CHAPTER XVII

ROADS AND TRANSPORTATION

STUDIES OF THE OFFICE OF PUBLIC ROADS

During the years 1910-1915 the Office of Public Roads of the

United States Department of Agriculture made a continuous study,

year by year, of the methods and results of road improvement in

eight selected counties of the United States. [Footnote:

Spotsylvania, Dinwiddie, Lee, and Wise counties in Virginia;

Franklyn County in New York; Dallas County in Alabama; Lauderdale

County in Mississippi; and Manatee County in Florida.] The results

of the investigation are described in Bulletin No. 393 (1916) of

the Department of Agriculture, which is worth sending for and

studying by any school that is interested in the improvement of

the community.

SPOTSYLVANIA COUNTY, VA

One of these counties was Spotsylvania County, Virginia, a map of

which is shown on the opposite page. Since the Civil War the

farmland in this county had gradually declined from its prosperous

condition before the war until it was little better than a

wilderness of second-growth timber, valued at from $5 to $15 an

acre. For many months of the year the roads were well-nigh

impassable. There was much wealth in timber, but it could not be

marketed to advantage. The soil was very little cultivated. More

farm products were shipped into Fredericksburg, the only city in

the county, by rail from outside than were shipped out from the

farms of the county.

MOVEMENT FOR ROAD IMPROVEMENT

Nearly one third of the population of the county lived in

Fredericksburg; but under the law of the state of Virginia the

people of the city could not be taxed for county purposes outside

of the city. Moreover, two of the four districts of the county at

first took little interest in the matter of road improvement,

although they had to use the roads in going to market at

Fredericksburg. Courtland and Chancellor districts, however, were

determined to have better roads, and voted to raise the necessary

money by selling bonds to the amount of $100,000. Three years

later the other two districts, inspired by the success of

Courtland and Chancellor districts, also voted bonds for road

improvement to the amount of $73,000. This debt would of course

have to be paid off by levying taxes upon the people of the

districts. With a tax rate of $1.70 on every hundred dollars'

worth of property, a farmer with a farm assessed at $3000 would

pay a total tax of $51, of which $19.48 would be for the roads.

COST MUST BE JUSTIFIED

It is not always easy to convince the people of a community that

it is worth while to spend so much money on their roads. They have

to be shown that the expenditure will in due time pay for itself,

as well as add to the convenience and pleasure of the community.

Too much money spent in costly improvements on roads that are

little used, or in construction that does not stand the traffic

and soon wears out, is of course a bad investment. But the results

in Spotsylvania County, as well as in the seven other counties

studied by the Office of Public Roads, justified the cost.

STATE AND LOCAL COOPERATION

The law of Virginia provided that all highway construction in the

state must be supervised by the STATE HIGHWAY COMMISSIONER. He

accordingly appointed an engineer to supervise the work in

Spotsylvania County, the engineer's salary being paid by the

state. The work of construction, however, was under the direction

of a COUNTY BOARD OF PUBLIC ROADS. The board appointed a

superintendent who hired all labor and teams and purchased all

equipment and materials. Three main highways in Courtland and

Chancellor districts, and leading into Fredericksburg, were chosen

for improvement. Within two years more than forty miles of road

were completed, or about 10 per cent of all the roads in the

entire county.

MONEY FOR REPAIRS

Roads have to be kept in repair after they are constructed. By

1914 money was needed for this purpose. The farmers objected to

further increase of the tax rate, so it was decided to charge

TOLLS for the use of the improved highways--5 cents for a single

horse and vehicle, 10 cents for two horses and a buggy, 15 cents

for two horses and a wagon, 25 cents for four horses and a wagon,

and from 20 cents to 35 cents for automobiles. More money than was

needed was raised in this way in the first month, and the tolls

were therefore reduced one half. One advantage to the county of

the toll system was that automobilists and others from other

districts, counties, and states would contribute to the upkeep of

the roads.

EFFECT OF IMPROVEMENTS ON LAND VALUES

On the roads selected for improvement there were 35 farms

including 5518 acres. In 1910, the average value of these farms,

including buildings, was $14 per acre, and seldom did any one want

to buy land in the neighborhood. But within two years after the

road improvement seven of the 35 farms had been sold, and a large

part of another, as shown in the following:

In the next two or three years a number of other farms were sold

at similar increased prices, and some farms that had been

abandoned were reoccupied. Large areas of land were cultivated for

the first time since the Civil War. The farmers were, however,

most interested for the time being in their timber wealth, and

between 1909 and 1913 the shipments of forest products from

Fredericksburg increased 78.2 per cent.

THE AVERAGE HAUL

Before the improvement of the roads, the average weight of load

for a two-horse team in the winter and spring, when the roads were

bad, was about 1200 pounds; when the roads were dry, about 2400

pounds. The cost for hauling at this rate averaged, for the year

round, about 30 cents per ton per mile. After the roads were

improved, the average load the year round was 4000 pounds, and the

cost for hauling only 15 cents per ton per mile.

Investigate and report on:

Results of road improvement in others of the eight counties

referred to on page 248 (see Bulletin 393, 1916, Department of

Agriculture).

Procure or make a map of your county showing road improvement. Is

your county well provided with improved roads?

Do the cities and towns in your county contribute to the

improvement of the country roads?

Do the people of the rural districts of your county contribute to

the improvement of the streets of the cities and towns?

Bond issues in your county for road improvement. Meaning of "bond

issues."

Tax rate in your county for road improvement.

How is road improvement managed in your county?

What help does your county get from your state for road

improvement?

What supervision does your state exercise over road improvement?

Are there toll roads in your county or state?

Toll roads were once common in this country. Why have tolls been

generally abandoned?

Who has charge of bridge construction in your county?

From what sources does the money come for road repair in your

county?

What is the cost of hauling on the roads of your county? How does

this cost compare with the cost in neighboring counties and

states?

Relation of land values in your county to the character of the

roads.

MONEY VALUE OF GOOD ROADS

Good roads pay, in dollars and cents, provided they are made of

suitable materials and with due regard to the kind and amount of

traffic they are to carry. They permit of larger loads, and more

loads in a given time; they save wear and tear on horses, harness,

wagons, and automobiles; in the case of automobiles they save

gasoline; they save the time of the farmer; they make possible a

more varied agriculture by making marketing easier; they add to

the value of the land.

GOOD ROADS AND COMMUNITY LIFE

But good roads pay in many other ways than in dollars and cents.

In Spotsylvania County, as in other counties investigated at the

same time, the improvement of the roads was followed by a decided

improvement in school attendance. In more than one case it led to

the improvement of the quality of the schools by the consolidation

of a number of poor, one-room schoolhouses into a single larger

school with better equipment and better teachers (see Chapter

XIX). The relation between good roads and good schools is clearly

suggested in one of the illustrations in this chapter. So, also,

good roads increase the ease with which the people of the

community may associate with one another, attend church or

community meetings at the schoolhouse, and enjoy the social life

and entertainment of the neighboring city or village. When the

road is improved, the farmers along the way are more likely to

keep the weeds cut, to repair broken fences or build new ones, and

otherwise to beautify the adjoining premises, which adds both to

the money value of property and to the enjoyment of life.

