plain mouldings of various shapes may also be bought at a mill, or from a
carpenter, and may be given “life” with a little care and work. Both hard
and soft wood mouldings are available, but at first the softer woods will
be found the easier to work.
A plain corner on a wooden picture-frame may be built up with blocks of
wood glued on as shown in Fig. 21 A. When carved this piece will have the
appearance of the finished corner shown in Fig. 21 B. The arms of chairs,
corners of furniture, and the like may be treated in this same manner.
When flat and relief carving have been mastered, it would be well to
attempt something in figure and free-hand work, such as animals, fruit,
or heads. But it will take a good deal of practice on the simple and
conventional forms before the amateur will feel himself competent for
the more advanced art. As improvement in the flat work is noticed, the
ornament may be “undercut” to give it richness and boldness.
[Illustration: _Fig. 20._]
To finish wood in any desired color, stains may be purchased at a paint
or hardware shop. Over the stained surface, when dry, several thin coats
of hard-oil finish or furniture varnish should be applied. The back and
edges of a carved panel must always be painted to protect them from
moisture and dampness; warping and splitting are thereby avoided. Some
pieces of carving need only a coating of raw linseed-oil, while others
may be treated to a wax finish composed of beeswax cut in turpentine,
rubbed in with a cloth, and polished off. Another method of darkening oak
(before it is varnished) is to expose it to the fumes of ammonia, or to
paint on liquid ammonia, with a brush, until the desired antique shade is
obtained. The staining process, however, is preferable.
[Illustration: FIG. 21 A. FIG. 21 B.]
Chapter III
FRETWORK AND WOOD-TURNING
Nearly every boy has had, at one time or another, a desire to make
scroll-brackets, fretwork-boxes, and filigree wood-work of various sorts.
The art is naturally affiliated with other decorative processes in
wood-working, such as wood-turning, carving, and marquetry, or the art of
inlaying woods. Both fretwork and wood-turning are very old crafts, and
were practised by the ancient Egyptians, specimens of their work being
still extant.
A great deal of amusement and pleasure may be had in the possession of
a scroll-saw, or “bracket machine,” as it was commonly known among boys
some years ago. And first, as to the implements required.
The Tools
To those who can go to the dealer and pay for just what their fancy
dictates, there is no trouble to procure all the tools that may be needed
for the finest work; but others who cannot afford this luxury may get
along nicely with a very small outlay. In fact, in nearly every instance
known to the writer where the amateur has really rigged up his own
machine, he has become master of the art sooner. A number of years ago
the writer, then a school-boy, transformed an old sewing-machine table
into a scroll-saw and lathe, and to-day this homely old stand and crudely
put together machine does as good work, with as little effort, as the
finest and most expensive outfit. This machine, all complete, with the
drilling attachment, cost: old machine, one dollar; dozen saws, assorted,
twenty-five cents; new material, rivets, etc., sixty-five cents; drills
(still in use), fifteen cents; total, two dollars and five cents.
This money was saved from building fires and taking up ashes, and the
first time the saw was run—one cold, stormy day in late November—there
was cut up material which, when put together and sold (playmates and
school-fellows being the customers), amounted to over three dollars in
cash, besides a few pocket-knives, bits of rare wood, and the like that
were taken in exchange.
Making a fine scroll-saw from a sewing-machine is of itself an easy
matter. The balance-wheels should be retained, in order that all back
lash can be easily overcome. The two arms holding the saw are to be
geared from some wheel in the rear or connected with a belt. If the
wrist-pin (the crank, or pitman wrist) gives too long a motion, it can
be easily taken up by either drilling another hole nearer the centre or
using a bent crank-pin. In any event the cut should not be over one inch.
Another method of shortening the stroke (and a very good one if the means
of making the other changes are not at hand) is by changing the bearing
of the arm. The nearer the saw the shorter the stroke. The clamp-screws
holding the saws should be adjustable, so that either a long or a short
saw-blade may be used. Those who break their blades (and there are none
who do not) will find great economy in using adjustable clamps, as the
short pieces can be used for sawing thin stuff, veneers, and the like.
The best kind of clamp is provided with a slit to receive the blade and a
set-screw for tightening.
The tools necessary for hand-sawing are very simple and inexpensive,
consisting of a wooden saw-frame, one dollar; dozen saw-blades, twenty
cents; one clamp-screw, twenty-five cents; drill and stock, fifty cents;
total, one dollar and ninety-five cents.
In selecting saw-blades be careful to buy only those with sharp and
regular-cut teeth. Saws are graded by number for hand-sawing. Numbers 0
and 1 are the best sizes, unless for very delicate work, when finer ones
should be used. The larger blades have coarse teeth, which are liable
to catch in the work and tear it. Since, at the best, the motion of
the hand-saw is jerky, not nearly so nice work can be done as with the
treadle-saw, which has an even, steady gait.
For all open-work it is necessary to have something to punch holes, so
that a start may be made on the inside. Many use an ordinary brad-awl,
but this is liable to split the wood. Besides, it is not possible to
punch a hole so smooth and nice as it can be drilled or bored; hence, a
drill is included in the list, and it will be found a very handy tool for
either hand or treadle saws. The most serviceable article of this kind is
the small German drill-stock, that can be bought with six drill-points,
assorted sizes, for fifty cents, or the small hand-drills, with side
wheel and handle, and provided with a small chuck to clutch the drill.
From what I have said, it should not be inferred that any objections
are made to any of the beautiful little machines now to be bought at
moderate cost. By all means, when the expense can be afforded, these
should be used. The good ones will do the most delicate work, can be run
with great ease, and will cut from eight to twenty pieces at a time,
according to the thickness of the wood, leaving the edges of the work
perfectly smooth. In using treadle-machines, insert the saw-blades with
the teeth pointing downward and towards the front of the machine, and
guide the wood easily with the fingers, with the wrists resting firmly
on the table, being careful not to feed too fast or crowd against the
saw sideways. Otherwise the blades will be heated and broken, and they
will wear away the little wooden button set at the centre of the plate to
prevent the saw from touching the metal work-table.
The Practice of the Art
Most boys know how to run a scroll-saw, or think they do, yet a few
practical hints should not come amiss.
To begin with, the machine should be well oiled, all nuts, screws, and
bolts turned up tight, and the belts adjusted at sufficient tension to
run at a high rate of speed without slipping. Many machines, even in
large mills, are groaning and filing out their journals and bearings
simply because the belts are too tight. One of the first principles to
be mastered in applied mechanics is that of power transmission, and
right here the young workman has the best of opportunities to solve, in a
measure, a great mechanical problem—namely, a belt tight enough to drive
the machine and do the work, and loose enough to run easy and cause no
unnecessary friction or wear on the journals and boxings.
For your first practice take some cigar-box wood (of which a good stock
should be kept), and trace upon the dark sides a series of angles and
curved lines. Never, under any circumstances, begin sawing without a
tracing, or a pattern of some kind, to saw to, for now is the time to
cultivate habits of accuracy. With no design or objective-point, nothing
but a bit of useless board will result; besides, you will form a habit of
working without a guide, a habit that has made more poor artisans than
the love of idleness and bad company. Lay the wood on the rest, or plate,
and see that it lies solidly. If it shakes, the wood is uneven and should
be straightened, for no one can saw a warped board and make accurate
work; besides, it is impossible to work in such wood without breaking
the saws. The wood being level, hold it down with the left hand, fasten
securely a No. 1 blade in the frame, and begin sawing, being careful to
keep the motion very high and feeding slowly, sawing out the tracing
lines, or keeping close to one side of them. If an ordinary hand-frame is
used, work it firmly in one direction, keeping the blade perpendicular,
and turning the wood so that the saw may follow the pattern.
After you have thoroughly learned the motion of the machine, the cutting
of the saw, feeding, etc., try sawing a straight line, being careful not
to push or crowd the blade sideways, as this will not only make the lines
crooked, but will heat and ruin the blades, if it does not break them.
When you have become an adept in following a straight line, and cutting
the lines of a curve accurately, mark out several Vs and squares. To saw
a V begin at the upper end and saw down to the point; now back the saw
out, and saw from the other end down to the same point. If the line is
carefully followed, this will insure a sharp, clean-cut angle. To cut
out a square hole, saw down to the angle, then work the blade up and
down in one place rapidly until it becomes loose; then turn the wood at
right angles and saw carefully along the line to the other corner, when
the operation may be repeated. Just as soon as you can saw straight and
curved lines true to tracings, it is safe to begin good work with little
if any fear of spoiling lumber or breaking an undue number of saws.
The Preparation of the Work
One of the simplest objects for a beginner to try his skill upon is a
wall-bracket such as shown in Fig. 1. A piece of cedar—the bottom and lid
of a cigar-box will answer the purpose excellently—from seven to eight
inches in length by six and a half in width is a convenient size. The
shelf is a semicircular piece either plain or scalloped in front, and its
support must be of light, open, but strong design to match one-half of
the lower design to the wall-plate. Hinges are sometimes placed to all
parts in order to make it easy to pack the bracket. But such additions
can only be made by the expert craftsman.
The first thing to be done is to trace the design on a thin piece of
paper after it has been drawn roughly on a smooth sheet of brown paper.
When the tracing is complete, lay it face downward, and cover it with
powdered red chalk. The tracing is then imposed on the wood, with the
red side downward. With a blunt bodkin or lead-pencil we now draw firmly
along the lines, thus reproducing the tracing on the surface of the wood.
Having accomplished this, we remove the paper, and with pen and ink make
a complete drawing of the outlined design on the wood.
In designing fretwork great care must be taken to get the two sides
of the pattern alike and in correct drawing. This can best be done by
drawing the design on tracing-paper, and doubling it over when, with a
little extra pressure of the pencil, a good design can be obtained on
both sides of the paper.
When this has been accomplished pierce the wood at various points with a
drill. The holes thus made are to allow the saw to enter. The wood may
now be put in the clamp. Then with a moderately strong saw the young
beginner can make his first attempt. The frame must be held perfectly
straight and the arm worked steadily up and down.
Turning the saw is always a difficult point with amateurs, but in reality
there is but little in the operation that cannot be mastered with a few
moments’ practice. The secret of turning neatly and without damaging
either saw or wood is to work very steadily up and down, but not forward,
when the turning-point has been reached. Then by a sharp and active
movement of the wrist and wood the saw should be turned, but not jerked,
and the new line commenced. Sometimes, however, the delicacy of the
pattern makes this impossible. The saw should then be pulled backward and
forward gently until a sufficiently large hole has been made.
It is impossible, within the limits of this chapter, to give designs for
any considerable number of the articles that can be made in fretwork;
but with the descriptions just given, and the few accompanying patterns,
a boy who has any idea of drawing and designing can put parts of an
ornament together and so work out new and attractive variations.
A Match-safe
[Illustration: FIG. 1. FIG. 2. FIG. 3.]
The design for a match-safe is shown in Fig. 2, the wall-plate measuring
two inches and a half in width and seven inches high. One side of the
pattern should first be drawn in free-hand, then traced and transferred
to the thin wood and the lines gone over with a sharp-pointed, hard
pencil, so that it will be an easy matter to see them when sawing.
The front plate of the match-safe is shown at B and one end at C. The
front is two and a half inches long and one inch wide, and the ends are
made in proportion, or about seven-eighths of an inch wide. These parts
are put together with slim steel nails and glue, having first drilled the
holes where the nails are to be driven to prevent them from splitting the
wood.
Most of the modern scroll-sawing machines have movable beds, so that
bevel cuts can be made. This is done by tilting the bed or table
slightly, as shown in Fig. 3. As a result the work will have a narrower
face than the back, as shown at the right side of the bracket in Fig. 1.
However, in making the front, or bracket part, there should not be any
bevel-cutting, since it would look one-sided. Keep the bed flat in that
case, and make the regular cuts for straight work.
A Wall-bracket
The simple bracket shown in Fig. 1 is an easy one to draw, and it may
be cut from holly, birch, oak, or any good wood about one-eighth of an
inch in thickness. The bracket or front-piece is half the back-plate,
omitting the top ornament. The shelf (A) may be rounded, scalloped, or
cut serpentine, as indicated by the dotted lines, and the three parts are
put together with fine nails, or screws, and glue.
A Fretwork-box
For a glove or necktie box an attractive design is shown in Fig. 4,
A being the top and B the front or back. The ends should be made a
proportionate size, and a part of the traced ornament can be transferred
to them, so as to match the other parts.
[Illustration: A GLOVE-BOX AND A T BRACKET
FIG. 4. FIG. 5. FIG. 6.]
A good size to make this box will be ten inches long, five inches wide,
and three inches deep. This should be the size of the main rib or
rectangle in the top, and out from it the scallops project three-quarters
of an inch all around.
Lay out one-quarter of the cover design on a piece of smooth paper;
then make a tracing of it. With a piece of transfer-paper this quarter
should be gone over with a blunt lead-pencil, so that the lines will be
transferred to the wood. Take care when making a transfer to see that
the quarter has been accurately placed on the wood so that a perfect
rectangle will be had.
Put this box together with glue and small, slim nails, and arrange a
bottom of thin wood to fit where the lower cross-rib of the sides is
shown. If the saw leaves ragged edges at the reverse side of the wood,
they may be cleaned off with fine sand-paper or a small file.
Some Other Designs
Another design for a bracket is illustrated in Fig. 5; and in Fig. 6
a T is shown that may be used for a bracket or a wall-hanger, along
the top edge of which small hooks may be arranged to hold a shoe-horn,
button-hooks, scissors, and other small bedroom accessories.
Wood-turning
The common examples of wood-turning with which a boy is most familiar are
tops, balls, bats, dumb-bells, Indian clubs, broom-handles, and spools.
All of these objects are made in a lathe, and this is the self-same
machine that has been in use for centuries, with but few modifications.
Like the potter’s wheel, it is simplicity itself and needs no improvement.
The object of a lathe is to cause a piece of wood or other material to
revolve from end to end, so that when a chisel or other sharp-edged tool
is held against the moving surface it will cut away that part of the
material at which the tool is directed.
The boy who lives near a wood-working establishment, or mill, can gain
more knowledge in watching a wood-turner at work for half an hour than
he can learn from reading a book on the subject for many days. It is a
simple craft, but a firm hand and a true cut are the important factors in
making a boy a master of the lathe.
Once the knowledge is gained, however, it is an easy matter to turn all
sorts of objects.
A simple lathe may be made from a small table, a grindstone, a
trunk-strap, and several small parts that are easily gotten together.
Read how in his boyhood days the author constructed a small lathe.
Between the legs of a table two bars were nailed across for supports to
the shaft, which was made of oak and measured three feet long and one
inch square. This just fitted the hole in a grindstone that was used for
the balance-wheel. Six inches from the ends of the shaft the corners were
cut away to form bearings on the cross-bars, which were hollowed out
to receive it. A leather strap was nailed over to keep it in position.
The grindstone was next placed on the shaft, near one end, between
the bearings, and wedged. Over it two brackets, four inches high, were
screwed in position on the table top, six inches apart, forming a support
for a shaft of a small wheel or pulley made of wood. In the end of an ash
shaft, one inch square and eight inches long, were three sharp points
made by driving in nails without heads, the projecting ends being filed
to points; these, forced against the block, held one end firmly enough
to turn. The places where the bearings came were cut in the form of a
cylinder three-quarters of an inch in diameter, and corresponding places
were hollowed in the supports (as shown at Fig. 8) to receive it, a small
piece of wood being screwed on over each, after the shaft and wheel were
put in position.
A belt was made of an old trunk-strap, passed round the grindstone and
through two holes in the table over the little wheel, causing the latter
to revolve very rapidly when the former was turned. This was done by a
treadle put in the following manner: Two cranks were made (A in Fig. 7)
by a blacksmith and attached to the ends of the long shaft. They were
three inches long and had a knob on the end of the handle to prevent the
connecting-rods from slipping off. The latter were of hard-wood, with
a half-inch hole bored through near one end. They were then split six
inches, allowing them to be placed on the handles. A screw was then put
in to secure them, the lower ends being connected with a treadle made as
in Fig. 7.
[Illustration: FIG. 7. FIG. 8. FIG. 9.]
The second spindle at first was made immovable by inserting a piece of
quarter-inch wire in a wooden bracket, which was screwed to the table;
but finding it not always convenient to use blocks of the same length,
one was arranged to slide; it could be secured in any position with
thumb-screws. A long cut a quarter of an inch wide was first sawed in
the table in the line of the short shaft; then a bracket three inches
high was screwed to a short strip two inches wide, one inch thick, and
a foot long. A similar strip was placed beneath, through which two
thumb-screws passed. A piece of wire, filed to a point and driven in
the bracket, served for a centre. A movable block of wood three and a
half inches high was used for a tool rest, which by means of two small
bolts and thumb-screws was held fast to the table top. Slots cut in the
table top made it possible to move this rest forward or backward, and the
thumb-screws, or winged-nuts, as they are properly called, were tightened
at the under side of the table, as shown at Fig. 9.
A great deal of pleasure may be had at little or no cost with a lathe of
this description. All sorts of small things may be turned, and when a boy
has mastered the craft it would be well to add an iron lathe to his stock
of tools, if the cost is at all within his means.
Chapter IV
PICTURE MOUNTING AND FRAMING
The modern idea in framing pictures is to have the frame harmonize with
the subject, rather than to employ a stock moulding with set pattern
made by the mile, and cut up into frames of all sizes and for all sorts
of pictures. All the frames shown in the illustrations accompanying this
chapter were made at home, and from such simple materials as thin boards,
burlap, tea-chest matting, denim, wire, sheet-lead, harness-rings, and
brass-headed upholsterers’ tacks.
A Dutch Head Mounting
For the study of a Dutch head a unique frame, or mounting, is shown in
Fig. 1. This is a board of thin wood of a size in proportion to the
photograph, the latter being nailed to the board with large, oval-headed
tacks painted black.
The board is covered with green denim, the edges of which are drawn
over the back of the board and glued, or fastened with small tacks. The
photograph, a platinum print, is trimmed to an oval, and then mounted
on a white card. When the paste is dry the mount is also cut ovalwise,
following the line of the photograph, and leaving a white margin
half an inch in width. The picture is placed on the board so that the
side and top margins will be equal; it is then fastened in place with
upholsterers’ tacks driven three-quarters of an inch apart.
[Illustration: _Fig. 1._ _Fig. 3._]
These nails, as well as the other metal-work, are to be coated with a
mixture of dry lamp-black and shellac before they are driven on the
board. The nails should be painted some time before they are to be used,
so that the black coating will be thoroughly dry. After the nails are
driven in place it may be necessary to go over them with a small brush
and some of the black paint, to touch up places where the coating has
chipped off.
The ornament below the picture and the hanger-straps are cut from
sheet-lead about one-sixteenth of an inch in thickness. The stems are of
ordinary iron wire, such as may be purchased at a hardware store for a
few cents. Each piece of the design is separate, and may be easily cut
from soft lead with an old pair of shears, and afterwards trimmed with a
pocket-knife or a small file.
Drawings of the metal parts to this frame are shown in Fig. 2. A is the
strap at the top, where the hanger is attached; B, the scrolls forming
the hanger; C, one of the buds at the top of the stem of wire; D, the
flower at the middle of the frame under the picture; E, one of the long
leaves; and F, a shorter curved one. These are all painted black before
they are applied to the board; then they are caught with large and
small nails, the large ones for effect, the small and invisible ones to
securely attach the metal ornaments to the wood.
Small staples made from pins with the heads cut off are used to hold the
wire stems in place, but at the outer ends the wire is caught under the
buds or flowers, where it is held in place with an upholsterer’s tack.
The ornamental hangers are made from thin strips of stove-pipe iron
one-quarter of an inch wide, and may be shaped with a small pair of
pliers or bent with the fingers. (See Chapter V., Venetian and Florentine
Metal-work.) The long upper part of the strap-pieces are bent over and
caught at the back of the frame, and form a staple, into which the lower
loop of each hanger is made fast.
If the large, oval-headed nails which hold the picture to the board
cannot be had at your hardware store, imitation heads may be cut from
lead, blackened, and fastened on with two or three fine steel-nails.
A Dark Card Mounting
The mounting shown in Fig. 3 is constructed along the same lines as that
of Fig. 1, but the hangers are different, and the picture, having a
white edge, is mounted on a dark card. The nails are then driven on the
white band, in order to make them more conspicuous than they would be if
fastened on the outer margin.
A line may be drawn on a piece of smooth brown paper indicating the size
of the frame, and another one to denote the location of the picture. The
design should then be drawn on the paper with lead-pencil, and the little
flowers, buds, and leaves fitted to this plan. The wire may also be
bent to conform to the lines of the drawing, so that it will be an easy
matter to apply the accurately fitted parts to the frame, where they are
fastened with small, oval-headed tacks.
A strip of sheet-lead five inches long and one-half an inch wide is cut
V-shaped at the bottom, and the top is bent over a two-inch harness-ring,
then drawn down and fastened with a nail, to prevent it from releasing
the ring. These hangers are fixed at the top, midway between the picture
and the outer edge of the frame. Large-headed wrought-iron bellows-nails
are used on which to hang the picture; they are driven into the wall,
and, when necessary, the picture may be removed from them by simply
lifting the rings over the nail-heads.