ROAD MAKING A COOPERATIVE ENTERPRISE

Road making is necessarily a cooperative enterprise. In the first

place, a public road serves the common interest of the entire

community. The community may, through its government, exercise the

RIGHT OF EMINENT DOMAIN, taking land from adjacent farms for the

purpose of laying out a new road, provided, of course, that the

farmers are paid for it. In the second place, the making of a road

is far too costly and difficult for an individual farmer to

undertake for the benefit he himself would derive from it. It

requires a great deal of labor and a high degree of technical

skill.

ROAD MAKING A JOB FOR EXPERTS

It has been quite common for farmers themselves to work on the

roads of their locality--"working out" their road taxes. But roads

so made are seldom very good, unless the work is supervised by

someone trained in the business. Whether a farmer works on the

roads himself or merely pays for having it done, it is to his

advantage to know something about road making. The Department of

Agriculture and the state agricultural colleges now give extension

courses in road making for the benefit of the farmers. It is

reported that in one county of Oklahoma the pupils of forty

different school districts have built more than forty miles of

good roads, of course working under supervision.

VALUE OF COUNTRY ROADS TO CITIES

Good country roads are of the greatest importance, not only to the

farmers and rural communities, but also to the people of cities.

The road improvement in Spotsylvania County, Virginia, was of as

much benefit to the people and the business of Fredericksburg as

to the farmers. An excellent illustration of the recognition of

the common interest of city and country in the public roads, and

of effective cooperation in improving them, was given in Chapter

III, page 32, in the case of Christian County, Kentucky. The wide

use of the automobile has done a great deal to awaken the people

of cities to their interest in country roads, and associations and

journals devoted to the interests of automobilists have been

active in advocating the improvement of the public highways.

GOOD ROADS NOT MERELY OF LOCAL CONCERN

In Spotsylvania County we saw, also, that the improvement of roads

in two districts was a direct advantage to the farmers of the

other two districts. Carrying this idea further, we shall see that

the roads of one county may be of the greatest importance to other

counties in the state; and those of one state of importance to

other states. The crossties produced from the timber of

Spotsylvania County may be wanted for railroad building in a

distant state. The cotton from the plantations of Tennessee or

Texas is needed at the mills in New England. The wheat of the

great farms of the northwest supplies the whole nation. Most of

the freight carried on the railroads and steamships has at some

time and in some form been hauled in wagons and trucks over

country roads. It is clear, then, that the character of the

highways in any locality is a matter of national interest, and

even of world-wide interest.

EARLY NATIONAL INTEREST IN ROAD BUILDING

When our nation was created, the question of highways at once

became very important. The states needed to be bound together, and

the public lands must be settled. The Constitution gave Congress

the power "to establish post offices and post roads," and "to

regulate commerce ... among the several states"; but it was not

clear how far these powers could be exercised for "internal

improvements." Roads and canals were proposed in great numbers. In

1806 Congress authorized the building of the Cumberland Road,

which began at Cumberland, Md., and was finally completed as far

west as Illinois. Road building was, however, left chiefly to the

states and to private enterprise. The Cumberland Road finally

passed under the control of the states through which it ran, and

by them was given into the management of the counties. Many

"turnpikes" were built by private companies, which charged tolls

for their use.

POOR ROADS IN THE UNITED STATES

The building of many canals and, later, the coming of railroads

caused interest in public highways to decline, and their building

was left almost wholly to local initiative, where it remained

until very recently. The result is that the United States has had

the poorest roads in the civilized world. Under local management

the cost of public roads fell chiefly upon the farmers, cities

escaping taxation for this purpose, except for their own streets.

A road running across a state might be well kept in some

localities while allowed to run down in others. A community was

reluctant to spend money on a highway only to have the

improvements destroyed by through traffic from neighboring

communities who had no responsibility for maintaining the road.

Local communities could not afford to employ expert officials to

plan and supervise road construction.

STATE CONTROL OF HIGHWAYS

Under these conditions the road situation became so bad that

public sentiment was gradually aroused on the subject, and it was

seen that a road was of more than merely local importance. State

control was agitated. New Jersey was the first state to pass a law

placing the highways within the state under state regulation. This

was in 1891. Other states followed New Jersey's example, until by

1914 forty-two states had state highway departments. These differ

greatly from one another in organization, powers, and efficiency.

Unfortunately, "political influence" has entered into road

building and management in many states in such a way as to

interfere with efficiency;--that is, those in charge of roads have

often been chosen for political reasons rather than for their

fitness for the work, and large sums of money have been spent

unwisely, if not dishonestly in some cases.

RECENT PROGRESS UNDER STATE CONTROL

In a number of states, STATE HIGHWAYS have been built. These are

wholly state enterprises, paid for and managed by the state.

California has two trunk lines running the entire length of the

state, with branch lines connecting them with the county seats. To

January 1, 1914, Massachusetts had completed more than 1000 miles

of state highways. New York has an extensive system, and Maryland

is another example. But the plan most commonly in use is state aid

and supervision in the construction of roads by counties. This was

the New Jersey plan of 1891. By it, plans for road improvement

with state aid in any county must be approved by the state highway

department, and construction is supervised by state engineers. The

cost is divided between the state and the local community.

In New Jersey the property owners along the highway, who of course

are most directly benefited, were to pay one-tenth of the cost,

the state one-third, and the county the remainder. In Wisconsin,

the board of county commissioners in each county is required to

plan a "county system" of highways to be a part of the state

system. The cost of each county system is divided equally among

township, county, and state. The work is directed by a county

highway commissioner, but in accordance with plans and

specifications of the state highway commission. In Ohio, a system

of "intercounty highways" is being built, connecting all the

county seats of the state. Counties, towns, and property owners

along the highway must provide an amount equal to that provided by

the state, and the work is under the direction of the state

highway department.

In Virginia the cost of highway construction is divided equally

between state and local communities; but the counties often accept

from the state the labor of prison convicts instead of money.

Convict labor on the roads is quite common in southern states.

The money for state aid in highway building is commonly raised by

the sale of bonds by the state. For the maintenance of the roads

after they are built, the proceeds from automobile licenses are

applied.

Our roads, even in remote rural districts, are of national

importance for the reasons stated on page 259. Moreover, they are

becoming more and more used for the transportation of freight and

passengers over long distances, for which the introduction of the

automobile and the motor truck is responsible. Therefore, national

cooperation is necessary for adequate road improvement.

WORK OF THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT FOR ROAD IMPROVEMENT

The work of the national government on behalf of good roads has

heretofore been largely educational and advisory. In 1893 the

Office of Road Inquiry (now the Office of Public Roads) was

created in the United States Department of Agriculture to

investigate methods of road making and management. The results of

its investigations have been published for the benefit of the

country. Advice was given when asked for. Instruction was given

through extension courses (p. 257). Here and there model or

experimental roads were constructed to test new methods or to

serve as object lessons to the localities where they were built.

Good road building has also been greatly stimulated by the

extension of the rural free mail delivery, routes not being

established unless the roads are in reasonably good condition. The

national government has also given to many states public lands

within their borders, the proceeds from which were to be used for

road construction; and a part of the proceeds from the sale of

timber in the national forests is devoted to road building in the

locality.

FEDERAL AID ROAD ACT

In 1916, however, Congress passed the law known as the Federal Aid

Road Act. This law places the national government in the same

relation to the states, in the matter of road building, that the

state governments have borne to the counties in granting state

aid.

The Federal Aid Road Act appropriated 75 million dollars to aid

states in improving their "rural post roads," and 10 million

dollars for the construction and maintenance of roads in the

national forests. Of the 75 million dollars for state aid in

building post roads, 5 million dollars were to be available the

first year, 10 million the second, 15 million the third, and so on

for five years, when the total amount will have been used. The

money is given to the states only on their request, and on

condition that each state shall provide an amount equal to that

received from the national treasury. The money is apportioned

among the states on the basis of area, population, and the extent

of post roads in the state.

RESPONSIBILITY OF THE STATE

The administration of the law is in the hands of the Office of

Public Roads. The entire country is divided into ten districts,

over each of which is a district engineer. When a state desires

aid from the national government, its highway department must draw

up plans for the improvements proposed and submit them to the

district engineer, who in turn submits them with recommendations

to the Secretary of Agriculture, whose approval they must have.

Having obtained this approval, the work is carried on by the state

as in the case of other roads entirely under state control.

RESULTS OF FEDERAL AID

It is too soon yet to tell what the results of this new

cooperative enterprise of the national government will be. But the

first important effect has been to cause the organization of state

highway departments in the few states that did not already have

them, and the reorganization of such departments in the states

where they were weak; for the Federal Aid Road Act provides that

aid may be given to the states only on condition that they have

effective highway departments. The result is that every state in

the Union now has an active highway department, and road

improvement is going on at a rate never before known.

Investigate and report on:

The amount of time saved in a year by a farmer in your locality

because of good roads; or lost because of unimproved roads.

The wear and tear on vehicles and equipment because of unimproved

roads.

Effect of improved or unimproved roads in your county on school

and church attendance, social life, etc.

Instances of the exercise of the right of eminent domain in your

county for road improvement.

Materials used in road making in your county. Relative merits of

different materials as shown by experience in your county.

Methods of road construction in your county.

Extension courses in road making by your state agricultural

college.

The amount of traffic on the roads of your community by non-

residents.

The sentiment of farmers of your locality with regard to road

improvement.

Organization of the state highway commission of your state.

The state highway system of your state.

History and use of canals in your state (if any).

Influence of rural mail delivery upon road improvement in your

county.

The extent to which federal aid for road improvement has been

taken advantage of by your state.

THE NATION'S INTEREST IN TRANSPORTATION

Those who live in the most remote rural communities have a vital

interest in the nation's transportation system, including railways

and steamship lines. As we have seen (p. 203), there was the

closest relation between the building of railroads and the opening

of the public lands. The market of the farmer and the source of

his supplies are not merely the neighboring trading center, but in

far distant parts of the country and of the world. Without

railroads, the farmer, the manufacturer, and the city merchant

would alike be helpless.

GOVERNMENT CONTROL OF RAILROADS

While our government has at times given direct aid to encourage

the building of railroads, as by the gift of public lands, they

have been developed chiefly by private enterprise. They are owned

by private corporations which do business under charters granted

by the state governments (rarely by the national government) and

regulated by law. Control over them has been exercised chiefly by

the state governments, except in matters affecting interstate

commerce, which falls under the control of Congress. As the parts

of our country have become more closely bound together and

interdependent, largely by the influence of the railroads

themselves, an increasingly large part of commerce has become

"interstate" in character, and railway transportation has become

more and more a national concern. The result is an increasing

control by the national government

INTERSTATE COMMERCE

In 1887, Congress created an Interstate Commerce Commission with

power to inquire into the management of the business of "common

carriers," such as railroads, steamship lines, and express

companies. It was later given power to fix rates which such

carriers could charge. Other laws were passed, such as the Sherman

Act, or "Anti-Trust Law," of 1890, which made unlawful any

"contract, combination ... or conspiracy in restraint of trade."

These and other laws checked abuses that characterized railroad

management at that time, but, on the other hand, they are said in

some respects to have hampered the economic and efficient

development of the country's transportation system. The Sherman

Law, for example, absolutely forbade the consolidation of

competing railroad lines under one management, although such

consolidation often makes for efficiency and economy.

GOVERNMENT RAILROAD ADMINISTRATION IN WAR

When the United States entered the recent war, the weakness of our

transportation system quickly became apparent, and the need for

the most effective transportation service led the government to

take unusual steps to secure it. The President issued a

proclamation by which, in the exercise of his WAR POWERS, he "took

possession and assumed control of each and every system of

transportation in the United States and the appurtenances

thereof." This meant assuming control over 397,000 miles of

railways owned by 2905 corporations and employing more than

1,700,000 persons. The management of this great transportation

system was intrusted to a Railroad Administration with a Director

General of Railroads at its head. The ownership of these

railroads, however, remained with the private companies, which

were to receive compensation for the use of their property, and

were to receive back the railroads after the war was over.

ADVANTAGES OF GOVERNMENT MANAGEMENT

The whole purpose of the government in its management of the

railroads was to win the war, the convenience of the public being

a minor consideration. The people cheerfully put up with

inconveniences of travel and with rates that they had not

experienced while the roads were under private management. On the

other hand, there were certain decided advantages in the

management of all railroads as one great system. It meant the

consolidation of competing lines that the law itself prevented the

railway companies from effecting, it meant shortening routes in

many cases, the use of common freight terminals by different

lines, the increase of track facilities and storage areas at

seaport terminals, the selling of passenger tickets good over any

one of several roads running between two points.

There are those who believe that the railroads should be managed,

or even owned, by the government in time of peace as well as

during war. There are others who believe as strongly in private

ownership and direction. Many of the latter believe, however, that

a more perfect control should be exercised over the privately

owned roads by the government under laws that protect the

interests of the public and that at the same time permit, or even

require, greater cooperation among the roads than has heretofore

existed. Since the war, bills have been introduced in Congress

looking to these ends, and doubtless the experience of the war

will result in an appreciable improvement in our country's railway

transportation system.