A Triple Mounting
[Illustration: _Fig. 4._]
The long panel effect shown in Fig. 4 is a simple and pleasing mounting
for small photographs, or colored prints. A board is covered with
ordinary burlap, which is drawn over the surface and tacked at the back;
apparently it is held in place by the large, oval-headed tacks driven all
around the outer edge. A card-mount the size of the photograph is cut
away at the middle, leaving the outer edge about half or five-eighths of
an inch in width. This is laid over the photograph, and through it the
nails are driven which hold the photograph and the frame to the board.
The scroll-hangers at the top and the nail-head decorations add to the
artistic appearance of this frame.
Plain Framing
For etchings, water-colors, or colored photographs and aquarelles, where
a wide mat is desirable, plain narrow frames should be used. These may
be made from moulding with the rabbet cut in by machine, but the boy
craftsman may use flat rails and make his own rabbet.
First cut the joints with a mitre-box and saw; then with glue and
slim nails a good union is made, as shown at Fig. 5, the dotted lines
representing the long, slim nails. If a lap-point is preferred to a
mitre, both ends of the flat rails should be cut away, as shown at
Fig. 6, the union being made with glue and short screws driven in from
the back of the frame, taking care, however, not to puncture or deface
the face of the frame. Where a rabbet is to be made at the back of a
frame, the front inner edge should be bevelled, as shown at A in Fig.
7, so that there will not be too great a thickness of wood close to the
glass. A quarter of an inch out from the inner edge of the frame fasten
four square sticks with glue and small nails. These sticks should be
three-eighths of an inch square, and mitred at the corners, as shown
at B in Fig. 7. The glass can then lie on the back of the frame within
the space described by the small sticks, and over it the picture and
back-board are placed, the nails being driven in to hold them in place.
[Illustration: FIG. 2. FIG. 5. FIG. 6. FIG. 7. FIG. 8. FIG. 9.]
A Sporting Mount
For a picture in which horses are prominent, such as a race, a group of
horses’ heads, or a driving scene, an appropriate frame is suggested in
Fig. 8.
The frame proper is made from narrow strips of wood, the face of which is
studded with oval-headed nails. This frame is then arranged on a large
board, and at the corners blocks, or separators, are fastened, which will
cause the frame to stand away from the large board for half an inch or
so, in order that the stirrup-strap and the whip-handle may pass under
it, as shown at A in Fig. 8.
The frame is hung by means of large harness-rings caught at the top of
the frame with leather straps. These are carried about the back-board and
buckled at the front. The stirrup is suspended from the lower middle part
of the frame on a strap, which is caught about the back-board and runs
under the small front frame.
Dark Flemish oak for the back-board, russet straps, and brass buckles
will make a pleasing combination; and if the picture is a colored one, it
will add greatly to the effect of the complete mounting.
A Round-robin Mounting
For one large head-picture and a number of small ones a novel scheme for
mounting is shown at Fig. 9.
This is a one-piece barrel-head covered with burlap or denim. The
photographs are cut circular and mounted on heavy white or cream-colored
card-mounts, then trimmed so that a margin half an inch wide will be left
all around. These are to be applied to the barrel-head with oval-headed
upholsterers’ nails, as suggested for Fig. 1. The hangers are made from
thin strips of iron, and should be as long as half the diameter of the
board.
Part II
METAL-WORKING
Chapter V
VENETIAN AND FLORENTINE METAL-WORK
In Italy, many years ago, there originated the pretty household art of
making small objects from metal strips bent into graceful curves and
scrolls, and then banded together. During the past few years American and
English boys have taken up this Venetian and Florentine metal-work, and
to-day the materials may be purchased at hardware stores in all the large
cities.
The tools required are a pair of flat and a pair of round-nosed pliers,
or pincers, a pair of heavy shears, and a pair of wire-cutters; a small
bench-vise will also be useful.
The materials include a few sheets of thin stove-pipe iron of good
quality (it may be purchased from a tinsmith), several yards of fine,
soft iron wire, and some heavier wire for framework.
From the sheets of iron narrow strips are to be cut with the shears, and
for ordinary work they should be not more than three-sixteenths of an
inch in width; for heavier or lighter work the width may be varied. If it
is possible to obtain the prepared strips at a hardware store, it will be
better than making them at home, since it is a tiresome task to cut many
of the strips from sheet-iron. Soft, thin iron that will bend easily is
the only kind that is of use, as the hard or brittle iron breaks off and
it is impossible to bend it into uniform or even scrolls.
A little patience and perseverance will be necessary at first until the
knack of forming scrolls has been mastered, but once learned it will then
be an easy matter to make many pretty and useful objects.
A Lamp-screen
An attractive design for a lamp-screen is shown in Fig. 1 A. When
completed and backed with some pretty material it will be found a useful
little affair to hang against the shade of a lamp to shield one’s eyes
from the direct rays of a bright light.
To begin with, form a square of six inches, and at the top where the ends
meet make a lap-joint by allowing one end to project over the other; then
bind them together with some very fine wire—about the size that florists
use. Inside of this square make a circle six inches in diameter, and wire
it fast to the square where the sides, bottom, and top touch it.
Bend four small circles, and fasten one in each of the four angular
corners between the circle and square; then form the centre scrolls and
the hoop in the middle of the screen.
To form a scroll like that shown in Fig. 1 bend a strip of metal in the
form of a =U=, as shown in Fig. 2, and with the round-nosed pair of
pliers begin to curl one end in, as shown in Fig. 3. When it has been
rolled far enough in to form one side of the scroll, it will appear as
shown in Fig. 4. By treating the other end in a similar manner the
finished result will be a perfect scroll like Fig. 1. Four of these
scrolls are to be made and banded to the circle and to each other, and in
the centre the hoop must be made fast with little metal bands.
[Illustration: FIG. 1. FIG. 1 A. FIG. 2. FIG. 3. FIG. 4. FIG. 5. FIG. 6.
FIG. 7.]
When uniting or binding two strips of metal together they may be fastened
with wire or bands, as a matter of choice. If the latter mode is
employed, short pieces of the metal strips are to be cut and partially
bent in the form of a clamp, as shown in Fig. 5. Bring the two sides
together and bend one ear of the clamp over them (Fig. 6), and if the
other ear is the proper length, bend that down in place, and squeeze all
together with the flat-nosed pair of pincers. The perfect joint will then
appear as shown in Fig. 7. When using metal clamps the ears should be of
such a length that, when pressed down over the united strips of metal,
the ends will just come together and not overlap.
Having made the body part of the screen, form the scrolls of the top, and
bind them in place with wire or the little metal clamps. This top should
measure some three inches high from the top rib of the screen, and the
end scrolls should project about three-quarters of an inch beyond the
body of the screen at either side.
For the sides and bottom form a frill of metal and fasten it to the
screen with wire; it should not be more than three-eighths or half an
inch in width, and can be bent with the round-nosed pincers and the
fingers. Better wear gloves for this part of the work.
When the metal-work is finished it will be necessary to coat it with
black paint to improve its appearance and prevent its rusting. There
are several good paints that may be used for this purpose, but if they
are not easy to obtain an excellent coating may be made by dissolving a
little shellac in alcohol and adding dry lamp-black so it will be about
the consistency of cream. It should be applied to the metal with a soft
brush, and if it should become too thick it may be thinned by adding
alcohol.
Two thin coats will be all that are required for ordinary purposes, but
if the metal-work is exposed to the weather, or any dampness that might
cause it to rust, a coat of red lead should be applied next the iron. Red
lead can be mixed with boiled linseed-oil to make a good metal paint.
A backing of some pretty, light-colored silk is required to complete
the screen, using one, two, or three thicknesses to properly shield the
light. The backing should be attached to the grille, or framework, with
black silk, and it may be cut to fit either the round or square portion
of the framework. The stitches should be close together, to prevent the
goods drawing away from the metal ribs.
Pattern-making
When constructing any piece of grille-work it is always best to have a
full-sized drawing to work over. For example, it is a simple matter to
lay out the plan for Fig. 1 A, and you may proceed as follows: Pin to a
lap-board a smooth piece of heavy brown paper, and with a soft pencil
draw a six-inch square. Inside this describe, with a compass, a six-inch
circle; then draw the four corner circles, and divide the larger Circle
into quarters. In each of these quarters draw, in free-hand, the scroll
shown in Fig. 1 A. The top is to be drawn in free-hand, but if it is
difficult to get both sides alike you may first draw one side; then
double the paper, and transfer the design by rubbing the back of the
paper. It will then be found an easy matter to bend and fit the scrolls,
since each member may be accurately shaped to conform to the lines, and
afterwards banded together.
A Standard Screen
For a standard screen in the shape of a banner the design shown in Fig. 1
A may be used, leaving off the top ornament, and suspending it from the
upper end of a supported stick with cord or wires, as shown in Fig. 8.
The stick should be about eighteen inches high, and the scroll feet
should stand seven inches and a half up from the bottom. At the widest
part they should measure six inches across, and there should be four of
these feet to constitute a stable base. At the top of the stick (which
should be about one-quarter of an inch square) a scroll and a hook will
serve to support the screen. In a library or sitting-room, where one
large lamp is used to read by, one or two banner-screens will keep the
strong light from the eyes and the heat from the head without cutting off
the needed illumination from the book or work in hand.
A Candlestick
The illustration shown in Fig. 9 gives a pleasing pattern for a
small-based candlestick.
[Illustration: A STANDARD SCREEN AND A CANDLESTICK
FIG. 8. FIG. 9. FIG. 10.]
To begin with, secure an old tin or brass candlestick and rip off the
bottom, leaving only the sheath and collar at the top. Have a tinsmith
cut the lower end away, leaving about two inches of the top, and solder a
bottom in it. Cut a pine stick about four inches long and not more than
three-sixteenths of an inch square, or the same thickness as the width
of the metal strips from which the scrolls are to be formed. Punch a
small hole in the bottom of the socket, and drive a slim steel-wire nail
down through it and into the middle of one end of the stick, so that the
attached pieces will appear as shown in Fig. 10. The socket will hold a
candle, and the stick will act as a centre staff against which the four
scroll sides are to be fastened.
A paper pattern should be used over which to bend the scrolls, and across
the bottom they should measure four and a half inches, and five or six
inches high. To the upper part of one side-scroll a handle should be
shaped and fastened, as shown in Fig. 9.
A Candelabra
The design for a four-armed candelabra to hold five candles is shown in
Fig. 11.
Cut two sticks a quarter of an inch square and ten inches long, another
one thirteen inches long, and a short piece two inches long. At the
middle of the ten-inch lengths cut laps, as shown in Fig. 12, and bore
a hole through the centre and into an end of the long stick. Drive a
slim nail down into the hole at the end of the stick, as shown in Fig.
13, and over it place the cross-arms, as shown in Fig. 14. In one end
of the short stick bore a hole, snug it over the top of the nail, and
drive it down so that it will fit securely on top of the cross-sticks.
The completed union will have the appearance of Fig. 15, and to this wood
frame the scroll and ornamental work is to be attached.
[Illustration: A CANDELABRA
FIG. 11. FIG. 12. FIG. 13. FIG. 14. FIG. 15. FIG. 16.]
Lay out the plan of one side on paper, making the distance from the stick
to outer edge of the foot about four and a half inches. At the narrowest
place, near the top, the side should measure one and three-quarter inches
in width. The scrolls should be securely bound to the wood frame with
wire, and for candle sockets five six-pointed stars should be cut from
the pattern given in Fig. 16. They should be two and a half inches in
diameter, and bent to receive a standard-sized candle. A small screw
passed through a hole in the centre will fasten them to the wood arms,
and when placing them the wood should extend entirely under each socket,
as may be seen in Fig. 11.
Canopy shades and holders should be made or purchased, and when complete
with candles and shades this candelabra should present a very pleasing
appearance.
A Fairy Lamp
It will be found quite a simple matter to make a fairy lamp similar to
the one shown in Fig. 17.
The bracket should be twelve inches high and five inches wide from
the back stick to the end of the projecting arm, on the end of which
the suspending hook is located. The arm should be placed about three
inches from the top, and both the arm and the upright are to be of wood
one-quarter of an inch square. It would be well to make a pattern of the
scroll-work over which to bend the metal in true shape.
The scrolls should be securely bound to the wood ribs with wire instead
of metal clamps, since the weight of the candle-sconce would have a
tendency to open the clamps and weaken the support.
For the lamp part, it will be necessary to have the socket of a
candlestick arranged as described for the candlestick in Fig. 9. The
stick at the bottom should be one and a half inches in length. Against
this the scroll-work is attached. Each side should measure two and
a half inches long and three inches high from the place where the
suspension-wire is attached to the bottom, where the pendants are
fastened. The four scrolls must be securely bound to the socket and stick
with wire, and from a screw-eye driven in the lower end of the centre
stick three drops, or pendants, may be hung. These pendants are in the
shape of bell-flowers, and may be of any size, cut from the diagram shown
in Fig. 18. They should be strung on a wire having a knot made in it
wherever it is desired to place a flower.
From the scroll ends of each side-grille a wire is fastened and carried
up to a ring that hangs on the arm-hook. These wires form a light and
graceful mode of suspension, and near the upper end a canopy shade can
be made fast. Pink red, orange, light-green, or electric-blue candles
and shades always look well with the black iron-work of the bracket and
sconce.
A Burned-match Holder
Fig. 19 gives a design for a small receptacle to be used for burned
matches or other small waste scraps.
Notice that the drawing shows but one side of a three or four sided
affair. The outside frame should measure about three inches across at the
top, two inches at the bottom, and two and a half inches high.
Small hooks should be fastened to each upper corner. From them small
chains extend up to a single ring that may be of wire; or a small iron
harness-ring may be employed for the purpose.
The three or four sides forming the receptacle are to be securely bound
together with wire, and for a bottom a thin piece of wood or a sheet of
light metal can be sewed in with wire. Whether the bottom is of metal or
wood, it will be necessary to make small holes around the edge through
which the fine wire can be passed. The wire should be caught around the
bottom ribs of the sides, and manipulated in much the same manner that
cloth is attached with needle and thread.
Each side should be backed with silk or other pretty material, and to
prevent burning or blackening from match ends the entire receptacle may
be relined with card-board, tin-foil, or asbestos paper.
The links forming the chain are made of very narrow strips of the metal.
Fig. 19 A shows the construction of the centre, and B that of one
side. Two of the latter are to be made for each link and banded to the
centre, so that a finished link will appear like C in Fig. 19. The links
should be connected with little wire rings, or small brass rings may
be purchased at a hardware store. The latter, when painted black, will
appear as if made of iron.
[Illustration: FIG. 17. FIG. 18. FIG. 19.]
This same design can be carried out on a larger scale, and adapted as a
hanging jardinière in which a potted vine may be placed. If employed for
that purpose, an outlet for the water must be provided in the bottom.
Instead of using a clay flower-pot, it would be well to have a tinsmith
make a zinc inner box, with a small pipe through the bottom to convey
the waste water into a small cup that may be suspended underneath. As
the proportions of the box are enlarged, the links of the chain must
be made larger and stronger, so that the chain will be heavy enough to
support the weight; and instead of using wire or brass rings, it would
be advisable to employ small iron harness-rings.
A Photograph-frame
Among the many pretty little objects that can be made from thin metal
strips, frames for small pictures are always serviceable and attractive
(Fig. 20). Black is not always a desirable color for a frame, and there
are several good enamel paints on sale. They may be procured in almost
any light shade, such as pink, blue, green, brown, and the pale yellows
or cream colors. Several successive thin coats of these enamel paints
will give the iron scrolls a pretty finish.
It is hardly necessary to lay down a size for this frame, as it can
readily be adapted to any photograph or small picture. The proportions,
however, should be followed as closely as possible, so that the design
will work out about as shown in the drawing.
This frame may be hung against the wall, or arranged as an easel for a
table, mantel-shelf, or wall-bracket. If the latter scheme is preferred,
a support may be made from narrow metal strips and attached to the back
of the frame with wire. This support should be of the design shown in
Fig. 20 A; it is attached by the top cross-bar to the back of the frame.
This cross-bar is of round iron, and the projecting ends are to be caught
with wire loops, which will allow the back leg to act as if arranged on
a hinge. To prevent it from going too far back, a wire or string at the
bottom will hold it the proper distance from the frame.
[Illustration: FIG. 20. FIG. 20 A. FIG. 21. FIG. 22. FIG. 23.]
The frame proper is made from a strip of metal half an inch wide, and
bent in angular form, showing less than quarter of an inch on each side
of an =L=. In the strip cut angle-notches with a pair of shears, as shown
in Fig. 21, thus forming the corners. The notches should be made half-way
across the width of the metal, so that the point of each angle will just
reach the middle of a strip. With a flat-nosed pair of pliers bend the
strip in the form of the oblong, so that each corner will appear like
Fig. 22. Join the frame at the bottom, allowing the metal to lap over an
inch at the ends, and make the union by punching little holes and passing
through small copper tacks that can be clinched or riveted.
With a small bench-vise and a hammer, or with two pairs of pliers,
grasp the strip forming the frame and bend it in the shape of an =L=
all around, as shown in Fig. 23, taking care to match the edges of each
notch so that they will form a mitre, as shown also in Fig. 23. Where the
scrolls are attached to the side of this frame, they may be held in place
by small copper tacks passed through holes made in both scrolls and frame
and riveted.
A Handkerchief-box
One of the most interesting branches of the light strap metal-work is in
making boxes of all shapes and sizes. The variety of designs that can be
employed is practically inexhaustible, but certain general principles
should be observed. For instance, a box to hold matches should be of
small and neat design, while in a larger box the ornament may be more
open and bolder, and the strips from which it is made should be heavier
and stronger.
A handkerchief-box fashioned after the design shown in Fig. 24 is a
pretty as well as a useful article for a bureau or dressing-table. A is
the pattern for the top, and B represents one of the sides.
It should measure eight or ten inches square and three inches deep, or
larger if desired, and the frame should be of wire or wood. If wood is
employed, sticks three-sixteenths of an inch square must be lap-jointed
at the angles, as shown in Fig. 25, and the union made with glue and
screws or fine steel-wire nails.
[Illustration: FIG. 24 A. FIG. 24 B. FIG. 25. FIG. 26. FIG. 27.]
If the box should be made of brass scrolls, it would be well to obtain
some brass rods about one-eighth or three-sixteenths of an inch square,
and bend them to form the framework. Where the ends meet, lap-joints
should be cut and wired.
If the brass should be too hard to bend in a vise without breaking, the
part it is desired to work should be heated over a spirit-lamp or in a
gas flame for a moment or two; when cool, it will be soft and pliable.
If brass should be employed for the frame, the joints must be soldered
instead of wired. To solder them it will be necessary to have some
soldering solution, a spirit-lamp, and some wire solder.
To unite the metal ends apply some of the soldering solution to the parts
with a piece of wood or an old camel’s-hair brush, and then hold them
over, or in the lamp flame, until they are quite hot. When sufficiently
heated touch them with the end of a piece of solder, and the heat of
the metal will instantly melt the solder, so that it will adhere to the
brass. To hold the parts together while they are being soldered, give
them a turn or two of fine iron wire. After they have been united and the
brass is cold, the wire may be removed and the rough parts of the solder
filed away.
Small brass hinges may be screwed fast to the wood ribs to attach the lid
to the box, and if brass is employed for the frame and grille work the
hinges must be soldered to the frame.
A Sign-board
For a sign-board an idea is suggested in Fig. 26. At one’s place of
business, in front of a cottage, or on a mile-post, it may be displayed
to good advantage.
It is only a board on which sheet-iron or lead letters have been
fastened, and the edges bound with metal and large-headed nails. A rod
set at right angles to a post supports the sign-board, and to ornament
it some scroll-work is attached at the top. Scroll ornaments decorate
the sides and bottom of the board. These are fastened on with steel-wire
nails driven through holes made in the metal and into the edges of the
board. The ornamental scroll-work should be made of somewhat thicker and
wider iron strips than the more delicate articles for indoor use, and
all the iron should be given one or two coats of red-lead paint before
the black finish is applied. To prevent rust-marks from running down on
the wood board, it is necessary to coat the back part of the letters and
all iron straps which may lie against the wood. It is much better to use
sheet-lead for the letters, since it cuts easier, and will not stain the
wood with rust or corrosion marks.
Double Doorway Grille
For a double doorway a pretty effect is shown in Fig. 27, where a long
grille is arranged at the top of a doorway, and under it the curtain-pole
is attached.
The outer frame for a grille of this size should be made by a blacksmith
from an iron rod about three-eighths of an inch square. The inner frame
may be made of strip-iron three-eighths of an inch wide, and three inches
smaller all around than the larger one. The metal strips employed to form
the grille design should be three-eighths of an inch wide, and cut from
box strap-iron.