WATER TRANSPORTATION

In the early days of our nation, rivers were used for

transportation to a large extent, and canals were proposed in

great numbers, some of them being built and carrying a large

amount of traffic. The coming of the railroads caused water

transportation to decline, to the nation's great loss. The war

stimulated the use of our waterways to a considerable extent, and

any scheme for transportation control in the future should provide

for their fullest development as a means of marketing the products

of our farms, forests, mines, and factories.

There was also a time, in the early part of our history, when our

seaports swarmed with American ships that sailed every sea. Our

shipping afterward declined because other nations built and manned

ships more cheaply than we could do. We allowed these other

nations to carry our commerce. We deplored the fact that our

merchant marine had disappeared and discussed ways and means to

restore it. But all to no purpose, until the great war came; then

we HAD to have ships.

EFFECT OF WAR UPON OUR MERCHANT MARINE

When we entered the war we had almost no ships. Congress created

the United States Shipping Board and its Emergency Fleet

Corporation. As a result, and within a year's time, the United

States took rank as the leading shipbuilding nation in the world.

It has more shipyards, more shipways, more ship workers, more

ships under construction, and is building more ships every month

during the war than any other country. Prior to the war the United

States stood a poor third among the shipbuilding nations. Since

August, 1917, more seagoing tonnage has been launched from

American shipyards than was ever launched before in a similar

period anywhere. [Footnote: "Shipping Facts," issued by the U.S.

Shipping Board, September, 1918.]

Moreover, under the stress of necessity methods of shipbuilding

and operation were developed that ought to make it possible for

the United States to compete successfully in the future with other

nations, even though our workmen and sailors are paid more than

those of other nations.

The chairman of the shipping board said, "The American community

must think of ships as a local improvement." This means that the

business and welfare of every American community, whether a

seaport or a remote farming community, are dependent upon ships.

By our merchant marine the American farmer and the American

businessman are brought into touch with the remotest parts of the

earth.

Investigate and report on:

The service of the railroads to the farmers of your county. To the

merchants of your town.

The story of the building of the first transcontinental railway.

State control of railroads in your state.

Experiences of your community with respect to railroad rate

discrimination.

The work of the Interstate Commerce Commission.

The work of the United States Railway Administration during the

war.

Advantages and disadvantages of government control of railroads

during the war.

The war powers of the President.

Arguments for and against government ownership of railroads.

Electric interurban railways in your county and state. What they

mean to the farmer and to the city resident.

The work of the United States Coast Survey.

The history of the American merchant marine.

The development of the American merchant marine during the recent

war.

The building of "fabricated ships."

The life of a sailor to-day, as compared with that of 100 years

ago.

The dependence of the American farmer upon the merchant marine.

READINGS

County reports relating to road construction and improvement.

Reports of State Highway Commission.

State management of public roads, YEAR BOOK, U.S. Department of

Agriculture, 1914, pp. 211-226.

Publications of Office of Public Roads, U.S. Department of

Agriculture. Write also to Superintendent of Documents, Government

Printing Office, Washington, for price list of documents relating

to the subject of roads.

Farmers' Bulletins relating to marketing and transportation

facilities, U.S. Department of Agriculture.

In LESSONS IN COMMUNITY AND NATIONAL LIFE:

Series A: Lesson 26, Concentration of control in the railroad

industry.

Series B: Lesson 27, Good roads.

Series C: Lesson 25, A seaport as a center of concentration of

population and wealth.

Lesson 27, Early transportation in the Far West.

Lesson 28, The first railway across the continent.

Consult the public library for magazine literature on the subject

of roads, railroads, river transportation, etc. For example, in

the REVIEW OF REVIEWS, February, 1918, there are the following

articles:

"Uncle Sam Takes the Railroads."

"The World's Greatest Port" (New York).

"New York Canals a Transportation Resource."

"River Navigation--a War Measure."

Hart, ACTUAL GOVERNMENT, chap. XXVII.

CHAPTER XVIII

COMMUNICATION

Roads and other means of transportation are important not only as

a means of transporting products, but also as a means of

communication among the members of the community. Team work is

impossible without prompt and effective means of communication.

Tell what you know about the value of signals in getting team work

in a football or baseball team.

Discuss the importance of means of communication in conducting

military operations. What means were used for this purpose in our

Army in France?

How were military movements reported and directed in the

Revolutionary War?

Andrew Jackson's victory at New Orleans was won a month after the

War of 1812 was officially ended. How did this happen?

What were some of the methods used by the American Indians to

convey information between distant points?

LANGUAGE AS A MEANS OF COMMUNICATION

One of the most interesting chapters in history is that relating

to the development of means of communication. Language itself is

the most important of these means. It is not altogether clear what

the first steps were in the development of spoken language; but we

know that among uncivilized peoples conversation is aided, and

often largely carried on, by signs made with the hands. Written

language certainly developed from the use of pictures, which were

gradually curtailed into HIEROGLYPHICS, such as were used by the

ancient Egyptians, and finally developed into the ALPHABET, each

letter of which was originally a picture.

A story is told of a group of American Indians who some years ago

visited an eastern city. They could not make themselves

understood, nor could they understand others, and became very

lonely. They were taken to visit a deaf-and-dumb institution,

where they were quite delighted to find that they could converse

freely by the use of a natural sign language.

Uncivilized peoples are in the habit of conveying ideas in the

most astonishing ways. For example, among a certain African tribe

the gift of a tooth brush carries a message of affection. These

Africans take great pride in their white teeth, and the tooth

brush carries the message, "As I think of my teeth morning, noon,

and night, so I think often of you."

To illustrate the development of the alphabet from pictures, our

letter M represents the ears of an owl, which in Egypt was called

MU, and the picture of which, later reduced to the ears, came to

represent the sound of M..

EFFECTS OF ILLITERACY AND INABILITY TO USE ENGLISH

The fascinating story of the development of language cannot be

told here. It is referred to because we are likely to forget what

an important factor it is in making community life possible.

Inability to use a common language prevents intercourse and team

work. Large numbers of men drafted in the American Army were

unable to understand the English language. Between 30,000 and

40,000 illiterates were taken in the first draft and it is said

that there were nearly 700,000 men of draft age in the United

States who could neither read nor write. They could not sign their

names, nor read orders or instructions. They had to be separated

and taught, thus greatly delaying the complete organization of our

available fighting forces. Inability to use a common language is

equally an obstacle in industrial life, for non-English speaking

workmen are unable to understand instructions, or to read signs

and warnings. Many accidents are due to this cause. It is said

that approximately 5 1/2 million of our population above ten years

of age cannot read or write in any language, and that 5 million of

our foreign population cannot use English. An active campaign is

now being conducted to teach English to foreigners and to

eradicate illiteracy. A bill has recently been introduced in

Congress to provide Federal aid for this purpose.