The full-size drawing should be laid out on paper, over which it will be
an easy matter to shape the scrolls. If the grille should be too open
when the pattern is completed, some more scrolls may be added to fill the
spaces, taking care not to injure the general design of the pattern.
The grille may be anchored to the wood-work of the casing with
steel-wire nails or staples, and several coats of black should be given
the iron to finish it nicely.
A Moorish Lantern
Having gained by experience the knowledge and art of working in
strip-metal, and after successfully making a number of the smaller
objects already described, it is perhaps time to undertake the
construction of something larger and more elaborate.
As an example of such work, a very beautiful design for a Moorish lantern
is shown in Fig. 28. It is not a difficult piece of work, nor is it
beyond the ability of any smart boy, but it must not be attempted before
a thorough knowledge of forming frames and scrolls and of pattern drawing
has been gained through experience in making more simple objects.
In size this lantern is not limited, and it may be made from twelve to
thirty-six inches high, not including the suspension chain and rings and
the drop of flower-pendants at the bottom.
For a lamp twenty inches high having six sides, each panel should be made
on a wire frame. The middle panels measure six inches high, four inches
wide at the top, and three inches at the bottom. The top panels are five
inches across at the widest place, and the lower ones four and a half
inches. One of the middle panels can be arranged to swing on hinges, in
order to place a lamp within the lantern, and also to make it possible
to line the inside of the lantern body with some plain silk or other
material.
[Illustration: FIG. 28.]
At the top and bottom scrolls are to be formed of the stout wire employed
for the ribs or framework. Under the crown top, at the six corners,
brackets may extend out for a distance of five inches, from which
sconces for tapers or small candles may be hung. Or these brackets may
be omitted, and in place of the hooks a small scroll may be formed at
the extending ends. Each little sconce is two inches deep and two and a
half inches in diameter, and in them candle-holders may be placed, over
which colored glass globes will appear to good advantage. From the top
of the lower lobe six arms support flower-drops four or five inches long,
and from the extreme bottom a pendant of flowers finishes off the whole.
No matter what size this lantern is made, the proportions should be
carefully preserved, or the effect will be spoiled.
A long chain made up of links and rings may be used to suspend the
lantern. Should a more secure anchorage be desired, four chains may be
attached at four places on the ceiling of a room, from which anchorage
they all meet at the top of the lantern.
The illustration shows the lantern in perspective, but it must be borne
in mind that it has six sides, and the patterns of the six sides, of
the top, middle section, and bottom are like those in the three front
sections that face the reader as he looks at the drawing.
Chapter VI
METAL-BOUND WORK
Thin sheets of various metals may be used to great advantage in the
decoration of household furniture, either serving as artistic edgings, or
representing strengthening straps, hinges, etc. When finished off with
heavy wrought-iron or bellows nails, the effect is both striking and
pleasing. The art is not a difficult one to acquire, and the hints and
suggestions that follow should enable any smart boy to pick it up in a
comparatively short time.
A Metal-bound Box
As a receptacle for photographs, picture-cards, and the other small
trifles that accumulate in a library or living-room, a box such as shown
in Fig. 1 will be found most useful.
Obtain some smooth pieces of wood, not more than three-eighths or half
an inch thick, and construct a box eighteen inches long, ten wide, and
eight inches deep, including top, bottom, and sides. These parts are to
be glued and nailed together so as to form an enclosed box. Use a good
liquid glue and slim steel-wire nails to make the joints. When the glue
is dry, cut the box through all around the sides, one and a half inches
down from the top. The lid, or cover, is thereby cut loose, and it will
match the body of the box much more accurately than if made separately
and fitted.
Plane and sand-paper the rough edges left by the saw, and attach the lid
to the back edge of the box with hinges. The outside of the box may be
stained or painted any desirable color, and when dry it will be ready to
receive the metal decorations.
[Illustration: FIG. 1. FIG. 2. FIG. 3.]
From a tinsmith obtain a few sheets of thin stove-pipe iron of good
quality, or a strip of thin sheet-lead; then, with a stout pair of
shears, cut some strips about one and a quarter inches wide to bind the
edges of the box. A strip is bent over so as to lap on both sides of a
corner. A metal band five-eighths of an inch wide will show on each side
and also on top. The metal is to be fastened on with brass oval-headed
upholsterers’ tacks, and the heads may be from a quarter to half an inch
in diameter.
It will not be possible, perhaps, to drive these tacks through the metal
strips unless a hole is first punched. These small holes may be made
with a sharp-pointed awl at regular distances apart. This should be done
before the strip is laid on the wood, so as not to subject the box
joints to any more strain than necessary.
To bind an edge, tack a strip of the metal along one side, bend it around
the first corner, and so on along each side until the two sides are
brought together, where a nail-head will almost hide the joint. At each
corner cut a =V= out of the strip, as shown in Fig. 2. The metal, when
fastened to one edge, will appear as shown at the right side of Fig. 3.
When the nails have been securely fastened in, bend down the standing
edge of metal so that it will lie flat on the other side of the corner.
This may be done by beating it down with a light wooden mallet. Drive
nails along the strip corresponding in position to those first fixed, and
the edge will appear as shown at the left side of Fig. 3.
Where the angle, or =V=, was cut out of the strip at the corners, the
metal will come together and form a good mitre. In the middle of this
joint drive a nail, the head of which will partially hide the line of
juncture.
From the sheet iron or lead cut a few irregular strips of suitable
length, and fasten them to the box to represent hinge or binding straps.
The hasp and eye-plate may be made in the same manner.
The box should be lined with Canton flannel, velour, leather, or any good
lining material. A band of webbing, or a chain, arranged on the inside
will prevent the cover from falling back too far.
A Wood-holder
In a room where space cannot be spared for a large wood-box, a
wood-holder similar to the one shown in Fig. 4 is a useful piece of
furniture.
This holder is twelve to fifteen inches square, fifteen inches high at
the front, and twenty inches high at the back, with the sides cut down,
as shown in the drawing.
The wood is three-quarters or seven-eighths of an inch thick, and planed
on both sides and edges. Any of the hard woods may be employed to good
advantage in making the box part, but if it is to be painted rather than
left in the natural finish, the wood-work may be of pine or white-wood to
save expense.
The metal binding is done in a similar fashion to that of the box in Fig.
1, and if iron is used for the straps they should be coated with black
paint. The strips should be two inches in width, and when bent around the
edges and corners one inch of metal must show on each side.
A Plant-box
For large, growing plants, palms, and imitation trees, an attractive
plant-box is shown in Fig. 5.
It can be made almost any size to meet the requirements of the plant that
is to live in it; but for general use it should measure twelve inches
square at the bottom, eighteen at the top, and from twelve to fourteen
inches high.
The metal binding should be three-quarters or an inch wide on each side;
it need not be carried over the top edge unless desired.
On two sides of the box ring-handles are to be fastened. These will be
made by a blacksmith at a small cost, and should be from two and a half
inches to four inches in diameter, according to the size of the box.
[Illustration: FIG. 4. FIG. 5. FIG. 6. FIG. 7.]
On the other sides a conventional design may be worked out with strips of
metal cut according to the required pattern.
This box should be treated to several good coats of paint inside, and
finished as desired on the outside. Quartered oak with black metal
trimmings make a good combination; also mahogany, cherry, or redwood with
brass bindings.
A zinc lining should be fitted to the box, with a vent-hole at the
bottom to drain off surplus moisture. No other metal than zinc should be
employed for the lining, since iron or tin will corrode or rust. Copper
tacks must be used to attach it to the wood.
A Coal-box
Fig. 6 gives the design for an old English coal-box.
It is a very simple affair to construct, since it can be made from an
ordinary box cut down at one end so as to form a projection or nose.
The structural plan of the box is clearly shown in Fig. 7, and in size
it may be made to meet any requirement. For regular use, however, it is
fifteen inches wide, twenty inches long from back to end of the nose, and
about twelve inches high, not counting the ball feet, which will raise it
up two inches more.
The box should be securely screwed together at the joints, and the lid,
or cover, must be fastened on with sheet-brass hinges. Paint or varnish
will give the wood-work a good finish, and the lining should be made with
several successive coats of asphaltum varnish or paint of a dark color.
Brass, lead, or black iron binding will look well on this box, and with
large-headed nails the effect will be bold and pleasing.
Four balls about two inches in diameter are to be turned and screwed fast
under the corners to serve as feet. To give a good purchase on the bottom
of the box, it would be well to flatten part of the surface on each ball.
One long screw will be sufficient to anchor each foot firmly if driven
through from the inside of the box into the ball. A little glue between
the joint will add greatly in making the union strong.
A Table-lamp
The design for a table-lamp is shown in Fig. 8.
Any boy who is handy with tools can put this lamp together from wood,
burlap, sheet-lead, wire, some oval-headed upholsterers’ tacks, four
claw-feet, and a lamp-fount.
[Illustration: FIG. 8.]
From boards about half an inch in thickness make a box seven inches
square at the top, ten at the bottom, and twelve inches high. In the top
of the box a round hole is cut to receive the lamp-fount. Five inches in
diameter will be about right for the hole, since that is the measurement
of the standard oil-pot. A flange, or rim, all around the upper edge of
the fount will prevent it from falling through the hole. If the burner
has a central draught it will be necessary to bore some large holes
through the bottom of the box to admit air for the under draught.
With burlap, bagging, or canvas cover the entire outside of the box, the
material being fastened to the wood with glue and small, flat-headed
tacks at the edges. The glue must be spread evenly over the wood by means
of a rag pad, or, still better, a small photographic squeegee roller
may be employed. The covering material can be painted any good shade,
and when the paint is dry the box will be ready for the decorations and
trimmings.
From sheet-lead, or iron, cut some strips one inch and a quarter wide,
and bind the corners and edges of the box, allowing about five-eighths of
an inch to show on each side. Fasten these strips on the edges of the box
with large, oval-headed upholsterers’ tacks, driven along each side at
even distances apart, as shown in the illustration.
On a piece of smooth brown paper draw the outline of one side of the box,
and then sketch in the design for the metal torch and wreath. Over this
pattern it will be a comparatively easy matter to cut and fit each of
the separate parts of the design. These parts are to be of thin iron or
lead, but for the stems to the laurel wreath use pieces of iron wire, and
fasten them on with small staples. The staples may be made from pins with
the heads cut off.
The pieces of metal forming these side designs are to be fastened to the
wood with oval-headed carpet tacks, and enough of them must be driven in
each piece to hold it firmly in place. When all the metal-work has been
applied, purchase at a hardware store four claw-feet, and screw one fast
under each corner of the box. They will be of brass, but when painted
black they will appear as if made of iron.
All the metal parts of the lamp must be blacked to present a good
appearance. To make a good black finishing paint obtain at a paint store
a can of ivory black ground in oil. Thin it to the consistency of rich
milk with Japan dryer and spirits of turpentine mixed together, one
part of the former to two parts of the latter. Place them together in a
bottle and thoroughly mix them by shaking the bottle vigorously. A small
quantity only should be thinned at a time and as required, since it works
better when freshly mixed, and does not have the gummy appearance that an
old mixture presents. Two or three successive coats laid on with a soft
camel’s-hair brush will be sufficient to cover the iron well and give it
a good surface. When using the black take care not to smear it on the
box, as it would produce an untidy and messy appearance.
With the addition of a pretty canopy shade, that can be arranged on a
wire frame, the effect will be most decorative and pleasing.
A Hanging-lamp
For the dining-room or library, a hanging-lamp, such as shown in Fig. 9,
is both ornamental and useful.
The box that holds the lamp is eight inches square at the top, five and
a half inches at the bottom, and five inches deep. It is covered with
burlap or other suitable material, or may be left plain or painted.
A hole is cut in the top of the box to receive the fount, and if it is a
central-draught burner a large opening must be made in the bottom of the
box, with a perforated metal cap arranged to fit over it.
From the top of the four corners, iron scrolls, that a blacksmith
can make, project four inches beyond the wood, and to these the
suspension-chains are fastened. The chains are made of one-inch iron
harness-rings and links three inches long, formed of narrow strips of
stove-pipe or box strap-iron less than a quarter of an inch in width, and
shaped as shown in Fig. 10.
From the under side, and fastened at each corner of the box, hang four
small chains. They are united at the centre a few inches below the under
side of the box, and are finished off with a drop formed of metal lilies.
In order to form these flowers, cut from sheet-iron the petals, as
patterned in Fig. 11. Three different sizes should be drawn on a sheet of
iron with a piece of chalk or white crayon, after which they may be cut
out with a pair of shears and bent into form with the fingers. They are
to be hung together one below the other by means of small wires, fastened
to the centre of each flower through holes punched with a sharp-pointed
awl.
A large paper or silk shade may be arranged on a wire frame to slip over
the chains, and to hold it in place it should be fastened to some of the
links with wire.
A Hanging-plant Box
[Illustration: FIG. 9. FIG. 10. FIG. 11. FIG. 12.]
For vines, small plants, or pretty blade grasses a design for a
hanging-plant box is shown in Fig. 12.
This is not a very large affair, and it is made of thin wood not more
than three-eighths or half an inch in thickness. The box part measures
eight inches square at the top, six at the bottom, and ten inches high.
The inside of the box is to be treated to several coats of paint or
asphaltum varnish to protect the wood, and the outside may be given two
coats of paint. The corners are then to be bound with metal strips, and
the design on each of the four sides worked out with hobnails painted
black.
It is difficult to carry out such a design on four sides of a box unless
a pattern is used. To obtain the most accurate results it would be best
to draw the design with pencil on a smooth piece of paper, then make four
tracings of it on tissue-paper. The tracing should then be fastened to
the wood with pins and the tacks driven in, following the lines of the
design.
When the tacks have been driven in part way, tear off the paper, and with
a flat-iron held against the inside of the box to drive against, hammer
the nails in so that the heads will lie snugly against the surface of the
wood.
Each side is to be treated in the same manner, so that the four sides
will be alike. If the hobnails cannot be had at a hardware store, or from
a shoemaker, oval-headed upholsterers’ tacks may be used. Paint them
black before they are driven into the wood.
At the top of the box, in the four corners, eyes are to be made fast,
into which the ends of the suspending chains can be caught. Four chains,
made from thin strips of metal and small harness-rings, are to be
fastened in place, as shown in the drawing.
Chapter VII
DECORATIVE HARDWARE
Properly to complete even the simplest of cabinets or chests some
hardware will be needed, whether it be only a pair of strap-hinges and a
padlock or the most elaborate kind of ornamental fittings. Plain hinges
and a lock will answer every ordinary purpose, but a nice chest or
case should be finished off with ornamental hinge-straps, escutcheons,
lock-plates, or handles.
These fixtures may be purchased at a hardware store and in some large
cities a very beautiful assortment of fancy hardware is displayed. But
it will be both cheaper and more satisfactory for the young craftsman
to make these fittings for himself, and the art is not a difficult one
to acquire. Some of the accompanying designs may appear at first sight
rather beyond the ability of the average boy, and so they would be if
they were cast in brass or bronze or cut from thick sheet-metal. But all
of them can be shaped from ordinary sheet-lead with a pair of old shears,
a few small chisels, and a light mallet.
Scraps of sheet-lead, varying in thickness from one to three-sixteenths
of an inch, may be purchased from a plumber for five or six cents a
pound. For the ordinary fixtures of medium size the metal should be a
trifle less than one-eighth of an inch in thickness. For the heavier
hardware an old piece of lead pipe may be used by splitting or sawing it
open, and beating it out flat, on the surface of an old flat-iron, with
a hard wooden mallet. If sheet brass, copper, or zinc are employed, they
should be of the soft kind, so as to cut easily. If too hard, the pieces
may be softened or annealed by putting them in a fire until they are
cherry-red. They should then be drawn out and allowed to cool, when they
will be found quite soft and easy to work.
The boy who owns a scroll-saw will find it an easy matter to jig out
these designs, whether the material be lead or one of the harder metals.
Special fret-saws may be purchased for this purpose, having finer teeth
and being more highly tempered than those used for wood-working. In
sawing metal you must be careful not to force the saw, and after cutting
an inch or two allow the blade to cool, otherwise it will break.
If a hand jig-saw is the only tool available the metal should be held
in a vise. With very thin lead the dressing is best done by laying the
metal on a hard-wood block and cutting out with small chisels and a light
mallet.
Three or four small wood-carving chisels, straight-edges, and gouges
will be found admirable tools for this work, and, as the lead does not
dull them, they will keep an edge for a long time. A wood-carving chisel
is ground on both sides, which makes it better for this work than a
carpenter’s chisel, which is ground only on one side. A light mallet, a
hard-wood block, a coarse file or two, and a knife with a small, sharp
blade will be the only other tools required.
Escutcheons
The term escutcheon, as applied to hardware, means the ornamental metal
plate that is placed over a key-hole, and through which the key has to
pass in order to reach the lock. The name is applied also to the plate
behind a knocker, or that to which a ring or handle is attached.
In Fig. 1 a few designs for small escutcheons are shown. Their actual
size should be in proportion to that of the drawer or door to which they
are to be attached.
The design should be drawn to the proper size on a piece of brown paper,
then cut out with scissors and laid on a piece of metal, the outline
being scratched with a pin or drawn on with pen and ink.
If the metal is sawed the edges will be rough, but they may be dressed
down with the files. If the lead is cut out the edges can be finished
with a knife-blade, as lead cuts easily and is pleasant to work in. It
sometimes happens that in cutting out the more delicate parts of the
design that the chisels will distort the metal or force it out of shape.
In this case the trueness may be restored by tapping the edges with a
small hammer.
A small hand-drill will be found useful for boring holes in the metal,
through which screws or nails pass to secure the escutcheons to the wood.
If a drill cannot be had, a small awl will answer very well.
Be careful that you do not make the key-hole too large.
[Illustration: ESCUTCHEONS AND HINGE-STRAPS
FIG. 1. FIG. 2. FIG. 5.
FIG. 6. FIG. 7.] It should be only a trifle larger than the key, in
order to lead the latter easily.
Short Hinge-straps
A single hinge is always made like a book, with two leaves and a back,
through which a pin is run to hold the leaves together. In door-hinges
the leaves are usually arranged so that when the door is closed the
leaves are out of sight. These hinges are called butts, while those
applied to the outside surface are called =T= or strap-hinges, and
sometimes plate-hinges.
[Illustration: FIG. 3. FIG. 4.]
The short hinge-straps shown in Fig. 2 are not intended as a part of
the hinge, but only as sham straps. Where a butt is mounted in the wood
these straps are arranged on either side of the back. Fig. 3 shows the
manner in which a butt is mounted in a door and jamb, and Fig. 4 shows
the reverse side with the back protruding, at one side of which the lead
strap is mounted. The inside, or parallel, lines of the straps are the
edges that butt against the hinge-back, and they are to be cut to fit the
width of the hinge. The size should also correspond generally to that
of the shape and dimensions of the door or box lid. For artistic effect
large sham nail-heads may be fastened over the nail or screw heads that
really secure the hinge to the wood.
In some of the plain straps a very good imitation of hand-wrought iron
straps may be made by beating the surface of the lead with a hammer
having the face slightly crowned or rounded. The hammer-marks will show
up distinctly, and when the straps are painted black no one will know but
what they are really iron straps beaten out by hand.
Another good effect may be secured by beating the edges down slightly
with a small hammer instead of dressing them with a file; this rounds
or flattens them, and eliminates the angular edge that is common in all
cheap hardware.
Long Hinge-straps
For cabinet and chest doors, and doors that open into rooms, some long
hinge-straps are shown in Fig. 5, the proportions being correctly
indicated.
If the jamb is sufficiently wide, straps may be placed on both sides of
the hinge-back. Usually, however, the jamb is too narrow.
These straps, if made of lead, should be thicker than the short straps,
otherwise they will look weak. For a strap twelve to fifteen inches long
the metal should not be less than one-eighth of an inch thick, and for
some designs it would look better if quarter-inch material is used.
It is quite as easy to saw out thick metal as thin, only it takes a
little longer time. The saw must be held straight and not allowed to
bind. Never force a saw through lead, as it will bind and check, and also
will pick up a thin lead coating, materially adding to the friction. If
the saw does not run easily, lubricate it with a little soapy water, and
afterwards wipe it off to prevent rust. When working with a scroll-saw on
which there is a table, or bed, the soapy water should be drawn along the
lines on the metal with a soft hair-brush. As the saw cuts it will take
up the water.
Drawer-pulls and Handle-plates
Small drawer-pulls and handles may be purchased at any hardware store
for a few cents each, but they are usually very plain and unattractive.
Rings in heads and handles on plain plates are the best to purchase, as
then the heads may be mounted on fancy escutcheons, and the handles and
keepers removed from the plain plates and reset in lead mountings of
artistic design, wrought or sawed from lead or other ductile material.
Drawer-pulls are generally arranged with a shank at the back of the
ring-head which passes into the wood, and into which a screw is driven
from the inside of the drawer.
Handle-keepers are made in the same way. In designing fancy escutcheons
and plates, care must be taken to arrange the holes the proper distance
apart to receive the keeper-ends.
Door-plates
On swing and sliding doors—and sometimes on plain doors—plates are
mounted above the lock on both sides. Their use is to protect the
painted or polished wood-work from finger-marks and similar defacements.
Quite elaborate plates are used on some doors, while others are mounted
with very plain ones. In Fig. 7 a variety of designs are shown.
The average plate varies in length from six to twelve inches. In width
they measure from two and a half inches to three inches, and the metal
should be about one-eighth of an inch in thickness.
Door-pull plates are made to receive the ends of a handle. The latter is
bolted to the reverse side of the door with countersunk nuts or flush
screws. The upper line of drawings in Fig. 7 are designed for this
purpose, and the two holes are spaced to line with the ends of the handle
that is to be inserted. In addition to the anchorage these plates will
get by being held to the wood under the handles, it would be well to make
a few holes at the edges, through which small nails may be driven.
Large Lock-plates
In Fig. 8 several designs for large lock-plates are shown. In this
instance the knob and key-hole are placed in the same plate. This variety
of door hardware offers a broad field for the young designer. But be sure
and space the two holes so that the knob and key are in the right place.
In the extreme right-hand plate (Fig. 8) an effect of continued scroll is
secured around the key-hole by cutting the ornament out of the body of
the plate. This is just the reverse of the scrolls forming the right side
of the plate, the ornament in this latter case being of the solid metal.
More “feeling” may be given to the solid scroll if an effect of relief is
worked out with some blunt tool and the mallet. This may be done with an
ordinary nail-punch or a blunt awl. For the veining use an awl or a dull
chisel, lightly tapping the tool with a wooden mallet.
[Illustration: FIG. 8. FIG. 9.]
Door-knockers and Miscellaneous Ornaments
Door-knockers and plates are made in a great variety of designs. The most
elaborate and richly ornamented knockers are cast in bronze and chased by
hand, but this work is not possible for the boy craftsman to accomplish
with his small outfit and limited knowledge of the higher grade of art
metal-work.
The knocker-plates shown in Fig. 9 are cut from sheet-lead, but the rings
in the keepers (with the knob of metal at the lower side) must be made
from iron or other hard metal. A blacksmith will make these rings and set
them in a head, or keeper, which in turn is bolted to the inside of a
door. Where the knob of metal strikes the plate an iron nail with a large
head must be driven through the escutcheon and into the door, so that the
knob will strike upon it. Lead will not do for the ring or knob, nor as a
striking-plate, since it is too soft to sound sharply and distinctly.
Sheet-lead ornaments in a great variety of designs may be made for
panels, the sides of cases, or for the decoration and embellishment of
wood-work in general. Wall-paper, carpet, upholstery, and other figured
fabrics will offer ideas from which to copy; but after a little practise
the young craftsman should originate his own designs, and not depend on
other people’s brains to furnish him with working patterns.
Chapter VIII
WIRE-WORK
There are many pretty and useful articles that can be made for the
home, using simple tools and inexpensive materials. Who would imagine,
for instance, that such attractive objects as the ones shown in these
illustrations could be made from a few pieces of wire of different sizes?
Yet, with a little care and perseverance, you may quickly become an
expert in wire-working.
To begin with, it is necessary to obtain several yards of soft iron wire
varying in sizes from No. 12 to No. 18, also a small roll of soft wire
about the size that florists employ to attach flowers to short sticks
when making up bouquets.
The tools needed will be a flat and a round nosed pair of pincers, or
pliers (see Figs. 1 and 2), a wire-cutter, and a tack-hammer. You will
also need a sheet of smooth brown paper, and a soft lead-pencil with
which to draw the patterns.
A Bird-cage Bracket
Begin by making simple things; then as you succeed in producing good work
you will be able to take up the more difficult patterns. A bird-cage
bracket is an easy object to start with. Enlarge the design shown
in Fig. 3 so that it will be sixteen inches high, with the hook-arm
projecting seven inches from the main upright rod.
[Illustration: FIG. 1. FIG. 2. FIG. 3.]
The pattern is to be drawn out the full size on smooth brown paper; then
the wire should be bent and shaped over the lines to conform to the
design. Use very heavy wire for the upright and projecting arm, and a
smaller size for all the scroll-work. The finest copper wire should be
used to bind the scrolls together, and so make tight unions where two
edges of wire come together and where the wires cross.
This bracket should be firmly secured to the window-casing with two
staples. The staples should not be driven quite home, thus allowing the
bracket to be swung from one side to the other of the casing, as though
on hinges. This is especially desirable if the bracket is to be used for
a hanging-basket or pot of flowers, as it can then be moved against the
window or turned back to the wall, to permit of the window being opened
or cleaned.
The iron wire should be given two coats of good black paint, or, if
desired, it may be gilded or silvered. An excellent black preparation for
iron may be made by thinning ivory-black ground in oil with equal parts
of Japan dryer and turpentine. Or you may try adding a little lamp-black
to brass lacquer or shellac.
The paint should be applied to the iron with a soft hair brush, and the
first coat must be good and dry before the second one is applied.
If brass wire is used instead of iron the joints should be soldered, to
lend additional strength. The soldering is an easy process and requires
only a little care. To do it nicely, obtain from a plumber a little
soldering solution in a bottle, and, with a piece of stick, place a drop
of solution on each union that has been bound with the fine brass wire.
Hold the union over a spirit-lamp flame, and when the wire has become
thoroughly heated touch the joint with a piece of wire solder; the latter
will instantly melt and adhere to the joint. If soldering solution is not
used the joint cannot be soldered, and if the wire is not hot enough the
solder will not melt. If the wire should be too hot the solder will melt
and fall off from the joint like a drop of water. A little experience
will soon enable one to become an expert solderer, and the process should
be employed wherever possible, as it strengthens the joints and unions,
and holds them rigidly in place. Galvanized or tinned iron wire can be
soldered in the same manner.
The brass wire should be painted black the same as iron, but before any
paint is applied the superfluous solution should be washed off with
water, as paint will not hold if applied over the soldering solution.
A Photograph Easel
Fig. 4 shows a design for a photograph easel that will make an attractive
table or mantel ornament if neatly constructed from wire of medium size.
It should not measure more than nine inches in height, and where the
lattice-work joins the lower cross-bar two hooks should be arranged on
which the photograph can rest.
A back support, or prop, to the easel may be made of wire, and soldered
to the bar at the upper edge of the lattice-work. The lattice need not
be made of as heavy wire as the scroll-work, and where the strands cross
each other the junctions are to be securely bound with fine wire.
Larger easels may be made for small-framed etchings, for panel
photographs, or for other purposes, but as the size of the easel is
enlarged the thickness of the wire should be increased to give additional
strength.
By reducing the size of the lower scrolls this design would be quite
appropriate for a lamp-shade, and instead of the lattice-work a piece of
prettily colored silk or other translucent material may be inserted to
serve as the backing.
A Match-box
An attractive design for a match-box is shown in Fig. 5. The total height
of the back piece should be nine inches, and the width three inches. The
match-receptacle should be an inch deep and project one and a half inches
from the wall.
[Illustration: FIG. 4. FIG. 5. FIG. 6.]
It should be lined with silk or other goods, to prevent the matches
falling through the open-work of the grille. Finished in black, with a
red or orange colored silk lining, this match-receptacle will be found
both useful and ornamental.
A Fairy Lamp
A hanging fairy lamp, like the one shown in Fig. 6, makes a pretty
ornament for the parlor or living-room.
The bracket part is made in a similar manner to the bird-cage bracket,
and should be of stout wire. The candle-sconce, or lamp part, is built up
of four sets of scrolls arranged about an old tin candlestick top, and
securely bound together with strands of fine wire closely wrapped.
By using brass wire soldered at the unions a stronger construction is
possible.
The sconce should be suspended from the bracket-hook by means of four
light wires. These latter may also support a canopy shade made over a
light framework of wire.
Ordinary colored candles will look well in this fairy lamp. To keep the
colors in harmony it would be well to obtain candles of a tint that will
match the color of the silk shade. The lamp may be fastened to a door or
window casing, or perhaps to the sides of a mantel-piece.
A Picture-frame
Fig. 7 shows the design for a picture-frame that is intended to
hang against the wall. The frame proper may be made of very narrow
picture-frame moulding around which the grille-work is arranged. Where
the latter touches the wood-work it is to be made fast with small
staples driven in the outer edge, and the ends clinched at the inside, or
rabbet, of the frame. Or fine wire may be used in place of the staples.
[Illustration: FIG. 7. FIG. 8. FIG. 9.]
If an all-iron effect is desired, the rabbet should be made of thin
stove-pipe iron or sheet-brass, bent into angular form and finally shaped
to the required size. Around it the grille-work is to be made and bound,
in about the same proportion as shown in the drawing.
A Glove-box
A design for a glove-box is shown in Fig. 8. It should be ten inches
long, five wide, and three inches high.
The bottom should be made of a thin piece of wood, and the entire inside,
including the top, should be lined with some handsome and substantial
material in bright colors.
The four sides and the top should be made in separate pieces, and
afterwards bound securely together with fine wire.
A Window-grille
Fig. 9 is a grille for the upper part of a window. It will be very
effective if constructed of heavy wire, the design being neatly carried
out. Variations of this grille may be made for doorways, transoms, and
skylights, and with the hints and drawings already given a bright boy
will soon be able to invent and work out his own designs. There are
dozens of other objects that may be made in iron-work, and these will
soon suggest themselves to the young craftsman.
Chapter IX
GAS AND ELECTRIC SHADES
Shades for gas and electric fixtures are a necessity in almost every
house, and by the exercise of a little inventiveness they may be a part
of its ornament as well. In the suggestions and hints that follow the aim
has been to create from inexpensive material really artistic results. It
all depends upon the care and ability with which the young craftsman goes
to work.
A Simple Gas-shade
Fig. 1 is a simple shade intended for a bracket gas-burner; in shape and
size it fits the rim that holds the ordinary glass globe.
From covered hat-wire four or five forms are constructed like the
pattern, Fig. 1 A. They should be of such width at the bottom that when
attached together and bent in a circle they will fit in the rim that is
on the fixture. Each form is then covered with China silk of some light,
pretty shade, and bent over, as shown in the drawing. Some spangles are
sewed to the outer surface to form the design, or pattern, and the fine
lines are worked out with silk or laid on with gold thread. Between
each section some glass beads are strung, and the other details may be
gathered from the drawing.
Another Gas-shade
In Fig. 2 another idea is shown for a gas-shade. Six frames of wire are
made, as shown at Fig. 2 A, and the ornament is formed of wire, and held
in place by means of very fine wire wound round the unions. When the six
sides have been made they are bound together so as to form a hexagon
(Fig. 2 B), and with stout wires this frame is made fast to a rim, inside
of which a glass shade may rest, if desired.
The inside of this frame is lined with light silk, and to the lower edge
a glass-bead fringe three or four inches long is made fast, as shown in
the drawing.
A Metal Shade
In Fig. 3 an odd shade is shown. It is cut from thin sheet-lead with a
small chisel and penknife blade, the metal being laid flat, as shown at
A, and the design being first drawn out with pen and ink. The ends of the
strip of lead are caught together with small copper tacks, which should
be driven down at the ends the same as rivets.
In order to obtain the flare at the top, the lead should be beaten out
with a light tack-hammer or a round piece of hard-wood, until the proper
shape has been obtained.
The metal-work should be painted black, and to lend a better finish the
filigree shade may be lined with pink or orange-colored China silk.
[Illustration: FIG. 1. FIG. 2. FIG. 3. FIG. 4. FIG. 5. FIG. 6. FIG. 7.
FIG. 8. FIG. 9. FIG. 10.]
An Electric-light Screen
In homes where electric lights are used it is often desirable to partly
hide or subdue the harsh light from the bright filament within the bulb.
A ground-glass bulb answers the purely utilitarian purpose, but there is
no reason why the screen should not be decorative also.
In Fig. 4 an attractive design is shown. Four or five triangular wire
frames are made and filled with wire ornaments, as shown at Fig. 4 A, and
they are caught together at the sides so that they will form a cap, or
hood, over the bulb. A band of thin sheet-lead is run around the edge,
and to it the glass-bead fringe is sewed fast through small holes that
may be punched in the metal with a fine awl.
The cap is lined with silk, and the beads should correspond with it in
color.
A Bell-shaped Shade
In Fig. 5 a bell-shaped shade is illustrated. It is made up of five
sections, as described for the gas-shade in Fig. 1.
The ornament may be embroidered or painted with water-colors, or the
sides may be left plain. A line of short glass-bead fringe around the
bottom will add to the appearance of the shade.
A Pear-shaped Shade
In Fig. 6 the cap is cut from thin sheet-lead. The four or five separate
parts are caught together at the edges with fine wire drawn through small
holes, and all the metal-work is painted black.
Long glass-bead fringe is attached to the lower edge of the cap, and the
ends are caught together at the bottom.
A Dome-shaped Shade
For a dining-room, where a cluster of lights is used, a good idea for a
dome-shaped shade is shown in Fig. 7.
This is made from a silk parasol lined with white. In order that the ribs
may hold it in shape, saw off the stick just below the catch and pass the
electric-light wire through the silk at the middle of the top.
A number of panels are made of the same width as the distance between the
ribs; they are caught to each other and to the end of each steel rib with
fine wire. The panels are made of wire and covered with thin China silk,
which is ornamented with garlands and ribbons, either embroidered or
painted on, as shown in the drawing. Glass-bead fringe should depend from
the lower edge of these panels, and it should match in color the silk of
the parasol and the panels.
Another Dining-room Shade
Another idea for a dining-room fixture is shown in Fig. 8.
It consists of two wire hoops held about six inches apart, the edge of
a band of embroidered silk being caught over each hoop. These hoops
are suspended from a circular disk of wood, which in turn is supported
by means of the flexible wire that conducts current for the light. The
bulbs are enclosed in frosted glass globes, three or four of which are
suspended in a cluster at the centre of the hoop. A long silk or a
glass-bead fringe ornaments the lower edge of the band.
Another way of arranging this fixture is to carry the globes to the
inside of the band. From four to seven of them may hang just inside the
band, which, in that case, may be made seven or eight inches wide instead
of six inches.
The globes should be of a size to accommodate eight-candle-power lights.
In making any of these shades it would be well to cut the forms from
card-board, and paste them together to form a pattern from which to shape
the metal parts.
A Canopy
In Fig. 9 a canopy of thin metal strips and silk is shown.
The strips are cut from thin stove-pipe iron, brass, or copper. The
soft metal is preferable to the hard, or spring, brass, as it can be
more easily bent and it will keep the shape better. A paper plan may be
drawn of one section, and the small scrolls fitted over it, then banded
together with fine wire. The bottom of this canopy is round, but the six
sides are slightly flattened at the middle, half-way between the top and
bottom.
The inside of the canopy is lined with light silk, and silk or glass-bead
fringe is attached to the lower edge.
A Panel Shade
Fig. 10 shows a simple shade made of four panels composed of covered wire
and thin silk. The ornamental design may be embroidered, or painted or
cut from colored silk and sewed on.
This shade may be suspended from the socket by means of silk cords or
wires, and the open spaces at the top will permit some light to glow
above the shade.
Chapter X
RELIEF ETCHING
In this era of practical craftsmanship there is a field for any unique
art that savors of originality and which will help to beautify the home
and its furnishings.
Relief etching is one of these arts, and is a very old one, having been
employed by the workers on King Solomon’s temple, and perhaps in earlier
historical buildings. That was before the time of chemical treatment,
however, and when the beautiful effects were obtained by laborious
hand-work, a modification of which is handed down in the Turkish,
Russian, and Oriental hand-etched brasses and silver goods.
Modern science and chemistry have superseded the old method, and many
beautiful pieces of relief etching are produced by the acid process,
which is much more beautiful in some respects than the tool-work. The
process is very simple, and any boy can become master of the art in a
short time and at a very moderate cost.
The equipment necessary to the work will be a tray for the acid bath, a
small can of asphaltum varnish, three or four camel’s-hair brushes of
assorted sizes, a bottle of nitric acid, and some pieces of sheet brass
or copper less than one-eighth of an inch in thickness.
For the acid bath a photographer’s porcelain or hard-rubber
developing-tray will be just the thing, but if not available a good pine
or white-wood tray can be made with sides two inches high.
To protect the wood from the action of the acid, the tray should be
treated to several successive coats of asphaltum varnish—one each day
until the wood is thoroughly coated and the joints well filled. The wood
should be half or three-quarters of an inch thick, and screws should
be used at the joints and laps. A tray of this description can be made
at home, and when finished it should appear as shown in Fig. 1. If the
varnish is too thick when applying it, a little turpentine will thin it
properly.
Small, flat subjects are best to begin with, such as hinge-plates,
panels, escutcheons, or tablets. For a drawer panel, Fig. 2 shows an
attractive and simple design that may be drawn on the metal with pen
and ink. If the ink creeps, the surface of the metal may be roughened
slightly with fine emery cloth.
With the asphaltum varnish the design is then filled in so it will appear
as shown in Fig. 3 and allowed to dry, when, as a precautionary measure,
another coat should be given over the blackened surface, to avoid the
possibility of the acid biting through the thin places, or where the
varnish has missed the metal. The back and edge of the metal is coated
also, to prevent the acid from eating into it.
All the surfaces of the metal not covered with the varnish will be
eaten or etched away and left with a granular surface resembling fine
sand-paper, while the painted or protected parts will be left intact and
with a smooth surface like the original face of the plate, as shown in
Fig. 4.
The Technique of the Process
With an old woollen cloth dipped in turpentine, the surface of the plate
may be rubbed, after first washing off the acid. The black removed from
the ornament will tint the granulated surface of the background and lend
relief to the bright surface of the ornament.
Almost any objects in metal, such as door-hinges, knobs, fireplace hoods,
name-plates, vases, candlesticks, panels, and tablets, can be decorated
by this process, and if artistically done the results will be very
effective.
Sheet brass and copper may be purchased at large hardware stores or
supply houses for thirty cents a pound, and the sheets or panels can be
cut there with the shears to the exact size required. For the average
work, metal not more than one-sixteenth of an inch thick will be found
easy to handle; but for large panels or name-plate, pieces about
one-eighth of an inch thick are preferable.
If the design shown in Figs. 2, 3, and 4 is too elaborate for the
beginners, some simple outline may be drawn, perhaps a flower design,
copied from some piece of embroidery work, or a figure design from a
wall-paper, carpet, or dress-goods pattern. The metal should be left to
dry for at least an hour after being painted with the varnish before it
is placed in the acid bath.
The etching is done by placing the plate, face up, on the bottom of the
tray and covering it with acid. The ground-work or unpainted portions
of the metal may be bitten to any depth, but it is not desirable to
cut away too much, as it weakens the plate and cuts under the ornament,
unless it is carefully stopped out all around the edges of the design;
and that is too much of an undertaking for the young craftsman, since it
requires a great deal of time and careful work.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.
FIG. 2. THE DRAWING
FIG. 3. THE PAINTING
FIG. 4. THE ETCHING
FIG. 5.]
A little practice will determine just when the plate should be removed
from the solution, either for examination or final cleaning. Soft brass
or copper corrodes much faster than hard metal, which takes about three
times longer, and the process of corrosion will require from twenty
minutes to an hour, according to the temper of the metal and the strength
of the acid solution.
The Acid Solution
To prepare the acid solution obtain a large, clear glass bottle and fill
it quarter full of pure water; into this slowly pour an equal quantity
of nitric acid, taking great care not to spill any of the acid, as it
acts instantly and will eat a hole in any cloth it falls upon or spatters
over. Wear old clothes and a canvas apron when mixing or handling the
acid, and never be in a hurry to get results quickly by the reckless use
of the biting fluid. If perchance the acid should touch the clothing,
apply a few drops of ammonia to the spot immediately, to neutralize the
acid and stop its action. The spot should then be sponged with clear
water and no stain will be perceptible.
As the acid is added to the water (never add the water to the acid),
shake it occasionally to thoroughly mix it, and let the mixture stand for
a while to cool; then place a rubber cork in the bottle, label it Nitric
Acid Solution—POISON, and place it beyond the reach of small children.
A solution that has been used should be poured from the tray into another
bottle, to be used again by adding a small quantity of fresh solution.
An old solution does not act as quickly as a new one, but for soft metal
plates it is preferable, as it does not require such careful watching.
The fumes of the acid, when at work, are disagreeable, so if possible it
is well to carry out this part of the process in the open air. After
the plate is immersed in the acid, do not handle it with the unprotected
fingers.
Rubber gloves may be used for this purpose, but if a pair cannot be
had the plate may be raised from the tray bottom by means of a small,
sharp-pointed stick, and it should then be grasped with a pair of
pliers and immersed in water to stop the action of the acid. A plate
may be repeatedly removed from the bath to watch the progress of the
etching, but in doing so it must be handled with care, in the manner just
described.
When the ground is etched deep enough, remove the plate from the acid and
give it a thorough washing in clean water; then with a soft cloth dipped
in turpentine rub off the entire surface of the plate. The turpentine
will dissolve the varnish and leave a film of it on the granular surface
of the metal eaten by the acid. As a result, the ground will be darkened
or oxidized, while the parts originally protected by the varnish will be
bright and smooth. The high parts can be brightened still more with metal
polish, or they may be buffed and lacquered by a metal finisher.