If the productive labor value of an illiterate is less by only 50

cents a day than that of an educated man or woman, the country is

losing $825,000,000 a year through illiteracy ... The Federal

Government and the States spend millions of dollars in trying to

give information to the people in rural districts about farming

and home making. Yet 3,700,000, or 10 per cent, of our country

folk can not read or write a word. They can not read a bulletin on

agriculture, a farm paper, a food-pledge card, a liberty-loan

appeal, a newspaper, the Constitution of the United States, or

their Bibles, nor can they keep personal or business accounts. An

uninformed democracy is not a democracy. A people who cannot have

means of access to the mediums of public opinion and to the

messages of the President and the acts of Congress can hardly be

expected to understand the full meaning of this war, to which they

all must contribute in life or property or labor.--SECRETARY

LANE, Annual Report, 1918, p. 30. From letter to the President.

Ask at home: What is "illiteracy"? What is the difference between

an "illiterate" and a non-English speaking person?

Debate (or discuss):

RESOLVED, That ALL persons of sound mind in the United States

should be required by law to attend school until they are able to

speak, read, and write English fluently.

RESOLVED, That the elimination of illiteracy and the teaching of

English to foreigners should be left wholly to the states without

interference or aid from the national government.

Why are foreigners required to read sections from the Constitution

of the United States before they receive their "naturalization"

papers?

What does "knowing how to read" mean?

Debate:

RESOLVED, That no native-born American should be permitted to vote

who cannot read intelligently.

What is being done in your community and in your state to

eradicate illiteracy and to teach English to foreigners?

THE PRINTING PRESS AND NEWSPAPERS

Next to language itself, the most important invention for the

communication of ideas is the art of printing. It made possible

the book, the magazine, the newspaper. The writer of this book is

enabled to communicate with boys and girls whom he will never see

by means of the printed page and the pictures which the book

contains. By the same means the ideas of people who lived long ago

have been handed down to us, and the ideas of to-day will be

passed on to later generations. Most wonderful is the modern

newspaper, which daily carries into almost every home of the land

the important happenings in the world during the preceding twenty-

four hours. In cities several editions are printed during the day.

The newspaper enables the merchant to communicate, through

advertisements, with possible buyers, and the farmer and business

man to keep posted regarding crop conditions and market prices.

Most newspapers have special departments for different classes of

readers--a woman's page, a children's column, a page devoted to

sports, another to market conditions. Most of them also have a

department in which individuals may ask questions or express their

own opinions regarding questions of the day. The "local

newspaper," with a circulation that seldom extends far beyond the

county in which it is published, is of the greatest value in

stimulating a community spirit.

THE RIGHT OF FREE SPEECH

The first amendment to the Constitution of the United States

provides that:

Congress shall make no law ... abridging the freedom of speech or

of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble...

The right of free speech and of a free press is a very sacred one,

and its maintenance is one of the chief safeguards of democracy.

It is the means by which PUBLIC OPINION is formed and made known;

and public opinion is one of the chief means of control in a

democracy. It controls the conduct of individuals, and it controls

the actions of government. The representatives and leaders of the

people in the government seek constantly to know what public

opinion is, and the public press is one of the chief channels

through which they may find out. On the other hand, leaders and

parties seek to FORM public opinion, to lead the people to think

in certain ways and to support certain ideas. The press affords an

effective means for doing this.

PROPAGANDA

It is easy to see that both good leaders and bad leaders may thus

create public opinion, that both good and bad ideas may be spread

through the press. During the war we heard much about German

PROPAGANDA. This means that ideas were systematically spread to

create a public opinion favorable to the German cause. It was done

largely by rumors, springing from no one knows where, and

spreading by word of mouth. But it was also accomplished through

the newspapers, by news items and stories that appeared to be true

and that were published innocently enough in most cases, but that

afterward were found to be false.

THE DEVELOMENT OF PUBLIC OPINION

It is not to be supposed that all propaganda is harmful or

dangerous. There is propaganda in good causes, or on both sides of

a disputed question. By this means public opinion is educated.

When the peace conference at Paris proposed a plan for a League of

Nations, it was at once taken up for discussion through the

newspapers and magazines. People who believed in the idea

organized a campaign of PUBLICITY to support the plan and to

create a public opinion for it, while those opposed to it were

equally active in their attempt to create a public opinion against

it. In this way the people became informed regarding the question,

provided they read both sides of the discussion and not one only.

Leaders in the community may conduct propaganda through the

newspapers in behalf of better schools, better roads, woman

suffrage, prohibition, or any other cause.

The good citizen cannot well get along without the newspaper and

magazine. But he needs to keep in mind the fact that news items

may be in error, and that the opinions expressed by editors and

other writers usually represent the opinions of but a single group

of people, which may be large or small, right or wrong. In most

cases these writers are sincere, but there is always the chance

for error. The intelligent citizen will not base his own opinions

and actions solely on what he reads in ONE paper or magazine or

book, but will seek to understand ALL sides of a question. He is

helped to do this by the great variety of publications available

representing every shade of belief, and by the freedom of speech

and of the press under our system of government.

THE CONTROL OF FREE SPEECH AND A FREE PRESS

Freedom of speech and of the press does not mean that a citizen

may always say anything he pleases in public. At no time has one

the right to attack the character of another by false or malicious

statements. This constitutes slander, or libel, and may be

punished by the courts. In time of war freedom of speech and of

the press may be restricted to an extent that would not be

tolerated in time of peace, because if absolute freedom were

permitted information might be made public that would be helpful

to the enemy, and propaganda started that would be dangerous to

the public safety. But even in war time, the people of a democracy

chafe under restrictions upon free speech and a free press, and it

is often a delicate question to determine how far such restriction

is justifiable or wise.

Make a report on the invention of the printing press.

Is there more than one "local paper" in your town or county? Do

these local papers take the same position in regard to public

questions? Do you read more than one?

What is the most influential newspaper in your state (ask at

home)? Why is it so influential?

What is the difference between a news story and an editorial?

Ask at home what newspaper editor it was who said, "Go West, young

man." Also find out what you can about his influence as an editor.

Examine with care the newspapers you take at home and make a list

of their different "departments" or "sections."

What do you first look for in the newspaper when you read it? Ask

your father and mother and other members of the family what they

first look for.

What is the value of CARTOONS in the newspaper? Do you study them?

Do they convey a story to you? Make a collection of cartoons that

you think are particularly good, and explain what each means.

Is any propaganda being conducted now in the newspapers you read?

If so, explain what it is.

To what extent are newspaper and magazine advertisements useful in

your home?

POST-OFFICES AND POST-ROADS

Congress was given power by the Constitution "to establish post-

offices and post-roads." There had been a postal service in the

colonies before the Revolution. During the Revolution Benjamin

Franklin was made Postmaster General, and he made the service as

effective as it could well be made under the conditions that

existed in those times. The plan that he devised was continued

after the Constitution was adopted. In those days mails were sent

from New York to Boston and to Philadelphia two or three times a

week. They were carried on horseback or by stage and by boat.