Some Typical Designs
In Fig. 5 the face of a door-knob is shown in its etched state, the
pattern being drawn in varnish, as described.
In Fig. 6 the side of the knob in Fig. 5 is shown; that is, if it should
have such a flat band all around. Plain brass knobs may be purchased at a
hardware store, and if they are lacquered the coating should be removed
with alcohol before the etching is done, as otherwise the acid would not
eat through the lacquer for some time.
For an acid bath in which an object this shape is to be etched, a yellow
earthenware bowl may be used, or a low jar with a wide neck will answer
very well. The knob should be suspended in the acid by means of a piece
of waxed string tied about the shank.
Hinges on cabinet doors may be greatly improved by making brass straps
for them, which should be applied to the wood so that they fit closely
against the sides of the hinges.
[Illustration: FIG. 6. FIG. 7. FIG. 8. FIG. 9.]
Designs for hinge-straps are shown in Figs. 7 and 8, and Fig. 9 is a
brass vase on the outside of which a floral design has been etched.
Another design for the face of an oval brass door-knob is shown in Fig.
10. This is a simple pattern to draw on a knob with asphaltum varnish,
and its plain but bold ornament is quite as pleasing to the eye as a more
intricate pattern would be.
A design for a short, high hinge-plate is shown at Fig. 11, and at Fig.
12 a long, narrow hinge-plate or hasp-strap is depicted. Many other
shapes of hasps and the patterns to ornament them may be designed by the
boy with some artistic ability, and he may be able to improve upon these
suggestions.
[Illustration: FIG. 10. FIG. 11. FIG. 12. FIG. 13.]
When making hinge-straps, escutcheons, or any articles from brass plates
or flat brass and copper, the edges should be shaped with a cold-chisel
and mallet on the upturned face of an old flat-iron. The uneven or ragged
edges may be trimmed off with a file and finished with emery cloth.
An idea for a name-plate is shown in Fig. 13. This is seven inches long
and three inches wide. It is appropriate for a front door or the door of
a boy’s room, changing the name, of course, to that of the proper person.
At the left of the drawing the finished plate is shown, while at
the other side the blackened letters and marginal line is depicted,
illustrating how the plate will look before it is etched. Or this last
may be the appearance of the plate after it is etched and before the
varnish has been removed with turpentine and a cloth.
Part III
HOUSEHOLD ARTS
Chapter XI
CLAY-MODELLING AND PLASTER-CASTING
The boy on whom nature has bestowed the natural talent and liking for
art-work will find clay-modelling a fascinating and pleasing branch to
follow.
To become a perfect modeller, and finally a sculptor, requires years of
patience and perseverance, but to copy simple objects in clay is not a
difficult matter, and with some clay, a few tools, and the skeletons,
or supports, the amateur should not meet with any great obstacle if the
following descriptions and instructions are accepted and practised.
Very few tools are necessary at the beginning, and Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11, shown in Fig. 5, are a full complement for
any beginner. The first four are wire tools, made of spring-steel or
brass wire, about which fine wire is wrapped. The ends of the wires are
securely bound to the end of a round wooden handle, and sometimes, for
convenience, two ends are made fast to a single handle. These tools are
called “double-enders,” and are used in roughing out the clay in the
first stages of the work. No. 5 is a boxwood tool with one serrated
edge, and is used for finishing. The tools shown in Nos. 6 and 7 are of
steel, and are of use on plaster, where others would not be sufficiently
durable. Nos. 8, 9, 10, and 11 are boxwood tools, a wire loop being
fastened in the end of No. 9. Any of these tools can be purchased at an
art-material store for a few cents each, except the steel tools, which
are more expensive.
[Illustration: THE TOOLS
_Fig. 5._]
A stand, or pedestal, will be necessary on which to place the clay model,
unless perhaps it should be a medallion, which may be worked over on a
table.
Fig. 6 is a stand that can be made by any boy from a few pieces of pine
two inches square and a top board one and a half inches in thickness. It
is arranged with a central shaft that may be raised or lowered, and to
the top of which a platform is securely attached.
The movable shaft should have some holes bored through it from side to
side, through which a small iron pin may be adjusted to hold the platform
at a desired height. Clay can be purchased at the art stores by the
pound, or in the country a very good quality of light, slate-colored clay
may sometimes be found along the edges of brooks or in swampy places
where running water has washed away the dirt and gravel, leaving a clear
deposit of clay of the consistency of putty.
Supports which the clay models are built upon can be made of wood and
wire, as the requirements necessitate. That for the head is shown in Fig.
1. Nearly every clay model of any size will need some support, as clay
is heavy and settles, and if not properly supported will soon become
distorted and the composition spoiled. You will also need some old soft
cloths that can be applied wet to the clay, a pair of calipers, and a
small trowel or spatula.
The Technique of the Art
[Illustration: FIG. 1. FIG. 6.]
To model well the art of drawing is indispensable. The art of
wood-carving is also a valuable one to the clay-modeller, but care must
be taken when making any casts of wood-carving to use glue moulds;
otherwise the carving would become firmly embedded in a plaster mould,
due to the undercut in the carved ornament. To begin with, choose some
simple object to copy, such as a vase or some small ornament; then, when
a satisfactory result has been obtained, select something a trifle more
difficult, such as a hand or foot.
When copying a head, obtain a bust support on which to work the clay. A
very simple and strong one can be made from a piece of board, two sticks,
and a short piece of pipe wired to the top end of the upright stick (Fig.
1).
To carry out the proportions of a bust similar to Fig. 4, the clay should
be packed about the support much after the manner shown in Fig. 2. This
will support the clay.
With a lump of clay and the fingers form the general outline, as shown in
Fig. 2, for the head; then, with the wire tools, begin to work away the
clay in places, so as to follow the lines of the model. With the calipers
measurements may be taken from the plaster head and used advantageously
in the building up of the clay model. Turn the plaster model and clay
copy occasionally, so that all sides may be presented and closely
followed in line and detail. Fig. 3 shows the next stage, and Fig. 4 the
completed head.
Modelling differs from drawing and painting in that every side of the
model is visible, while only the face of the painting is presented to
the eye, the impression of form and outline being worked out on a flat
surface.
Having successfully mastered the head, next attempt a foot from a plaster
cast. Afterwards a more elaborate subject, such as a whole figure, can be
tried.
With the wire modelling-tools and the fingers begin to work away the clay
to obtain the general outline and form; continue this in a rough manner,
until a perfect composition is obtained that compares favorably with
the original model; the finishing-touches may then be applied, and the
detail worked up more carefully.
[Illustration: FIG. 2. FIG. 3. FIG. 4. FIG. 7. FIG. 8.]
Never complete one part and leave the remaining ones until later; always
work up the model uniformly, adding a little here and there, or taking
away, as may be necessary, and so developing the whole composition
gradually.
Moisten the clay occasionally with water sprayed on with a small
watering-pot or a greenhouse sprinkler, to keep it soft and ductile.
When not being worked upon it should be covered with wet cloths, to keep
it moist.
As the work progresses the clay may be allowed to harden and consolidate,
but not to dry; if allowed to dry entirely the model may be considered
ruined, as the shrinkage of the clay around the support results in
fissures and fractures that cannot be repaired.
By the time the amateur has acquired the knowledge to attempt a full-size
figure he will be able to invent the devices to support it.
The support, or skeleton, must of course be adapted to line with the pose
of the figure, and should be of pipe and heavy wire or rods securely
anchored to the base-plate.
The composition of flowers, fruit, foliage, animal life, and landscape is
an inexhaustible one, and some beautiful effects can be had in flat-work.
Good examples of this character of work may be found on all sides, and to
the genius the field of modelling is a broad one—without limit.
Glue and Gelatine Moulds
When casting from hands, feet, or ornaments where undercut predominates,
the most successful mode is in the use of gelatine or glue.
To cast a head similar to the one shown in Fig. 4 it will be necessary to
make a box frame large enough to hold the head.
The cast is to be well oiled, and down the front and back, running around
under and back over the base block, strong linen threads are to be stuck
on with oil. Warm glue or gelatine is then poured in the box and left to
chill and solidify.
When sufficiently cold the frame may be removed, leaving the solid block
of glue like hard jelly; then the ends of the threads are to be grasped
and torn through the gelatine, thus separating it in two or three parts.
The plaster head may then be removed, and the mould put together again
and surrounded by the frame to hold it in place.
To make a plaster head this plaster of Paris may be poured into the mould
and left for a while, when, on removing the frame and taking the glue
mould away, a perfect reproduction of the original head will be found.
Hollow Casting
When very large objects that would require a great deal of plaster are
cast, they are generally made hollow in the following manner:
Obtain the glue mould by the process described, and into it pour a
quantity of thin plaster, having first oiled the surfaces that come
in contact with it. Turn the mould about and upside down, so that the
plaster will enter every part and adhere to the glue form. Allow it to
“set,” and again pour some plaster into the mould. This will adhere to
the first coating, and after it has set repeat the operation several
times, until a deposit, or coating, an inch or more in thickness has been
made.
The glue mould on being removed will reveal a perfect plaster-casting
that, instead of being solid, is hollow, and in consequence is much
lighter.
Modelling a Foot
To model a foot from a plaster cast, as shown at Fig. 7, it will be
necessary to lay or putty up the form in the rough, as suggested for the
bust in Fig. 2. Now rough out the form with the modelling-tools, so that
it will appear as shown in Fig. 8. A frame, or support, should be made
from a block and a stout piece of wire, as shown at Fig. 9, so that the
mass of clay, particularly that at the back of the foot, will not settle.
[Illustration: FIG. 9. FIG. 10.]
For full-length figures it is always necessary to construct a frame after
a rough front and profile drawing has been made. With this drawing in
sight, it will then be a comparatively simple matter to construct a wire
or iron pipe frame such as that pictured in Fig. 10.
Bas-relief Modelling
Bas-relief work is another interesting department of clay-modelling.
This is one-sided in its effect, and the full, rounded appearance of the
statue or bust is reduced to a more flattened form with lower relief. A
familiar example of bas-relief is the head on a silver dollar, or the
raised ornament on silverware and pottery. Let us now begin with the
group of pears and leaves illustrated in Fig. 11.
A small block or piece of wood is treated to a coat of shellac or paint;
then the clay is puttied on to roughly form the parts in the group. With
the modelling-tools the outline and form is gradually worked out; then
the surfaces are smoothed down, and the few little artistic touches given
here and there to lend life and character.
Bas-reliefs can, of course, be cast any size, and from the original
plaster mould many duplicates in composition or _papier-maché_ may be
made.
Garlands, festoons, sunbursts, panel ornaments, and cartouches can be
modelled in clay, and afterwards cast for architectural features in
interior decoration. A good example of the garland is shown in Fig. 12.
This is made up of flowers and ribbons, and with careful and patient work
the boy sculptor should be able to obtain results quite as pleasing in
detail as that illustrated.
[Illustration: FIG. 11. FIG. 12.]
A Medallion Head
After some experience in casting ornaments in bas-relief has been
obtained, it would be well to try a head or bust.
A simple method of doing this is to take an ordinary school slate and
make the outline of a head on it. Within this outline you build up
roughly with your finger and thumb a cake of clay about half an inch in
thickness; then with your modelling instruments work it up as accurately
as your artistic skill will permit (see Fig. 13).
When in the progress of your work you find it necessary to leave it for
a short time, be careful to cover it over with a wet cloth, and if for
a long time, put two wet cloths over it, and cover them in turn with
a sheet of newspaper. This is necessary to keep the clay from getting
hard and unfit for working. If at any time you find the clay getting too
stiff, sprinkle it with water shaken from a whisk-broom. To make the
moulds of your clay model you will require a little plaster of Paris,
some lard oil, and some soap, and then your outfit is complete.
When your clay medallion is finished, build a wall of clay around it of
about an inch and a quarter in height, as shown in Fig. 13; then get a
teacupful of lard or olive oil, and add to it a good teaspoonful of any
kind of soap scraped fine. Put this on the stove and stir until it is
thoroughly mixed; then with a soft camel’s-hair brush lay a slight coat
over your entire work.
You must now mix your plaster. If the surface of your medallion is, say,
one foot by six inches, you will require about two pounds of plaster to
about a quart of water. Sprinkle the plaster into the water, and then
watch it until bubbles have ceased to come to the surface. When no more
bubbles appear, stir it up well with a stick. The mixture should be about
the consistency of thick cream. The exact proportions you must find out
by experiment. This plaster cream you pour quickly over your medallion,
blowing gently with your mouth on the fluid as it spreads itself over
the face of your work; this is to prevent the formation of bubbles. In
a short time the plaster will become hard; you then remove your clay
wall, and lift the plaster mould, or matrix, from the clay. This you do
by passing a penknife all round between the plaster and the slate, after
which it lifts easily. You have now a perfect plaster mould. If you find
any small particles of clay adhering to it, wash them off with a soft
camel’s-hair brush and water.
You now want to get a plaster cast from your matrix. To do this you lay a
coat of the soap and oil mixture with a camel’s-hair brush all over the
face of the mould, and then pour in the plaster just as you did before,
taking the same precautions to blow upon the plaster and to build a wall
of clay around the mould.
You let this stand for half an hour until it is perfectly set, when you
can remove your casting by passing a thin-bladed knife all round between
the matrix and the casting. If it does not then lift easily, plunge
the whole thing in water for an instant, after which you will have no
difficulty in separating the two parts.
You now have a plaster cast of your original work, which you can touch
up and finish off with sand-paper, or with the blade of a penknife if
necessary.
You can, of course, make as many casts as you please from your mould, and
thus have very pretty little souvenirs to present to your friends.
[Illustration: MEDALLION AND PLAIN CASTING
FIG. 13. FIG. 14. FIG. 15. FIG. 16. FIG. 17.]
Coin and Metal Casts
This same procedure may be employed when making moulds and casts from
coins, medals, and medallions. A narrow frame is made of wood, and at the
middle of this a medal is placed on the flat oiled surface of a board, a
slate, or a piece of marble, as shown at Fig. 14. The face of the object
is now prepared with the oil, and the plaster is poured as previously
described. If any number of reproductions are to be cast from the mould,
it would be well to give it one or two coats of thin shellac; then oil it
before each impression is made.
Plaster-casting in General
It is not a difficult matter to reproduce in plaster almost any object
that has no undercut or parts that will not easily detach from a mould.
When making them, the first thing to do is to get a piece of board about
a foot square; that is to work on, so as not to soil the table. Then
you want a lump of clay about as big as a football, five or six pounds
of plaster of Paris—it only costs three cents a pound—and a half-dozen
wooden pegs. You also want a cup of warm melted lard, or Castile soap
dissolved in hot water, to rub over what you are going to copy, so as to
prevent the plaster sticking to it.
Now, suppose it is an egg you want to copy. You rub it all over with your
melted lard, and lay it down on the piece of board. Pack clay around it
as high up as the middle of the egg, and as far out as half an inch from
the widest part. You must be particular about not putting clay higher
than the middle, because, if you get the clay too high, you can’t get the
egg out without breaking the mould.
When you have the clay around the lower half of the model, smooth and
level it, and push two pegs in opposite corners, as shown in Fig. 15. Now
around the whole thing make a box or case of clay, with sides rising half
an inch higher than the model (Fig. 16). Mix plaster of Paris and water
together till you have it like molasses on a warm day; pour that into the
clay box, so that the model is covered, and the mixture even with the top
of the box.
The plaster will set, or become hard, in a little while, and you then
tear the box away, and take out the model and plaster together, leaving
the first clay mould. Next put the plaster mould and model in a clay box
just as you did before, and pour plaster over it, first greasing the
model and upper surface of the mould. Before pouring on the plaster, roll
a small piece of clay in your fingers, and put it on the model (Fig. 17),
so that when you pour plaster over it, a hole will be left in it through
which you may pour plaster for the final cast.
For the second time tear away the clay box, and gently separate the two
parts of plaster of Paris; take the model out, and you will have two
blocks of plaster, which, when brought together, will contain an exact
mould of the model (Fig. 18), and one block will have an opening in
it through which you can pour plaster. Before pouring in the plaster,
however, be sure to grease the insides of the mould. Then put the parts
together, using the pegs and holes as guides to a proper fitting, and tie
firmly with a piece of twine. Now pour the plaster in, and then shake
the mould gently in order to make the mixture settle in all the smaller
crevices.
[Illustration: PLASTER-CASTING IN GENERAL
FIG. 18. FIG. 19. FIG. 20.]
Of course when you separate the parts of the mould now you will have a
perfect cast of your model. It will have a thin ridge running around it
where the mould was joined, but that is easily rubbed off with sand-paper.
In a mould made from a hand you proceed in about the same way. The great
thing is to find the dividing line in the model; that is, the place where
the parts of the mould ought to join. In the egg it is easy enough, for
you can divide it into two equal parts; but you take a hand, and you have
to make the line around each finger just where it is broadest (Fig. 19),
and build the clay up to that line. The wrist-hole in a hand-mould makes
a good hole to pour the plaster in (Fig. 20), and, after all, a hand is
easy to make.
These simple directions should make it easy for the amateur modeller
to acquire the first principles of the art. There are several good
compositions in which the young craftsman can work besides plaster of
Paris, such as “Kiln Cement,” “Carton-pierre,” “Papier-maché,” “Plaster
Compounds,” “Artificial Marble,” and “Concrete.”
How to Find and Mount Signets
There is nothing prettier or more attractive, hanging on the walls
of one’s parlor or chamber, than a group of signet impressions in
sealing-wax of various colors, artistically arranged and handsomely
mounted; while the pleasure to be derived in seeking them is quite as
keen as that which the coin or stamp hunter enjoys, without the expense
attached to them, for our seals cost comparatively nothing. The outfit
is simple, consisting of a dozen sticks of sealing-wax in different
colors—black, brown, red, gold, white, and green, making a charming
combination with any other shades that take the fancy of the collector.
A light wooden or strong pasteboard box to carry the articles, a box of
matches, a white taper (cut in half for convenience’ sake), and, later
on, a piece of stiff white card-board (16 × 22, 22 × 28 being good sizes)
to mount them on.
Keep in the bottom of the box containing the wax a dozen or more pieces
of thick, white, unruled writing-paper cut into ovals, circular, oblong,
and square shapes, varying in size from one-half inch in width to two
inches in length. This is all that is required. Now for our hunt. As you
meet friends and acquaintances, notice their rings and watch-charms. When
any are discovered with a figure, crest, handsome monogram, or initial on
it, borrow it, and make your impression. This is accomplished by laying
a piece of your writing-paper, at least half an inch larger than the
seal to be used, on some smooth surface like a table. Then take a stick
of wax between the thumb and forefinger of the right hand; with the left
hand a match or taper, and bring them together just on the paper where
the wax melts sufficiently to drop freely. Rub the end of the sealing-wax
quickly over the middle of the paper. Then moistening the seal with the
tongue to prevent the stone adhering to the burning wax, press it firmly
into the hot bed prepared for it, a second or so, being careful to lift
it straight up when taken off, thus securing a clean edge. If this is
properly done a fine impression of your subject is secured. Repeat this
operation several times, taking different-colored wax for duplicates,
which will enable you to make exchange with other collectors, who are
unable to get these same figures, but have others not in your collection.
Chapter XII
PYROGRAPHY
Pyrography, or fire-etching, is by no means a modern art, but one
that was practised many centuries ago both in civilized and barbarous
countries. In Europe, during the early ages, this work was executed with
a poker inserted in the fire and heated red hot; but as the iron must
have cooled quickly, the task of embellishing a panel was a tedious and
laborious one.
A knowledge of drawing will be very helpful to the young pyrographer, as
the object can be sketched in lead-pencil and followed with the heated
iron or platinum-point.
Of the various materials that may be used on which to etch the ornament,
wood and leather have been found the most satisfactory, since they retain
the deep, rich brown-and-black tones given by the heated iron, and yield
more readily under the tool than other materials.
If wood is employed, such as oak, birch, maple, holly, and cherry,
it should be selected with a pretty grain and as free from knots
as possible; but if leather is used, a good quality of oak-tanned
sole-leather will give the best results; although for light work a
pleasing effect can be had by employing a stout Suède and etching on the
rough side.
The etching-tools are few and simple, and are shown in the illustrations.
Fig. 1 depicts a set of irons that can be made by a boy from pieces
of round iron a quarter of an inch in diameter and having the points
fashioned with a file. The ends of the irons can be inserted in
file-handles that may be purchased at a hardware store for a few cents
each.
[Illustration: _Fig. 1._ _Fig. 2._]
A is a sharp-pointed iron for outlining; B is a round-pointed one for
broader work; C is a stub for bold work, and measures three-eighths of an
inch in diameter; D is a curved background tool, and is used for burning
in the grounds, or shading, in order to make the design stand out boldly.
With these tools and a spirit-lamp and rest, such as is shown in Fig. 2,
some very good work can be done; and to complete the set a sharp-edged
eraser may be added to scrape away the wood, if perchance it should have
been touched by mistake with a hot iron.