Sometimes a month was consumed by a trip that can now be made in a

half-day. Postage cost from six cents to twenty-five cents for

each letter, according to the distance it was carried, and had to

be paid in cash in advance. Postage stamps were not introduced

until 1847. Often mail was allowed to accumulate until there was

enough to pay for the trip. The isolation of a remote rural

community can well be imagined where the difficulties of

communication were so great, and where the scarcity of money made

postage an important item.

RURAL MAIL ROUTES

In 1918 there were 54,345 post-offices in the United States

managed by the Post-Office Department at Washington, besides

nearly 600 in the Philippines managed by the war Department, and a

few in the Panama Canal Zone. Of the 3030 counties in the United

States, 3008 had rural mail routes aggregating more than a million

miles in extent, serving more than 6 million families, and costing

for operation more than 53 million dollars. This cost, however

amounts to only about $1.90 for each person served, or a little

more than one cent for each piece of mail handled. The aim is to

make the postal service pay for itself, and in 1918 the receipts

exceeded the expenditures by more than 60 million dollars.

SPECIAL SERVICES OF THE POST-OFFICE DEPARTMENT

The Post-Office Department not only provides for the

transportation of ordinary mail, but through its post-offices it

sells money orders for the transmission of money safely through

the mails; it operates the parcel post by which merchandise may be

transported, including farm produce of many kinds; it administers

the postal savings system. One of the interesting divisions of the

Post-Office Department is the Division of Dead Letters, to which

is returned all mail that fails to reach its destination. In 1918

there were returned to the Dead-Letter Division 14,451,953 pieces

of mail. In these "dead letters" there were drafts, checks, money

orders, and loose money, amounting to $4,194,839.68. The failure

of this mail to reach its proper destination is due in very large

measure to carelessness in addressing and to failure to place on

the envelope or package a return address. A great deal of loss and

inconvenience could be avoided, and much labor and expense saved

for the postal service, if every one would see that every piece of

mail sent out is properly addressed and stamped, and has a return

address in the upper left-hand corner.

TRANSPORTATION OF THE MAILS

The efficiency of the postal service depends very largely upon the

means of transportation, from steamship and railway lines down to

the country roads. Nothing else, perhaps, has stimulated the

improvement of roads so much as the rural mail service. It is the

power granted by the Constitution to Congress to establish POST-

roads that enables the Federal government to aid the states in

road improvement. The development of fast mail trains and the

introduction of motor-truck service have been important steps in

the improvement of the postal service in city and country. The

latest development is the transportation of mail by airplane. An

aerial mail route between Washington, D. C., and New York City was

established May 15, 1918, and a round trip daily is now made over

this route, regardless of weather conditions. The flying time from

Washington to New York, with a stop at Philadelphia, averages two

hours and thirty minutes, or one half the time of the fastest

trains. The Post-Office Department is planning an extensive

airplane mail service from the Atlantic to the Pacific, with

various side lines; also to the West Indies, Panama, and South

America. The routes are partially worked out, and trial trips have

been made in some cases, as between New York and Chicago.

THE TELEGRAPH

We need only mention the important part played by the telegraph,

the submarine cable, and RADIO-COMMUNICATION, in binding together

our nation and the world as a whole. Without them the modern

newspaper, with its daily news from every corner of the globe,

would be impossible, our cooperation in the great World War would

have been extremely difficult, and the President probably would

not have left the United States to participate in the peace

negotiations at Paris. Although the first telegraph line in the

United States was owned and operated by the government as a part

of the postal service, the telegraph service of the country has

since been in the hands of private corporations; except that

during the war the Post-Office Department took over the management

of the telegraph and the telephone, as the Railroad Administration

took over the transportation lines.

THE TELEPHONE

As this chapter is being written, word has come that the Secretary

of the Navy has talked by WIRELESS TELEPHONE with the President of

the United States while the latter was 800 miles out at sea on his

return from France. At the close of the war American aviators were

talking with one another from airplane to airplane, and receiving

orders from the ground, by wireless telephone. These instances

suggest new possibilities of communication in the near future.

Already the ordinary telephone has practically made over our

community life in many particulars. We can hardly estimate its

value in business and home life, in the city or on the farm. There

are about 8000 rural telephone systems in the United States

serving the homes of two million farmers. In 1912, out of seven

hundred and eighteen telephone systems in North Carolina, about

six hundred and fifty were country telephone systems owned and

operated privately by groups of farmers. These included about

20,000 telephones and used approximately 35,000 miles of wire.

SERVICE OF THE RURAL TELEPHONE To call a neighbor and ask for the

exchange of labor on certain work, as threshing, haying, etc., is

only the work of a moment. To have a definite answer immediately

is often worth much. To be able to 'phone the village storekeeper,

who runs a country delivery, and ask that supplies be sent out is

a great convenience to the housewife. To 'phone the implement

dealer and learn whether he has needed repairs in stock and, if

so, to have them sent out on the next trolley car, if not to ask

him to telegraph the factory to forward them immediately by

express, is a saving of time that often amounts to a large saving

when the planting or harvesting of crops is delayed because of

needed repairs.

... farm homes have been saved from destruction by fire because of

prompt help secured by word over the telephone; ... valuable

animals have been saved through the early arrival of the

veterinarian who was summoned by 'phone. ... Many an itinerant

sharper's plans have been frustrated. ... The sharper in disgust

turns to other fields where there are no telephones over which to

notify his prospective victims of his game.

Business appointments, social appointments, discussions of social

and church plans, to say nothing of the mere friendly exchange of

greeting over the telephone have probably compensated every owner

of a rural telephone many times over for the expense of it, if all

business advantages were ignored.

... At some seasons of the year the general summons to the 'phone

gives notice that central is ready to report the weather bureau's

prognostication for the following day. ...

[Footnote: "Rural Conveniences," by H. E. Van Norman, in the

ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science,

March, 1912]

The cost of this important aid to community life has been reduced

to a small amount in many rural districts by the organization of

local cooperative telephone companies.

Ask at home, or have committee interview postmaster:

How is the postmaster in your post-office chosen? Are all

postmasters chosen in the same way?

What are first-class, second-class, third-class, and fourth-class

post-offices?

How are rural mail-carriers chosen?

What is a "star mail route," and how does it differ from an

ordinary rural route? Are there any "star routes" in your county?

What constitute first-class, second-class, third-class, and

fourth-class mail? What is the rate of postage on each?

Has rural mail delivery had the effect of causing road improvement

in your county? If so, give instances.

From the office of a local newspaper find out about the work of

the Associated Press or similar news agency.

Why does the work of a newspaper reporter carry with it great

responsibility?

Who was Samuel F. B. Morse? Who is Alexander Graham Bell? Marconi?