To begin with, it is best to carry out a simple design—to decorate a
panel, a drawer front, or the sides to a small wooden box. The pattern
must first be drawn out in full size on a piece of smooth brown paper,
and then transferred to the face of the wood by the use of colored or
black transfer-paper, sheets of which can be had at an art or stationery
store for a few cents each.
To reproduce the design, lay the transfer-paper face down on the wood,
and over it the drawing face up; pin it fast, and go over all the lines
with a lead-pencil, bearing down to impress them on the face of the wood.
Having gone over all the lines, unpin one corner and raise both sheets of
paper to see that the impression is good. If not, replace the paper and
redraw the faint or unmarked lines.
Fig. 3 is a simple and attractive design for the embellishment of a
panel, of a small drawer, or as one of the sides to a box.
If the tools shown in Fig. 1 are used, fill the spirit-lamp half full of
alcohol and light it, then place the pointed iron A on the rest in such a
position that the point will be enveloped by the blue flame, where, after
remaining a minute, it will become red hot. Remove it and trace the lines
in the wood with the hot point until all of them have been gone over,
and as a result the wood will have the appearance of Fig. 4. The iron
will necessarily require reheating continually, and to save time it would
be well to have two or three irons of each shape, as they cost but a few
cents, and are easy to make.
[Illustration: _Fig. 3._ _Fig. 4._]
After the outlining has been done, the background should be burned in
with the curved iron D. Fig. 5 illustrates the manner in which this may
be accomplished; the left side is partly finished, and shows the simple
and effective mode of lining or “dragging” the ground. The right side is
a finished ground, where the cross-strokes may be seen with an occasional
oblique stroke to lend added density. It is not always possible to
complete a ground until the ornament is shaded, and what may seem to be
a finished background before the shading will sometimes afterwards prove
too weak or flat, and will necessarily require going over in places to
strengthen and darken it.
[Illustration: _Fig. 5._]
[Illustration: _Fig. 6._]
Fig. 6 is a piece of finished work where the ornament is shaded to give
it character, and where also the background has been retouched in some
places to give it a stronger feeling. This illustration is a good example
of pyrography, and gives the relative tones of high light and shadow.
Before beginning on an ornamental piece of work, it would be well to
practise on clear pine or white-wood, and to become dexterous in the
use and manipulation of the tools, and to find the ones best adapted to
certain kinds of work. The round-pointed tools B and C, shown in Fig. 1,
are good grounders, and where large work and bold patterns are carried
out they will be found of use.
As some very fine work is possible in fire-etching, the art can be
applied in many ways to decorate pieces of useful and ornamental
furniture about the house.
Charming pictures can be produced on holly and white mahogany; designs
of fruit and flowers and conventional patterns may be applied to panels,
tables, screens, frames, glove and handkerchief boxes; and on maple
bedroom furniture designs in pyrography lend a pleasing and artistic
appearance.
When working on leather do not cut out the form until after the work is
finished, but pin the material flat on a board to hold it firmly while
operating with the hot irons.
The entire design should be drawn on the face of the leather with a soft
lead-pencil, and afterwards gone over with the burning-points. When the
work is completed the piece of leather should be removed from the board,
and the outline cut with a sharp penknife or a pair of scissors.
It may be desirable to varnish and polish some specimens, and it is
possible to do so by coating the surface with a thin spirit varnish or
thin furniture polish. This will bring out the density of the burned
lines, and enrich a design that on certain woods might seem flat. Too
much varnish must be avoided, and only a very thin coat will be necessary
to obtain the desired result.
A Platinum-point Outfit
In preference to the hand-made irons, which must be heated each time
before using, the modern devotees of the fire-etching art use the
gasolene lamp and platinum-point apparatus. These outfits may be
purchased at the art shops for a comparatively small sum, but the young
craftsman may want to make his own apparatus. With the exception of the
platinum-point and its metal holder, this is quite possible.
The parts of a gasolene outfit are the bulb, rubber tubing,
platinum-point and handle, reservoir-bottle, metal union-cork, and a
spirit-lamp. The latter may be purchased at a drug or hardware store for
a few cents; but a good-working one can be made from a square or round
bottle, a cork with a hole through it to receive a piece of brass tubing,
and a piece of round lamp-wicking. (See Fig. 7).
Heat a piece of wire red hot, and burn a hole through the cork large
enough to slip in a piece of brass tubing a quarter of an inch in
diameter. Pass the lamp-wick through the tubing, and allow an inch or
two of wicking to rest at the bottom of the bottle. This lamp should be
filled half full of alcohol, and it is used to heat the platinum-point at
first; after that the rush of gasolene vapor will keep the tool red hot.
The gasolene reservoir is a square bottle with a fairly large neck into
which is fitted the metal union-cork. If it is not possible to purchase
this cork, then one can be made as shown at B in Fig. 8.
[Illustration: FIG. 7. FIG. 8. FIG. 9. FIG. 10. FIG. 11. FIG. 12. FIG.
13. FIG. 14. FIG. 15. FIG. 16.]
From a solid piece of lead one and a half inches long, three-quarters of
an inch wide, and one and a quarter inches deep, cut a lug, with a knife
and file, having two projecting ears as shown at C in Fig. 8. The lower
part is half an inch in diameter and three-quarters of an inch long. With
a hot iron burn a hole in a cork so that the lower end of the lug will
fit within it, as shown at D in Fig. 8. With a small drill bore a hole in
the end of each ear. These holes should run through towards the middle of
the lug, taking care, however, not to bore too far, since the holes must
not meet. Bore two holes up through the lower part of the lug so that
each will meet one of the holes bored through the ears, as shown by the
dotted lines at A in Fig. 8. By this construction the air forced through
a tube connected with one ear travels through that ear and down into the
bottle; then up through the other hole and out at the opposite ear, where
another tube is attached that leads to the platinum-point. The end of an
old syringe can be used for the supply bulb, and for the pressure bulb
there is nothing better than the inner bladder of a football, if it can
be provided with an extra tube so that air may be forced in at one end
while it is escaping at the other. This rubber balloon can be inflated to
twice its normal size if care is taken not to blow it up too large. As a
precaution against its destruction, it would be well to make a protective
net from cotton string with a small mesh. This is easily done by making a
wire hoop the diameter of the bladder when blown to its safe size; then
loop cotton string over it, as shown in Fig. 9, and tie the knots forming
the meshes as shown at the left side of the same drawing. Continue the
work until a cylindrical net is formed about three or four inches longer
than the size of the inflated bladder. With a draw-string the open ends
of the net can be drawn together after the bladder is placed within it.
The outlet of the bladder is connected by a rubber tube to one ear of the
cork, and another tube leads from the opposite ear to the platinum-point
and holder.
The holder is simply a piece of brass tubing at one end of which a
coupling is made fast. This tube is pushed through a cork handle, or the
covering can be made by burning holes through corks and slipping them
over the tube, at the same time using thick shellac to act as a glue and
hold the corks to each other and to the brass tube. The cork covering
should be heavier near the point end, because the tube becomes hot from
the superheated platinum-point. This handle should be three-quarters
of an inch in diameter, and gradually tapered to half an inch at the
back, as shown at Fig. 10. The brass tube should be five inches long and
the cork handle about four inches in length. Half an inch of the tube
projects beyond the back, or top, of the handle, and over this end a
piece of rubber tubing is slipped. A complete outfit should contain three
points—one sharp, one round, and one curved. These can be purchased at
almost any art store, and should appear as shown in Fig. 11, A being the
sharp point, B the round one, or grounder, and C the curved, sharp-ended
point that is used for fine work and light lines in shading or background.
A good platinum-point can be bought for one dollar and a half; but better
ones will cost all the way from two dollars to five. If a boy has points
B and C in his outfit, he can do some very good work; but should it be
possible to have one only, then the curved point C should be the choice,
since with that tool almost everything can be done.
The principle of the gasolene pyrographic outfit is very simple. The
reservoir-bottle is filled half full of gasolene, or benzine (62°),
which can be had at a paint store for twenty-five cents a gallon. The
union-cork stopper is then pushed down, and the platinum-point screwed
in place at the end of the handle. Light the spirit-lamp and hold the
platinum-point in the flame until it is cherry-red; then squeeze on the
supply-bulb and fill the pressure-bag. The air forced through the first
section of rubber tubing goes down through one hole in the cork, picks
up some gasolene vapor from the reservoir-bottle, and passes along the
second section of tubing to the point, where it escapes through a very
small hole at the side. Directly the vapor reaches the flame it ignites,
and the hot point is kept in its heated state so long as the pressure of
the bulb forces the gasolene vapor out through the hole.
Do not bear hard on the wood when working. The heated metal will char the
wood easily if gentle pressure and several strokes are used. Points A and
B (Fig. 11) can be used on all sides and on end, but point C should be
used only on its curved edge, as shown at A in Fig. 12; never as shown at
B.
When both hands are needed for the work of holding the material and
tool, a convenient foot device can be made, as shown in Fig. 13. This
is a pressure-jack made from two boards, the upper one being cut and
hinged, as shown in the drawing. The boards are twelve inches long and
three inches wide, the short end of the top one being attached to the
bottom plate with glue and screws. The wood should be three-quarters or
seven-eighths of an inch thick, and it may be given a coat of shellac or
varnish to improve its appearance.
If a constant supply of air-pressure can be had without the bothersome
hand or foot bulbs, it makes it so much easier to master the art of
pyrography.
Any ingenious boy who has a foot pump, such as are used for bicycle or
automobile tires, can get an old boiler from a plumber and rig up a
pressure-tank such as is shown at Fig. 14. A small pressure-gauge should
be screwed fast on top of the boiler, and two outlets with brass cocks
should be constructed out of one-eighth-inch gas-pipe, the fittings
being purchased at a gas-fitter’s or a supply house. By means of the
pump compressed air can be stored in the tank, and the pressure will
be registered on the gauge. Twenty to twenty-five pounds will be quite
enough pressure for an old boiler, although sixty pounds is the standard
to which most of them are tested when new. The advantage of the two
outlet-pipes will be appreciated when working, because each can lead to
a different sort of point, and this will save the time and bother of
changing points frequently for different parts of the work.
The Practice of Pyrography
Basswood, deal, and white-wood are the material most commonly employed
for this work, since the grain is close and the color even. Almost
any soft wood, however, can be used, and the boy who has mastered the
craft of carpentry can make his own boxes, frames, stools, chairs, and
miscellaneous wooden objects, and then embellish them with designs drawn
in lead-pencil, the lines of which it will be an easy task to follow with
the hot platinum-point.
Small picture-frames can be made from one piece of wood, but they are
better, and will last longer, if made from two pieces. For a small round
frame a pretty pattern is shown in Fig. 15. This can be made from six to
twelve inches in diameter, and the frame proper should be from two to
four inches wide, having an opening for the picture from two to four
inches in diameter. The easiest way to make a frame is in two pieces, as
shown in Fig. 16, the left side representing a narrow frame and the right
a wider one.
From holly or basswood one-eighth or one-quarter of an inch thick cut
a disk six inches in diameter, and at the middle cut an opening three
inches in diameter. Strike the circle with a compass; then use a fret-saw
to do the cutting. From pine or white-wood half an inch in thickness
cut a disk five and a half inches in diameter and at the middle a hole
four inches in diameter. Lay the thin disk down on a table, and after
applying glue to one surface of the smaller but thicker disk place it,
glue-side down, on the larger disk, taking care to have the grain of the
two pieces run in opposite directions. See that the disks are adjusted so
that one is centred directly over the other; then impose a piece of board
on top of the frame, and put fifteen or twenty pounds of flat-irons or
other heavy weights on the board to press the two wood pieces together.
Leave them for several hours; then remove the weights and clean off the
hard glue that may have oozed out from between the disks. Give the back
of the frame two coats of shellac to prevent the wood from absorbing
moisture, and it will then be ready for the design and the pyrographic
ornamentation. By using the two pieces of wood, a rabbet is thereby
formed for the glass and picture. If the frame had been made from one
piece it would have necessitated the cutting of a rabbet. The design of
holly leaves and berries is a pretty one, and quite simple to draw and
burn.
A Few Suggestive Designs
A long picture-frame with three oval openings is shown in Fig. 17. This
is made from two pieces of wood, as described for Fig. 15, and then
embellished with the design and pyrographically treated.
[Illustration: FIG. 17. FIG. 18. FIG. 19. FIG. 20. FIG. 21.]
In Fig. 18 an idea for a stool is shown. This little piece of furniture
can be made of white-wood by the boy who has learned to handle tools. The
legs are two inches square and fifteen inches high. The side-boards are
each twelve inches long, four inches wide at the ends, and three inches
at the middle; they are arched or crowned, as shown in the drawing.
Blocks of wood are glued and screwed to the inner edge of each end, and
these in turn are made fast to the upper parts of the legs. The top is
sixteen inches square, with the corners cut out, so that it will fit down
on the top of the side-rails and between the tops of the legs. Strips of
wood three-quarters of an inch square should be glued and screwed to the
under side of the seat at the four sides, and these in turn must be made
fast to the top inner edges of the side-rails.
Leather-work
When embellishing leather, select the quality that is best adapted to
pyrography. It must not be too thin, as the hot point would quickly
perforate and cut it. Cowhide, Suède, calf, sheepskin, heavy kids, and
binding leathers are best adapted to this work. Purses, bags, mats,
boxes, travelling-rolls, and valises are made in leathers that are
admirably adapted to pyrography, and these should be purchased rather
than made, for leather-working is a craft that would not interest the
average boy.
An heraldic pattern for a small pigskin or cowhide purse is shown in Fig.
19, and Figs. 19, 20, and 21 are designs adapted to different kinds of
purses, wallets, and bill-books. It is, of course, impossible to lay down
any specific sizes for these patterns, as the sizes of leather goods vary.
To improve the appearance of floral patterns, it is desirable to tint
or stain flowers, leaves, berries, and stems in their natural colors.
This can be done on the unfinished wood, either before or after the
outlines and background are burned. Oil or aniline stains may be used for
this purpose. If a dead finish is desired, the wood can be left without
further treatment, except for a thin coat of beeswax and turpentine. If
a glossy finish is preferred, the wood must be treated to several thin
coats of white shellac; then a finishing coat of white dammar-varnish
is applied and left to dry for several days. The inside of boxes should
be “grounded” and shellacked, and at the top and bottom pads made of
card-board, cotton-filling, and silk should be glued fast.
Chapter XIII
BOOKBINDING AND EXTRA-ILLUSTRATION
There must be many boys who would like to know the simple methods of
binding books, so that they can do it without the aid of machinery or
costly tools. They are probably aware that when the material of a book
comes from the hand of the printer, it consists of a number of large
sheets that are commonly twenty inches long and fifteen broad. Eight
pages of the book are printed on each side of a sheet in such a peculiar
order that when the sheet is properly folded the pages will be correctly
arranged by the numbering. To see how this is, take a sheet of paper
that measures fifteen inches by twenty. With a ruler and pencil draw
lines across the sheet so as to divide it into eight equal parts. Each of
these parts is a page. Number them as shown in Fig. 1. Turn them over and
number the pages on the other side as shown in Fig. 2. Now to fold the
sheet, lay it on the table with the side up that has on it 2, 15, etc.;
bring page 3 over upon page 2, creasing the sheet in the middle. Then the
four pages lying upward will be numbered 4, 13, 12, 5. Bring page 5 over
on page 4, and crease in the middle again. Pages 8 and 9 will now lie
upward. Fold 9 over on 8, and the sheet will be folded as it should be,
and is now called a signature. In a book there may be twenty or thirty,
or more such signatures, which are numbered so that the binder will know
in what order to place them. These numbers are placed at the bottom of
the first page in each signature.
The Tools
Before beginning the work of binding, a few preparations must be made,
and first of all a press is indispensable. This is very easily made.
Take two pieces of board, of some close-grained hard-wood, about one
and a quarter inches thick and a little larger than any book you are
likely to undertake to bind. Eighteen by twenty inches will be found
the most useful size. Lay your boards together, and with an inch auger
bore through both three holes at each end of the boards about an
inch back from the edge. Now make six pegs of hard-wood—white oak is
excellent—about six inches long, and fit them tightly into one of your
two boards, on one side of it; that is, the pegs should all stand out
at one side. (Fig. 4.) When this is done, carefully work down the size
of the pegs until they will pass freely through the holes in the other
board, so that the two boards may be separated or brought close together
as required. The loose or movable board (Fig. 5) should be fitted with a
backstay or two, so that it will stand edgewise on a table, and the two
boards together will thus form a sort of upright press or vise.
[Illustration: THE PRACTICE OF BOOKBINDING
_Fig. 1._ _Fig. 2._ _Fig. 3._ _Fig. 4._ _Fig. 5._]
In order to furnish your press with power, you must now pass four large
iron “wood-screws” loosely through the blank outer edge of the movable
board into holes in the corresponding edge of the other board, where they
should “bite.” When a book is put into the press it is a very easy matter
to tighten the screws so as to hold it firmly. This simple, inexpensive,
and easily made press may be improved in various ways; screws with
winged nuts may be used, etc., but in its simplest form it will be found
sufficient for all the demands the amateur binder is likely to make on it.
Next in importance to the press is the hammer, and this is the only tool
you will be likely to have to buy. It should be heavy, weighing at least
twelve or fourteen pounds, and should be rounded at the ends. This is
used for beating and compressing the books, shaping their backs, etc.
If you live near a foundry it is quite easy to make a model of wood or
clay and have a hammer cast. In any case, it is not an expensive tool—any
blacksmith can hammer one out in a short time.
The glue-pot may be almost any little crockery dish, but it should never
be put on the stove. If you have no regular glue-pot, you can melt your
glue in an old cup placed in a saucepan of boiling water.
Besides the press, hammer, and glue-pot, you must have a pair of scissors
and a few simple but sharp-cutting tools. When these things are all
prepared you are ready to bind your book.
The Practice of the Art
After removing everything that is not to be included in your volume,
place the “signatures” or parts together in regular order, striking the
backs gently on the table or bench to get them even. Then place them on
a block and beat with the hammer so as to flatten and compress them as
much as possible. Then they should be put very carefully into the press
and the screws tightened firmly, so as to hold the volume steady. The
back should project about one inch above the edge of the press. Now, with
a common hand-saw, cut four slits across the back at regular intervals,
not deeper than the teeth of the saw. Take the book from the press, and
into each of these slits or nicks lay a piece of stout cord or twine (not
too thick), and to these cords all the signatures forming the book must
be fastened with pack-thread. A necessary aid to this sewing process is
a small square frame of light wood. The cords must be tied to this below
and above, as shown at Fig. 3, and the lower part of the frame must be
sufficiently broad and flat for the book to lie upon it. After the cords
are laid into or passed through their respective nicks, you must open the
leaves regularly and find the middle of each signature, and then pass,
with a needle, the pack-thread along the inside, but twisting it around
each cord in succession as you go along, making it fast at the end with
a hitch or knot. This is much easier than it sounds, and with a little
practice may be done very quickly. When you have finished the sewing cut
away the cords, leaving an inch and a half or so on each side, which is
left to make the attachment to the cover. This completes the first stage
of the binding.
The book must now be replaced in the press, and its back covered with a
good coat of glue melted in the manner already described. Leave it in
the press until the glue is thoroughly dry. In the mean time measure the
breadth of the back and go ahead with the preparation of your cover,
which may be made as follows:
Cut two pieces of thin pasteboard a little larger than your book. Also
cut a piece of cloth—calico, linen, or muslin—so much larger than both
pieces of pasteboard either way as to allow for the back and the turning
in. Down the middle of this paste three or four strips of the same goods
to strengthen the back. Carefully measure the length and breadth of the
back, and lay your pasteboard covers on the table, leaving the space of
the back between them. Now put on your cloth, turning it around the edges
of the covers, carefully avoiding creasing or wrinkling, and lightly
glue it fast as shown at Fig. 10. Your cover is now made and must be
allowed to dry. Next take your book from the press, unravel and soften
the projecting ends of the cord, and wet them with strong glue. Lay the
book down carefully on its back into the cover and glue down the cords to
the sides. The book should be supported in this position, which can be
done in any number of ways, and a slip of cloth glued down over the cords
to hold them steady. Then paste over all this a sheet of white or fancy
paper to line each cover, and when the job is dry your work is done.
Nothing has been said about cutting the edges of the book, as that is
usually done on a machine; but if you are able to trim them clean with
a sharp knife, so much the better. To do this, place the book into
the press before putting on the cover, bringing up each edge of the
three exposed ones successively, and while held there firmly, cut them
carefully with a sharp knife or shoemaker’s cutting-tool. Any little
inequalities may afterwards be taken down with sand-paper. The edges
when cut may be spattered with any color desired by using a common
tooth-brush and water-colors.
[Illustration: FIG. 6. FIG. 10.]
To put on the title in gilt letters, the binder applies a little of the
white of an egg over the space where the letters are to be. When this is
dry, rub the leather with a rag slightly greased, and then lay on the
gold-leaf. Next take common type used by printers, heat them a little,
and stamp on the letters. The heat makes the gold-leaf stick where it is
wanted, and the rest is rubbed off with a rag. All the gilt ornamentation
on book covers may be put on in a similar manner.
To get a clear understanding of these directions the boy craftsman should
examine different kinds of books very closely; and if he has an old and
valueless one he can take it to pieces and put it together again. Perhaps
he can improve its condition. At least he will learn some of the minor
details. He must remember that in bookbinding, as in all other arts,
patience and repeated trials are requisite for acquiring the skill that
produces neat and handsome work.
Rebinding Books
It is not always possible for a boy to purchase cloth-bound volumes of
his favorite authors, as they cost quite a little money. But he may often
procure them in paper covers, and if he is careful to select stitched
books, rather than those simply caught together with wire or “wire
sewed,” as they are termed, it will be possible for him to rebind them in
cloth at a slight expense.
To begin with, strip off the paper cover, taking care not to tear the
printed title on the cover, nor that at the back of the book, if it is
possible to save it. Both of these will be useful in the rebound volume.
With a penknife and sand-paper remove as much as possible of the paper
cover that has been glued to the back of the book, taking care not to cut
away any of the stitching; otherwise the book would fall apart. The book
in this condition, ready for its “case” or cover, is shown in Fig. 6. If
the signatures have been caught together with wire, remove the latter
with a pair of pliers; then sew the pages as already described. Get two
pieces of white paper the same thickness and quality of which the book is
made, and fold them over once, as shown in Fig. 7. With paste or liquid
glue attach one at each side of the book by running the paste along one
side of the folded edge of paper for a quarter of an inch, as shown by
the shaded line in Fig. 7. This is called “tipping,” and where a page
or two have become detached or not properly bound in, this method is
employed to reset it.
When these pages are in place, trim them so as to correspond to the size
of the book; then glue the back of the book well and attach a piece
of crash to the back as shown in Fig. 8. The crash should be a trifle
shorter than the height of the book, or about half an inch at each end,
and there should be at least an inch of the material on either side of
the book, as shown in the illustration. This material is known as “crash”
in the bookbinding trade, but it is nothing more than a coarse-thread
cloth with open mesh, and it is sold in dry-goods stores under the name
of crinoline.
From clay-board or stiff card-board, binders’ board, or strawboard, cut
two pieces an eighth of an inch wider and a quarter of an inch longer
than the actual size of the book. These are for the front and back
corners. Lay the binding material—buckram, cloth, or leather—on a table
or smooth board face down. Now, with a lead-pencil, mark two parallel
lines through the middle, as far apart as the thickness of the book plus
the thickness of the covers, as shown at A A in Fig. 9. Then mark a line
across one end at right angles to these, as shown at B. Apply glue to the
covering material and place the card-boards on the spaces C C, so that
the inner edge and top of each board will line with the pencil-marks A
and B. Press the boards down with the fingers; then turn the cloth and
boards over and press with a dry cloth, rubbing over the surface to drive
down the cloth in any place where it does not seem to have adhered. With
scissors or a knife cut off the corners as shown at D, taking care not to
approach too close to the corner of the boards. Leave about one-eighth
of an inch of cloth beyond the corners, so that it will cover them when
the edges of the cloth are turned over. These edges should be about half
an inch in width. After applying glue to them, lap them over on the
card-boards, as shown at Fig. 10, and rub them with the soft cloth to
drive out all air from between these edges and the boards.
[Illustration: REBINDING AN OLD BOOK
FIG. 7. FIG. 8. FIG. 9. FIG. 11.]
When the four sides are finished, the cover or case is ready to receive
the book. Lay the case open on a table, just as you see it in Fig. 10,
and apply glue to the space between the card-boards, and also on the
card-boards for an inch or so from the inner edges. Now take the book
in hand, and place it so that the back will rest on the space of cloth
between the boards, leaving an equal projection of the cover above and
below the board, or about one-eighth of an inch. With the fingers press
the projecting flaps of crash down on the glued surface of the cards
at either side of the book; then lift both covers up to the sides of
the book (still allowing it to rest on its back), and with both hands
press the covers together as hard as you can. Hold it in this position
for a few seconds; then carefully lay the book on its side and place a
flat-iron upon it for five minutes.
At the end of this time carefully lift one cover and apply glue or paste
to the first fly-leaf (that is one of the pages you tipped in), and press
it against the inside of the cover, taking care, however, not to allow
the paper to wrinkle. Turn the book over and repeat this on the other
side; then replace the flat-iron and leave the book under pressure for
a day or two; or, better yet, arrange it in between the pressure-boards
described for Figs. 4 and 5, and leave it there overnight.
If the first page has adhered to the glue about the edges of the crash,
it will be necessary to carefully pull it away, taking care not to tear
this first page or lining sheet, nor to disturb the crash. If liquid
glue is used, it will not set hard enough in the five minutes to render
it impossible to remove the paper. If hot glue is employed, it will not
be necessary to close the book and press it, for the glue will set very
quickly, and the first and last pages may be pasted and laid over the
inside of the covers at once, so that when placed under pressure and left
there the crash, glue, and paste can set and dry at the same time.
The object of pasting the blank pages to the inside of the covers is to
make a good finish to the binding, and also to lend additional strength
to the attachment of book and case. Fancy end-papers and richly tinted
or colored ones are often used as linings, as you can see in many books.
These are always tipped in as described, so that they will be the first
and last pages in the book.
From the paper cover (which you removed from the book before binding it)
cut the title, and, with glue, apply it to the front cover near the top,
as shown in the illustration of the finished book (Fig. 11). If the back
title has been preserved that can be pasted along the back.
How to Extra-illustrate a Book
Every one knows how much more interesting is an illustrated book than
one without pictures. What a satisfaction it would be to us if we could
illustrate our favorite books ourselves! What pleasure we would take
in it! This is entirely possible. It is a comparatively easy matter
to illustrate a book, or, in the case of a book that already contains
pictures, to extend and increase the illustration by means of old prints,
engravings, and pictures gathered from various sources, and bound in with
the leaves of the book. This is called “extra-illustrating,” and has long
been a favorite amusement of collectors.
A book that is carefully and judiciously extra-illustrated is not
only much more attractive in appearance, but its value is greatly
increased, and the amount of pleasure and instruction to be gained by the
extra-illustration of one book is a rich reward for the trouble and time
it costs.
The first thing to be done in the extra-illustration of a book which
has been selected for the purpose is the collection of the pictures.
This will often take some time, and should never be done in a hurry.
Old magazines and illustrated papers will supply many of the necessary
pictures, while old books and the shops devoted to the sale of old prints
and engravings will furnish others.
Suppose _The Three Musketeers_ to be the book chosen. A portrait of
the author should be selected for a frontispiece. Other portraits,
representing the author at different ages, may be used in the book; but
that which serves as the frontispiece should be one made about the time
he wrote the book.
The other illustrations should consist of pictures referring as nearly as
possible to the scenes and incidents described in the story. Pictures of
an author’s home or portraits of members of his family are always useful;
but no picture, however interesting in itself, should be included if it
does not bear directly upon the scenes in the book, or is not in some way
connected with the author.
When a sufficient number of illustrations have been selected, they should
be mounted ready for binding. This is the difficult part, and must be
done with great care.
Take a sheet of strong paper, as nearly as possible the same color and
weight as the paper upon which the book is printed, and cut it the exact
size of the page of the book. Then trim your print close to the work,
being careful to see that the edges are perfectly straight. Cut out from
your sheet of paper a hole exactly the shape of the print, but an eighth
of an inch smaller on all sides. This opening should not be exactly in
the middle of the page, but a little above the middle and a little to the
left, so as to give wider margins at the bottom and on the right. Now gum
or paste the edges of the print on the under side with great care, and
place it over the opening so that it is even on all sides. As there is
a difference of only a sixteenth of an inch on the four sides, it is a
delicate matter to place the print on the mount accurately, but after a
little practice it can be done quite easily and quickly.
After the prints are mounted, they should be pressed until dry. Then
the cover of the book should be carefully removed with the aid of a
sharp knife. Never mind about ruining the blank pages or fly-leaves, for
they will be replaced by the binder when he puts the cover on again;
but care should be taken to avoid cutting or tearing any of the printed
pages. When the cover is removed, it will be found that the book is put
together in sections laid one on top of another. These sections consist
of sixteen or some other number of pages each, and a section is known in
a printing-office as a “signature.” The threads that sew the book should
be cut, and the signatures should be carefully separated from each other.
Then the mounted prints should be laid in as nearly as possible opposite
the incidents they illustrate. The prints should always be inserted face
up, and the sidewise full pages with the bottom of the picture towards
either the outside or inside margin of the book. Now your book is ready
for the binder. Perhaps your extra-illustration has been so extensive as
to increase the bulk of the book so much that the original cover will not
go on again, and perhaps enough has been added to make the one volume
into two, in which case your binder can supply you with simple covers at
a very slight expense.
Books of travel, or stories of hunting, fishing, etc., may be beautifully
illustrated by photographs. Unmounted prints are to be desired, although
it is possible to take prints off mounts by a liberal soaking in warm
water. The soft-finished photographs, such as bromide and platinum
prints, are vastly better than the shiny albumen prints.
Photographs should be mounted in the same way as other prints, except
that no openings are to be made in the mounts. The prints should be
pasted on flat and pressed until dry. Albumen prints have a tendency to
curl up, and it will require a pretty stiff paper to keep them flat.
This is one of the reasons why platinum or bromide prints are so much
better. When albumen prints are used they must be mounted wet, and
should afterwards be burnished, which can be done by any professional
photographer. An amateur photographer can have the fun in many cases of
making the pictures himself for the book he wants to extra-illustrate,
and the finished work will have an added interest and value to him.
The use of photographs, especially if many are included, will greatly
increase the thickness of a book, and it will generally be found
advisable to have the binder make it into two volumes of equal size.
A Circulating Library
In a small town, or in a residential section of a city where most of the
young people are acquainted with one another, a circulating library may
be formed at a nominal cost. This can be done in two ways: the first plan
is for the members to contribute the books—from one to ten volumes—as may
be agreed upon. Many people hesitate to lend books, because they “fly
off and never come home to roost,” but by the circulating-library system
law and order can be maintained. One of the most successful libraries of
this kind was carried on for a number of years in a New York town. The
young people, in due time, became married men and women, but through the
association of the library they continued to hold together like a great
big family.
A regular set of by-laws were established and lived up to. Books could be
drawn each week, on a day set for this purpose. A librarian was selected,
and in his house the bookcase was located. There were three locks on the
case. The key of one was held by the librarian, another by the president,
and the third by the secretary and treasurer. Regular dues were assessed
on each member—twelve cents a year at first; then fifty-two cents, and
finally one dollar. Books kept over two weeks were charged for at the
rate of one cent a week, doubling each week for four weeks. This fine
made it imperative for the subscribers to return books at the end of
three weeks or suffer a heavy penalty.
Another popular scheme was carried out by the children in the Glenwood
section of Greater New York. They held a fair some years ago, and made
quite a little money. They then purchased paper-covered books by good
authors and rebound them in cloth. A bookcase was constructed that held
over one hundred volumes, and the same co-operative plan was inaugurated
that has just been described.
Chapter XIV
MAGIC LANTERNS AND STEREOPTICONS
Boys who have cameras, and who have made good collections of views,
portraits, and other interesting pictures, may find a great deal of
pleasure in entertaining friends with stereopticon exhibitions of
their work. The necessary plates and materials may be purchased at
any camera or photographic supply store, and with a little patient
practice excellent lantern slides may be made. A good magic lantern or
stereopticon is a luxury, but for the ambitious boy there is a way to
make one at home with but little outlay of money beyond the cost of the
lenses and lamp.
A Home-made Magic Lantern
A box, some thin boards, an ordinary central-draught or duplex-burner
lamp, a reflector, some nails and screws, a pair of condensing-lenses,
and a projector are the materials necessary.
Make a box of half-inch wood, twelve inches long, eleven inches high,
and seven inches wide, outside measure. Cut a round hole four and
three-fourths inches in diameter at the front of the box, the middle of
the hole being eight inches above the inside bottom. Make a door at the
back of the box, and fasten a reflector just opposite this hole.
Cut a hole in the top of the box for a lamp-chimney to come through. Nail
a piece of half-inch wood eight inches long to the front of the box three
inches from the bottom (see Fig. 1). We will call this the deck. Fasten a
piece of wood fourteen inches long and four inches wide on either side of
the box and deck-piece (see Fig. 2). Perforate the bottom of the box with
holes half an inch in diameter, to afford the necessary draught to the
lamp. Elevate the box on two cross-sticks an inch wide (see Fig. 2 B B).
[Illustration: FIG. 1. FIG. 2. FIG. 3. FIG. 4. FIG. 5. FIG. 6. FIG. 7.]
From an optician or camera supply house obtain a pair of four-inch
condensers mounted in a brass barrel, and a quarter-size projector with
a rack and pinion. Mount the condensers in the hole in front of the box,
supported by means of a block (Fig. 3), fastened on the inside front of
the box (see Fig. 4).
In order to adapt the focus of the lenses according to the distance the
lantern is from the screen, a sliding front is necessary (see Fig. 5).
Cut a base-block scant seven inches wide and six inches long, fastening
to it, three and one-half inches from the front, an upright piece of wood
high enough to be even with the top of the lantern-box. When the base is
resting on the deck in front of the box two small angle-brackets will
steady the upright and make it rigid (see Fig. 5). Cut a hole in this
upright board so that the centre of the projector mounted in it lines
exactly with the centre of the condensing-lenses. This is an important
point; if the lenses are not carefully mounted opposite one another the
picture will not be clear. Now fit a piece of wood one-fourth of an inch
in front of the main box, fastening it at the top with a strip of tin.
There must be a hole three inches square cut in this board, the middle
of which must line with the centre of condensing-lens. In the opening
between this board and the box slip a thin piece of board for the slides
to rest on. Set a double-wick lamp or central-draught burner within the
box at the proper height, so that the brightest part of the flame will be
in direct line with the centre of the reflector and the condensing-lenses.
The principle of the magic lantern is the reflection of the light through
the condensing-lenses, which pick up all the light possible and throw it
through the slide, which is located directly in front of it. The light
is then taken up by the projector, and the pencils of light are thrown
onto the screen, at the same time magnifying the picture. This principle
is shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 6, which show also the relative
position of the lamp, lenses, and reflector.
To keep in the light that would escape through the top opening in the
box, put a piece of common stove-pipe (small) over the lamp-chimney. Cut
a cap from a piece of tin (Fig. 7 A), the ears extending down inside the
chimney to hold the cap in place, when the cap-piece is bent in a half
circle as shown at Fig. 7 B.
To cover the space between the lantern-top and the moving front board a
piece of black cloth can be used. Or if you have an old camera-bellows it
may be made fast to the back of the projector-lens board and to the front
of the slide-board located close to the box. It is not necessary to have
an absolutely light-tight bellows; indeed, a very good one can be made
from some wire hoops with black cloth sewed to them.
In Fig. 8 the wire hoops are shown, and in Fig. 9 the finished bellows,
with the cloth stitched in place, is ready to be attached to the boards
with small tacks or staples.
When all the parts are assembled, and the lantern is complete (except the
bellows, which has been omitted so that the working parts may be more
clearly shown), the lantern will appear as in Fig. 10.
A Stereopticon
The cost of a good stereopticon will range from twenty-five to
seventy-five dollars, and that sum places it beyond reach of the average
boy. The following instructions and illustrations will enable any smart
boy, who is handy with tools and light materials, to make a high-grade
stereopticon with lamp and mechanism that is capable of doing really good
work.
[Illustration: FIG. 8. FIG. 9. FIG. 10.]
The materials needed for its construction will be some sheet Russia
iron, thin mahogany or cherry boards three-eighths of an inch in
thickness and six inches wide, some round-headed brass screws, small
hinges, a camera-bellows, and the necessary lenses and lamp. The tools
include a light pair of metal shears, a fine-tooth saw and a compass-saw,
a small hammer, plane, and screw-driver, and a light cold-chisel.
To begin with, obtain a board twenty inches long, six inches wide, and
three-eighths of an inch in thickness to serve as the base-board. Treat
this board to several successive thin coats of shellac, and rub down the
last coat with fine sand-paper to give it a smooth surface. Cut another
piece six inches wide, eight and one-eighth inches long, and in it make
a round hole about four and a half inches in diameter, through which the
case that contains the condenser-lenses may pass and fit snugly. This
board is to be placed nine inches from one end of the base-board, and
fastened to it in a standing position with long, slim screws driven into
the lower end through the underside of the base-board. Fig. 11 shows the
arrangement of these boards, also the runners and sheet-iron hood.
From a sheet of Russia iron cut a piece nine and a half inches wide and
twenty-three inches long, and have a tinsmith roll one edge over a piece
of wire so as to stiffen it. With a rule and piece of chalk divide and
mark off the sheet into three divisions, the end ones measuring eight and
a half by nine inches and the middle one six by nine inches.
[Illustration: CONSTRUCTION OF THE STEREOPTICON
FIG. 11. FIG. 12. FIG. 13. FIG. 14 A. FIG. 14 B.]
Lay the sheet on a board at the edge of a table so that a chalked line is
directly over the sharp edge, and, holding it down firmly with one hand,
bend the iron down with the other, forming a right angle. Bend the iron
on the remaining line in a similar manner, and the hood is formed.
In the top of this hood, at the middle, mark off an oblong two inches
wide and six inches long; then cut out the piece of iron with a
cold-chisel and a hammer, laying the sheet-iron on the upturned surface
of an old flat-iron. File or emery-paper the edges of the opening to
render them smooth, then cut an opening in one side, three and a half
inches high by four inches long, for a door.
Through the top hole a lamp-chimney may project that the surplus heat may
be carried upward. For the side opening a sheet-iron door should be made
and hung in place with small brass hinges, and a brass lever catch to
keep it closed.
This catch is a simple little affair, and consists of a thin piece of
spring brass, in one end of which a hole has been made, while at the
other a little knob handle is riveted. One end is attached to the door,
and to the hood beside the door a catch of thin brass is riveted fast,
into which the lever catch can drop.
To stiffen the door, the edges should be bound with narrow brass strips,
securely fastened with small rivets, or escutcheon pins, that can be
adapted as rivets by cutting them to the required length.
Two runners half an inch wide and three-eighths of an inch in thickness
are to be screwed fast to the uncovered top of the base-board, four and
a half inches apart, as shown in Fig. 11. From sheet-iron cut two strips
half an inch in width and ten inches long, and fasten a piece to the top
of each runner, using the same screens to hold them in place that secure
the runners to the base-board. One-eighth of an inch of each strip will
project over the inner edges of the runners, as shown in Fig. 12, and
this edge will serve to hold the wooden slide-holder and objective-lens
board in the proper position on the base-board.
Make a sheet-iron door six inches wide and seven inches high, with the
edges rolled over a wire to stiffen them, and in the bottom of the door,
at the centre, cut an opening half an inch wide and two inches high.
This will allow the door to be closed over a gas-pipe that may project
for a short distance from the rear of the enclosure. Attach this door to
the back of the hood with two small hinges riveted at the top, as shown
in Fig. 13, and across the under side of the base-board, and two inches
from either end, screw battens of wood in which pins have been set. These
battens will raise the lantern up from a table or box on which it may
rest, and allow a draught to pass up through holes made in the base-board
inside the enclosure formed by the iron hood. These draught-holes will
be necessary for either oil or gas light, and they can be bored about as
shown in Fig. 13.
Two small wooden runners must be fastened to the base inside the
enclosure, a distance of four and a half inches apart, and between them a
lamp or gas-jet tray will slide.
From the thin mahogany cut three pieces four and a half inches wide and
seven inches long. In the middle of these, and four inches from one end,
make a centre dot, and with a compass-saw cut a hole in one of them three
and a half inches in diameter, and in another cut a hole three and a half
inches square.
In the third board make a hole the diameter of the objective lens; then
with screws and glue fasten the first two boards together, as shown
in Fig. 14 A, so that a space of three-quarters of an inch will remain
between them. The height of this opening should be four and a quarter
inches, and the holes in the middle of the boards should be centred.
These two boards and separation blocks are to be fastened in an upright
position to a narrow piece of three-eighth-inch board the same length as
the width of the upright boards, as shown in Fig. 14 A; and at the outer
edges a saw-cut at the joint will allow this frame to slide back and
forth between the runners, so that the iron edge may fit in the saw-cut.
To the inside of the front board two springs should be attached with
screws at one end of each; these springs may be shaped from corset
steels, and they should be bent in a curved position, as shown at
the lower end of the opening in Fig. 14 A. Their use is to hold
the slide-carrier back against the rear board and firmly in place.
Slide-carriers may be purchased at an optical supply house, and they
are made in several shapes; the most convenient ones, however, are the
sliding wooden holders that accommodate two slides.