What particular advantages has the telephone brought to your

community? to your home?

Is there a cooperative telephone company in your community? If so,

how is it organized?

If possible, visit a telephone exchange and report on what you

see.

Write a theme on "Modern means of communication and the growth of

a world community."

READINGS

In LESSONS IN COMMUNITY AND NATIONAL LIFE:

Series B: Lesson 10, Telephone and telegraph.

Series C: Lesson 1, The war and aeroplanes.

Lesson 9, Inventions.

The development of writing:

Picture Writing of the American Indians, 10th Annual Report of the

U. S. Bureau of Ethnology, 1888-1889. This is profusely

illustrated and very interesting.

The volume may be in the public library. It may be difficult to

obtain, otherwise, unless through a representative in Congress.

Tylor, E. B., ANTHROPOLOGY, chaps. IV-VII (D. Appleton & Co.), and

EARLY HISTORY OF MANKIND, chaps. II-V (Henry Holt & Co.).

Given, J. L., THE MAKING OF A NEWSPAPER (Henry Holt & Co.).

Annual Reports of the Postmaster General of the United States.

Report of the Secretary of the Interior, 1918, pp. 13-24, 29-31,

for a discussion of the necessity of eliminating illiteracy and

teaching English to foreigners.

There is much magazine literature on this subject.

AMERICANIZATION, a publication issued regularly by the United

States Bureau of Education, is useful in this connection.

CHAPTER XIX

EDUCATION

DEMOCRACY DEPENDS UPON EDUCATION

Both the efficiency and the democracy of a community depend upon

the extent and the kind of education it affords to its people.

Autocratic Germany had a most thorough-going system of education,

but a system that made autocracy possible. The common people were

trained to be efficient workers, and thus to contribute to the

national strength; but they were trained TO SUBMIT to authority,

and not to exercise control over it. The kind of education that

develops leaders was given only to the few. The leaders of the

German people were imposed upon them from above; in the United

States we are supposed to CHOOSE our leaders. In a nation whose

aim is to afford to every citizen an equal opportunity to make the

most of himself and whose people are self-governing, education

must be widespread, it must develop the power of self-direction,

it must train leaders, and it must enable the people to choose

their leaders intelligently. When Governor Berkeley of Virginia

reported to the king of England in 1671, "I thank God there are no

free schools nor printing; and I hope we shall not have these

hundred years," he spoke for the autocratic form of government

which a hundred years later led the colonies to revolt, and which

in 1917 forced the United Stares into a world war.

GOVERNMENT BY MEANS OF EDUCATION

In a democracy government must be carried on largely BY MEANS OF

education. There must be trained leadership. And since the aim of

democratic government is to secure team work in public affairs,

the people must have the tools of team work, such as a common

language and other knowledge that makes living and working

together possible; they must have training that will enable them

to contribute effectively to the community's work, and an

intelligent understanding of the community's aims and ideals. And

since government is controlled largely by public opinion, the

people must have an intelligent understanding of the community's

problems. We had abundant illustration during the recent war of

the extent to which our government not only depended upon highly

educated men and women for leadership, but also used educational

methods to secure its ends.

THE COST OF EDUCATION

These facts explain why public education is the largest single

item of expense in our government (except in time of war). In 1914

nearly 600 million dollars were spent for public elementary and

high schools. Some 200 million dollars more were spent for private

elementary and high schools, and for universities, colleges, and

normal schools, some of which are public and some private.

INEQUALITY OF EDUCATIONAL REQIUIREMENTS

If democracy is to be safe and efficient, every member must have a

reasonable education. Every state now has a compulsory education

law, though these laws vary greatly. In some states every child

must attend school for seven years (7 to 14, or 8 to 15), and in

one state (Maryland) for eight years. In other states the period

is less, sometimes as little as four years. In most of the states

there is an additional period, usually of two years (14 to 16),

during which children must remain in school unless they go to

work. As a rule there are laws that forbid the employment of

children in industry before the age of 14. In some states they may

go to work as soon as they reach the age limit regardless of what

their educational qualifications are; in others they must have

completed the eight grades of the elementary school; in others

[Editor's Note: Missing text.]

laws are not well enforced in some states. The facing table shows

the number of children of school age in and out of school in the

several states in 1915-1916. For the country as a whole, 17.4 per

cent of the children of school age were not in school.

"School terms are so short in many states and compulsory

attendance is so badly enforced that THE SCHOOL LIFE OF THE

AVERAGE PERSON GROWING UP IN RURAL SECTIONS IS ONLY 4.5 SCHOOL

YEARS OF 140 DAYS EACH. In urban communities conditions are

better, but far from satisfactory." [Footnote: Bulletin, 1919, No.

4, U. S. Bureau of Education, "A Manual of Educational

Legislation," p. 6.]

[PM Note: Leave this page blank. Please do not delete this note]

The facing table shows the number of days the public schools were

open, the average number of days of attendance by each pupil

enrolled, and the rank of the state in each case, for each state

in the school year 1915-1916.

Why would it not be more democratic to permit children to attend

school or not as they or their parents wish?

Discuss the statement that "education makes people free." Compare

this statement with a somewhat similar statement made on page 136,

Chapter XI.

What is the compulsory school age in your state?

Is wide variation in the compulsory school age among the different

states a good thing? Why?

Is the compulsory school law rigidly enforced in your state? How

is it enforced?

How much of each year must a child spend in school during the

compulsory period in your state?

Investigate the reasons given by pupils in your community for

leaving school before completing the course, and report.

What rank does your state hold with respect to length of term? to

average daily attendance of pupils? (See table.)

What rank does your state hold with respect to number of children

of school age in and out of school? (See table.)

What is the length of your own school year? Do you think it should

be lengthened? Why?

Get from your teacher or principal the average daily attendance

for each pupil enrolled in your school; in your county. Do you

think this record could be improved?

Is there any good reason why the school year should be shorter in

rural communities than in cities?

It is advocated by many that schools should be open the year

round. What advantages can you see in the plan? Debate the

question.

THE DISTRICT SCHOOL

The pioneer family was dependent at first upon its own efforts for

the education of its children. When other families came, a

schoolhouse was built, a teacher employed and the work of teaching

the elements of knowledge was handed over to the school. This was

the origin of the "district school," which is characteristic of

pioneer conditions. As the population grew and local government

was organized, the unit of local government tended to become the

unit for school administration. In New England this was the "town"

or township; in the South it was the county; in the West it was

sometimes the township and sometimes the county, or else a

combination of the two. In a large number of the western states,

however, and in a few of the eastern states, the district school

persists in many rural communities, a relic of pioneer conditions.

It is often felt that it is more democratic for each district to

administer its own school, subject only to the laws of the state.

Under the district system there is an annual school meeting of the

voters of the district, who vote the school taxes, determine the

length of the school year, and elect a board of education or

school trustees. The trustees look after the school property,

choose the teacher and fix his salary, and in a general way manage

the school business. Each school is independent of all other

schools.