The remaining board is to be mounted on a block and held in place by two
angle strips, as shown in Fig. 14 B; and to enable it to slide between
the runners it should receive saw-cuts also. Procure a camera-bellows
four inches square, or in its absence employ a piece of black silk
or gossamer cloth, and attach it to the frames, as shown in Fig. 16,
with small curtain tacks and glue. Having mounted these boards on the
base-board between the runners, the box is then ready to receive the
lenses and lamp.
From a manufacturer of optical goods purchase a pair of
four-and-a-half-inch diameter condensing-lenses mounted in a tube, and a
quarter-size four-inch back-focus double-objective lens mounted in a tube
with rack and pinion adjustment.
[Illustration: FIG. 15. FIG. 16.]
The condenser-lenses should occupy the hole in the front of the box,
where the tube can be firmly held in place by the inside edge of the
hole. The objective lenses are to be attached to the face of the front
board in the position shown in Fig. 16; and by means of the sliding-board
and bellows the lenses can be adjusted to meet any short-focus
range—that is, a distance of fifteen or twenty feet from the sheet on
which the picture is thrown.
For use in small rooms a duplex-burner, or central-draught lamp, can be
used, and a plan showing the position of lamp, reflector, and lenses is
shown in Fig. 15.
A represents the reflector placed behind a lamp having duplex wicks. The
centre of the reflector should be directly in line with the centre of
the lenses, and the lamp must be placed so that a portion of the flame,
three-quarters of an inch above the top of the wicks, will line with
centre of reflector and lenses. The light is brightest in oil-lamps, from
three-quarters to an inch above the wicks, and, as only a small portion
of the light is of use, the most brilliant part of the flame should be
employed for projection through the slide and lenses.
B B are the wicks of the lamp, and the fount should be placed so that an
imaginary line drawn through the centre of reflector and lenses would
pass through the forward edge of one wick and the rear edge of the other.
By arranging the wicks at the angle shown on the plan, the greatest
advantage can be had from the light.
The positions of the condensing-lenses are shown at C C, and D represents
a slide in position at the front of them. E E gives the position of
the objective lenses, and the dotted lines F, G, and H, drawn from the
reflector edges crossing at the light, passing through the condensers
and slides, and out through the objective lenses, show the manner in
which the rays of light are collected and thrown through the transparent
picture and lenses, and so on through space, until it rests against the
large sheet.
To complete the stereopticon an oval chimney is to be made, and fitted
with a flange so that it may be held to the top of the iron hood with
four little iron buttons or lap-hooks riveted to the top of the hood.
This chimney should be four inches long by two inches wide at the bottom,
and one and a half inches square at the top, and eight or ten inches
high. At the top arrange a light-cap about as shown in Fig. 16, so that
the light from the lamp or gas-jet will not throw rays up against the
wall and weaken the picture on the sheet.
Precaution must be taken to stop out all surplus light other than that
projected through the lenses, since the useless rays tend to weaken
the round disk of light on the screen, and render the picture weak and
neutral in tone, instead of sharp and vigorous. The wood-work should
be given two or three coats of shellac, and the iron parts should be
blackened.
Dissolving views cannot be shown in a single lantern, but if two lanterns
are fitted with the same kind of lenses, and placed side by side, so that
the disks on the sheet are uniform in diameter, it will then be possible
to obtain some very beautiful dissolving effects.
Lantern Slides by Contact-printing
Many amateurs have an idea that it requires a great deal of skill to
make lantern slides, but any one who can produce a good negative can
soon learn how to make a good lantern slide. The simplest way is by
contact-printing.
Select a negative free from spots, scratches, or pinholes. It must have
fine detail in the shadows, and no harsh contrasts of light and shade.
The regulation size of a lantern slide is 3¼ × 4 inches, so choose a
negative which will still make a good picture if all but the portion
included in these dimensions is blocked out. Cover the part of the
negative which is to be blocked out with black needle-paper, or paint it
with non-actinic paint, applying it to the glass side of the negative.
The negative is placed in a printing-frame, and then by means of a red
light the slide-plate is placed over the part to be printed from, the
film side towards the negative.
If one has a lantern, the light of which is suitable for printing slides,
cover the negative, open the door of the lantern, and then, holding the
printing-frame about fifteen inches from the light, expose from five
to twenty seconds, according to the density of the plate. A plate that
prints quickly will need but five or eight seconds, but a denser plate
will require a much longer exposure, often as long as thirty seconds.
Cover the plate as soon as it is printed, close the lantern, remove the
slide from the frame, and place it face up in the developing-tray. Turn
the developer over it quickly, taking care that the whole surface of the
plate is covered immediately. Any developer that makes good negatives
will make good lantern slides. A weak developer is to be preferred to one
which brings out the image quickly. Develop till the detail is well out;
wash and fix same as a negative.
As every imperfection in a plate is magnified many times when thrown upon
the screen, great care must be taken in the developing, fixing, washing,
and drying. When the slides are washed, take a piece of clean surgeon’s
cotton and wipe the film very gently, then place to dry where no dust
will settle on the surface.
If there are any spots on the plate after washing and before drying,
they may be removed with ferricyanide of potassium in solution. Tie a
small piece of surgeon’s cotton to the end of a glass rod, dip it into
the solution, and touch the spot very lightly. Rinse the plate at once,
and if the spot has not entirely disappeared repeat the operation. The
ferricyanide works very quickly, and must be rinsed off as soon as
applied.
Lantern Slides by Reduction
If your negatives are larger than 3½ × 3½, and it is desired to get the
entire picture on the slide, then the reduction process will have to
be resorted to. For this work you can use your camera if it has a long
bellows, and the work should be done in a room where a window is towards
the north.
Obtain a piece of board five feet long and ten or twelve inches wide,
and at one end of it erect the negative-board, as shown at Fig. 17. The
negative-board or holder should be twelve or fifteen inches square, with
an 8 × 10 rabbeted hole at the middle of it, and supported with two
brackets, as shown at Fig. 17 B. Kits can be made or purchased to fit in
the opening reducing to 6½ × 8½, 5 × 8, 5 × 7, 4¼ × 6½, 4 × 5, and 3¼ ×
4¼. With this range of sizes any negative from 3¼ × 4¼ to 8 × 10 can be
held in the board. Now arrange two strips of wood at each edge of the
long base-board, so that the camera can slide forward and backward on a
platform built to support it, as shown at Fig. 17 D.
The camera should be made fast to this moving platform with wood cleats
and screws, and it should be mounted high enough so that the centre of
the lens will be exactly on a line with the centre of the opening in
the upright board, as shown by the dotted line in Fig. 17. At the upper
corners of the plate-board arrange slim, steel-wire nails with the heads
cut off, and bore holes near the ends of sticks three-quarters of an inch
square so that they will fit down over the nails, as shown at Fig. 17 E.
The other ends of the sticks should rest on the top of the camera. Over
these sticks a dark cloth should be thrown when making photographs of
negatives, to keep out light and prevent the high light from the window
affecting the action of the lens.
To make a reduction of a large negative, fill the plate-holders with
3¼ × 4 lantern-slide plates, having obtained kits to fit your holders;
then clamp a negative upside down on the board, as shown at A. Mark the
lantern-slide size with a lead-pencil on the ground glass of your camera,
taking care to centre it; then move your camera forward or backward and
operate the bellows until the correct size has been obtained. Focus as
sharp as you can; then stop down your lens with the smallest diaphragm.
Experience will dictate the proper length of time for exposures. No
definite rule can be laid down, for the varying conditions of light,
rapidity of plate, and state of the weather—all will have to be taken
into consideration.
[Illustration: FIG. 17. FIG. 18. FIG. 19. FIG. 20. FIG. 21. FIG. 22.
FIG. 23.]
Lantern slides made by reduction are always sharper and better than
contact slides, and whenever possible they should be made after this
fashion, even from films which may be held flat between two plates of
clear glass. A piece of white tissue-paper should be pinned against the
window towards which the camera points, so that a blank white light will
be beyond the negative, thereby avoiding the possibility of picking up
any false lights or shadows.
Lantern slides should always be masked, so that the actual sight-opening
through which the lantern-light is projected will be two and
three-quarters inches wide and two and a half inches high. A mask form
can be purchased or made from sheet-brass. The opening and the other
dimensions should be of the same size as the lantern-slide plate, or 3¼ ×
4 inches. The masks should be cut from black needle-paper with a rotary
cutter, having first prepared a number of the blanks of the proper size;
then the openings can be cut as shown in Fig. 18. A smaller mask for the
central part of slides can be made two inches wide and two and a half
inches high, as shown in Fig. 19, and for portraits an oval mask is the
best (see Fig. 20). Covering-glasses or crystals are necessary in making
slides. Old lantern slides can be cleaned and used for this purpose, or
some very thin, white glass may be cut into 3¼ × 4-inch plates.
To mount slides lay a mask against the film-side of the plate, or
positive, and over this place a clean, clear covering-glass, as shown
at Fig. 21. With binding-tape (which comes in white and black) first
bind one edge, as shown at Fig. 22, arranging the paper tape so that an
equal margin will be visible on both sides. Bind the opposite edge, and
then cut away the projecting ends of the binding. Proceed to close the
short ends in a similar manner, and as a result you will have a finished
slide, as shown in Fig. 23. Some slide-makers begin at one corner and
run a strip of binding all around the edge without cutting it. This is
a little difficult to do at first, but if you have a clamp that has a
compression-screw and will turn on its axle, it simplifies matters
greatly. Some amateurs prefer black binding-tape, others white. The white
tape with black masks makes a neat-looking slide, and if the margin is
wide enough the title of the picture may be written on it.
Chapter XV
PRINTING, STAMPING, AND EMBOSSING
Every boy, at one time or another, gets an attack of printers’
fever, and then he will not be satisfied until he makes or purchases
a printing-press. There are, of course, many different kinds of
printing-presses. One of the simplest forms is shown in the drawing
of the flat-bed press (Fig. 1), which is very easy to make and to
manipulate. A flat board one and one-half inches thick, twelve inches
wide, and eighteen inches long will form a substantial bed on which to
fasten the frame and pressure-plate. The frame is made of hard-wood
strips seven-eighths of an inch wide and three-fourths of an inch high.
These are glued and screwed fast to the bare board, forming an enclosure
five and one-half by six and one-half inches, and large enough to
accommodate a chase four by five inches. A chase is always measured from
the _inside_. From one-half to five-eighths of an inch all around should
be allowed for the thickness of the metal of which the chase is made.
The pressure-plate is cut from wood one and one-fourth inches thick,
and the same size as the _outside_ measure of the frame attached to the
bed-board. A stout lever fourteen inches long is screwed and glued fast
to the top of this board, which is then attached to the rear strip of
the frame by means of three stout iron hinges, so that when closed down
the pressure-plate will fit closely to the top of the frame.
The type as it is set up in the chase will stand face up in the frame,
and the card to be printed is caught with gauge-pins to the inside of the
pressure-plate, as shown in the drawing. The type, having been inked with
the roller, gives the impression to the card when the pressure-plate is
brought down and held against the type by means of the lever.
The gauge-pins that hold the card in place are made of metal or of
ordinary pins. Several forms of pins are shown at Fig. 2. A is made from
an ordinary pin, while B and C are other forms cut from thin sheet-brass
and then bent into shape with small pliers.
Fig. 3 shows a chase five by seven inches, of cast-iron, which can be
purchased at a printers’ stock house for a nominal price. When the types
are set up they are blocked into position in the chase, and two wedges,
made with bevelled edges to bear against each other, are tapped with a
light hammer on the thick ends, so as to wedge the type in place. These
are called quoins (Fig. 4).
Fig. 5 shows a small proof-roller made of glue and molasses. It may be
purchased at a printers’ shop for a few cents.
A piece of glass or marble will answer very well for an ink-plate or
slab, and after using them both the slab and roller should be thoroughly
cleaned with benzine. The cleaning must be done directly after printing,
else the ink dries on the roller and thus spoils it.
[Illustration: A SIMPLE HAND-PRESS AND ACCESSORIES
FIG. 1. FIG. 2. FIG. 3. FIG. 4. FIG. 5. FIG. 6.]
A composing-stick (Fig. 6) may be made from thin wood three inches wide
and nine inches long, with a sliding jaw (as shown at A) made of thin
wood and caught to the edge with a metal strip loose enough to permit the
jaw to be easily moved back and forth.
The types, being first set up in the composing-stick, are then
transferred to the chase, and clamped in with blocks of wood and quoins.
An Upright Press
The upright press (Fig. 7) is on the same principle as the flat-bed, but
the chase is held in a vertical position, and the back against which it
rests is braced to the base-board. This press can be made a little larger
than the flat-bed, and will accommodate a chase measuring five by seven
inches. At the rear of the sides of the base-board angular cuts must be
made with a saw, and corresponding cuts should be made near the top of
the upright board which supports the chase. With a sharp chisel cut the
wood away between these cuts (Fig. 7). Cut the brace-pins also at each
end (Fig. 8 A). A lap-joint is the result, and when fastened with glue
and screws a firm anchorage and support is obtained for the upright board.
The pressure-plate is of wood one and one-fourth inches thick, and
attached to the strip at the bottom of the upright or chase-board by
means of stout iron hinges. Care must be taken when placing these hinges
to arrange them so accurately that not a fraction of an inch difference
is perceptible at either side or at the top or bottom. Otherwise, uneven
pressure will give unsatisfactory results. A lever is made and attached
to the pressure-plate as described for the flat-bed press, and a block
may be fastened to the base-board for the lever to rest on, as shown in
the drawing.
A Lever-press
A perfect wooden lever-press is shown in the large illustration (Fig. 9),
which is drawn so clearly that only the measurements will be required to
understand its construction.
[Illustration: FIG. 9.]
The base-board of this press is twenty inches long, ten inches wide, and
one and one-fourth inches thick. The upright board against which the
chase rests is ten inches wide, eight inches high, and one and one-fourth
inches thick. The pressure-plate is the same width and thickness, but
is seven inches high, and bevelled at the bottom, as shown in the side
elevation (Fig. 12). The upright board is placed six inches from one end
of the base-board, and is fastened in place with screws that are driven
up from the underside of the base-board, with side-braces let in to the
edges of the boards, as shown in Fig. 8.
The pressure-plate is hinged at the bottom to a piece of wood, which
acts as a platform for the lower edge of the chase to rest on. It is
seven-eighths of an inch thick and two and one-half inches wide. Strips
are glued and screwed at either edge of the upright board to hold the
sides of the chase, and at the top the chase is held with a brass
spring-clip that can be made and screwed to the wood. Four inches from
the pressure-plate base three blocks are arranged to support the lever,
which is connected to the back of the pressure-plate with a tongue of
iron one-fourth of an inch thick, three inches long, and one inch wide
(Fig. 10). Quarter-inch holes are bored at each end just two inches apart
from centre to centre. Two blocks of wood are screwed to the back of the
pressure-plate one fourth of an inch apart, and a quarter-inch hole made
in each, to receive a bolt, which also passes through one hole in the
iron tongue.
The wooden lever is fourteen inches long, one and one-half inches square
at one end, and at the other it is rounded, so as to make it easier on
the hands. The square end is rounded off and cut in with a saw, as shown
in Fig. 11, and one inch in from the end a quarter-inch hole is made.
The blocks that hold the lever are set one and one-half inches apart,
and a bolt passes through the upper end of them and through the lever
near the end of the iron tongue. The hole in the lever through which the
bolt passes is two inches from the end hole, and when spaced properly
the inside of the pressure-plate should be seven-eighths of an inch from
the face of the chase-board when the handle and tongue are in a straight
line, as shown in the side elevation of the press (Fig. 12).
[Illustration: FIG. 7. FIG. 8. FIG. 10. FIG. 11.
FIG. 12. SIDE ELEVATION OF WOODEN LEVER-PRESS]
Metal type, electrotypes, engravings, and printers’ plates are always
made seven-eighths of an inch high. When making a press always bear this
in mind, and if necessary the pressure-plate can always be built up with
hard paper to meet the face of the type if sufficient pressure is not had
at first.
Type, spaces, quads, rule, blocks, ink, and a small roller can be
purchased from any printer if there is not a printers’ stock house in the
town where you live. If the printer is accommodating, he will answer all
your questions about your printing-press, and help you with any details
about which you are uncertain.
Stamping
Stamping, or the process of imprinting without the aid of a hand or
power-press, is as old as the hills. Away back in the early ages the art
of stamping was carried on by means of wooden or stone blocks, on the
face of which characters, letters, and various other signs were engraved.
Patterns or figures in colors were imprinted on fabrics, parchment, and
leathers; and in some of the walls of the ruined houses in Pompeii and
Herculaneum there are found well-preserved examples of the stamper’s art,
where figures of a running pattern are repeated at regular intervals.
Both oil and water-color pigments may be used for stamping; but if the
imprint is to be made on paper or leather, then printers’ ink, diluted
with a small portion of benzine, should be used.
Every boy may have an imprint of his initials cut on wood, and use it in
stamping his papers, school-books, and other property. In the Far East
every prominent merchant has his private signet, and always, when signing
his name to documents, he certifies it with his stamp, which is placed
beside or across the name, as shown in Fig. 13.
In China and Japan these stamps are called “chops,” and are used with a
red, brown, or blue ink-paste, which dries hard and indelible on paper,
leather, or soft wood.
The author’s imprint so interested a wealthy Japanese merchant a few
years ago, that when he returned to Yokohama he had a handsome ivory,
bone, and silver “chop” cut by a good maker in that city, and sent it
over the sea as a souvenir of his visit to this country. Fig. 14 gives
the imprint, and Fig. 15 is a drawing showing the shape of the “chop.”
The body part is of ivory and the inlay of silver, while the cap, which
fits over the engraved die, is of black bone.
Any boy can make a signet of boxwood or maple for stamping paper and
wood. For use on leather he can cut his dies in soft copper, which, when
heated, will burn the imprint in the leather.
In Fig. 16 four ideas for imprints are shown. In B and C the initials are
combined, while A and D are arrangements of scrolls and lines which will
be understood as belonging to a certain person, just as trade-marks are
the known marks of certain manufacturers.
In order to cut a wood-stamp, it will be necessary to have some fine
carving-chisels, a vise, and sand-paper. Maple, boxwood, or other
close-grained wood can be used, and it is best to cut the die on the end
rather than on the side of the wood. Cut your block the size required;
then draw the reverse of the design, as shown at Fig. 15. Cut this as
deep as you need it, so that ink or marking-paste will not clog the low
parts; then, when the face is properly finished, the die will stamp an
impression as shown at Fig. 14. For large dies it will be necessary to
use the wood on the side, as otherwise the blocks would be heavy and hard
to handle. Souvenir books or engrossed memorials may be embellished with
corner ornaments, as well as with capital letters and borders in red,
blue, or gold. Any boy who is interested in this branch of craftsmanship
can get ideas and designs from gift books, calendars, show-cards,
circulars, and the host of illuminated and embellished printed matter
that is in circulation. When making these selections, however, avoid
the commonplace printing-house patterns, and favor those to be found in
the best magazines, art books, and hand-books of ornament such as are
shown in Fig. 17, the several parts of which are a miscellaneous lot of
ornaments and letters that can be easily copied by the young die-cutter.
[Illustration: FIG. 13. FIG. 14. FIG. 15. FIG. 16. FIG. 17. FIG. 18.]
Diluted printers’ ink is excellent for stamping, and when used it should
be spread on a cloth stretched over several thicknesses of flannel and
cotton cloth and made in the form of a pad, as shown at Fig. 18. This is
a block of wood over which the thicknesses of fabric are laid, the top
layer being drawn over the edge and tacked underneath. This block is then
placed in a flat box of wood with a hinged cover, so that the pad may be
kept enclosed when not in use, and so prevent the ink from drying out.
After using the pad a cloth wet with benzine should be laid over the pad;
then the lid should be closed and hooked down.
Embossing
In embossing the ornament is raised in low relief, and so lends a rich
effect to paper, card, leather, or other ductile material. Embossing
is generally done under heavy pressure, and with moisture or heat to
facilitate the work. Papers, thin leathers, and some fabrics can be
treated in this manner by the boy craftsman after he has mastered the
art of making dies. The mode of making bas-reliefs was fully explained
in Chapter XI, and for embossing a very low relief is necessary, since
otherwise the paper would split or break away on the raised parts. After
a well-modelled ornament is obtained, it will be necessary to make a hard
casting from it in plaster, and then a casting from this, so that for the
work you will have a sharp, clear bas-relief and an intaglio—one the
expressed design and the other impressed. Make these of hard plaster, and
give their surfaces a coat or two of shellac.
To press a piece of paper or leather, dampen it on both sides with a
sponge or wet cloth, and heat the dies in an oven. Place the paper over
the bas-relief, cover with the intaglio, and apply pressure. Or place
some weight on top of the dies and leave them there for half an hour.
On removing the paper you will find a perfect bas-relief which, when
thoroughly dry, will hold its shape. Book, card, and mounted leather-work
is treated in a hot press, but only for a second or two—just enough to
drive the dies together, heat the material, and cause it to hold its
shape.
Part IV
ROUND ABOUT THE HOUSE