TOWNSHIP ORGANIZATION

Under the township system all of the schools of the township are

administered by a township board or committee (or by a single

trustee in Indiana) elected by the people of the township. The

chief advantages over the district system are that all the schools

of the township are administered by a single plan, the taxes are

apportioned to the schools according to needs, and pupils may be

transferred from one school to another at convenience. In New

England two or three townships are sometimes united into a "union

district" supervised by a single superintendent.

COUNTY ORGANIZATION

Under the county system all the schools of the county are under

the management of a county board and, usually, a county

superintendent. In 29 of the 39 states that have county

superintendents they are elected by the people, in 8 states they

are appointed by the county board, in Delaware they are appointed

by the governor, and in New Jersey by the state commissioner of

education. Election of the county superintendent is losing favor

on the ground that there is less assurance of securing a highly

trained man. The chart on page 293 shows a plan of organization

for county schools proposed to the legislature of South Dakota by

the United States Bureau of Education.

ADVANTAGES OF SCHOOL CONSOLIDATION

Among the advantages of the county system are greater economy,

more nearly equal educational opportunity for all children of the

county, and better supervision because of the larger funds

available for this purpose. It is under the county system of

organization that the movement for SCHOOL CONSOLIDATION is

progressing most rapidly. By this is meant the union of a number

of small, poorly equipped schools into a larger, well-graded, and

well equipped school. Its advantages may best be suggested by an

example.

In Randolph County, Indiana, there were, in 1908, 128 one-room

schools in the open country, with an attendance of from 12 to 60

pupils doing grade work only, 6 two-room schools in hamlets, with

grade work only; 2 three room schools in villages, with grade work

and two years of high school work with a six months' term; 3 four-

room village schools, with grade work and three years of high

school work with a six months' term; 1 six-room school in a town,

with grade work and four years of high school work with an eight

months' term.

By consolidation, 113 one-room schools and 4 two-room schools were

supplanted by 20 consolidated schools with two grade teachers; 6

with four grade teachers, 6 with five grade teachers; 2 with six

grade teachers; and 1 with eight grade teachers--a total of 86

grade teachers doing the work formerly done by 148 teachers, and

doing it better. Fifteen of the schools have a four-year high

school course with an eight months' term. For the five-year period

preceding consolidation not more than half of the eighth-grade

pupils attended high school; after consolidation, an average of 96

per cent of the eighth-grade pupils went to high school.

The pupils are transported to and from school in hacks or motor-

busses heated in winter. The school buildings are equipped with

running water, modern heating and sanitation, telephone, restrooms

for pupils and teachers, gymnasiums and outdoor physical

apparatus, physical training and athletic competition being

carried on under supervision. The courses of study have been

enriched, increased attention is given to vocational work, and

music and art receive attention impossible in the district

schools. Eleven of the schools have orchestras, and concerts are

held which the community as well as the schools attend. There are

auditoriums used for community lectures and concerts, Sunday-

school conventions, community sings, parent-teachers' meetings,

and exhibits of various kinds.

Report on the following:

School life in colonial New England; in colonial Virginia.

The first schools in your own community--length of school term,

attendance, whether private or public, qualifications of teachers,

methods of teaching.

What the family does for the education of the children that the

school cannot do. What the school does that the family cannot do.

Organization of the schools in your district, township, county, or

city.

Advantages of graded schools over ungraded schools.

Consolidation of schools in your county or state.

Debate the question: The district school is more democratic than

the county organization.

Method of selection of the superintendent of your county and town.

Length of term of office.

Organization, powers, mode of election, etc., of your local board

of education.

Authority, or lack of authority, of your county superintendent

over the schools of cities and large towns in the county.

Qualifications prescribed for teachers in your county or town. How

selected.

How are school books selected? Are they free to pupils? Advantages

and disadvantages of free textbooks.

Evidence that public education is or is not a matter of common

interest to the people of your community.

Examples of team work, or lack of it, in your community in the

interest of the schools.

Are the methods by which school authorities are chosen in your

community calculated to secure the best leadership?

How the duties relating to the schools are divided between your

school board and the superintendent. Does your board perform any

duties that should be performed by the superintendent, or VICE

VERSA? Explain.

Parent-teacher organizations in your community and their service.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE HIGH SCHOOL

Public education was long restricted to the elementary school.

High schools were at first private academies designed to prepare

for college the few who wished to continue their education. While

they still continue to give preparation for college, their

development in recent years has been largely for the benefit of

the greater number of boys and girls who do not expect to go to

college. The high school naturally made its first appearance in

cities. It requires more elaborate equipment and more highly

trained teachers, and its cost is at least twice that of

elementary schools. These facts, together with the small and

scattered population of rural communities, have been obstacles to

the development of rural high schools. The consolidated school has

in large measure removed these obstacles, and a high school

education is rapidly becoming as available for rural boys and

girls as for those who live in cities.

Report on:

The history of high school development in your community.

The percentage of pupils in your community who go to high school

after completing the elementary school.

"What the high school does for my community."

"My reasons for going (or not going) to high school."

The cost per pupil in the high school in your community as

compared with that in the elementary school.

Education must not only be within the reach of every citizen of a

democracy, but it must be of a kind that will fit him to play well

his part as a member of the community.

EDUCATION FOR PHYSICAL FITNESS

The public schools now give more attention than formerly to the

physical education and welfare of the pupils (see Chapter XX, pp.

314, 315). The wide prevalence of physical defects disclosed in

the effort to raise an army during the recent war will doubtless

cause still greater emphasis to be placed on this aspect of

education. Physical fitness is the foundation of good citizenship.

Provision for physical education and welfare has found its way

into rural schools more slowly than in city schools, as the

following table shows. But our nation can be neither efficient nor

fully democratic until the physical well-being of all its citizens

is provided for, and the responsibility rests largely with the

public school.

HEALTH WORK IN CITY AND RURAL SCHOOLS OF THE UNITED STATES

[Footnote: Adapted from Dr. Thomas D. Wood, in New York TIMES

Magazine, April 2, 1916.]

EDUCATION FOR VOCATIONAL FITNESS

It is a part of the business of education to fit every citizen to

earn a living, for every efficient citizen must be self-supporting

and able to contribute effectively to the productive work of the

community. The interdependence of all occupations in modern

industry and the necessity for every worker to be a specialist

make training essential for every worker who is to attain success

for himself and contribute his full share to the community's work.

The war emphasized strongly the nation's dependence upon trained

workers in every field of industry.

NATIONAL AID FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

One of the direct results of war needs was the passage by

Congress, in 1917, of the Smith-Hughes Act, providing for national

aid for vocational instruction for persons over 14 years of age

who have already entered upon, or are preparing to enter, some

trade. The instruction given under the terms of this act must be

of less than college grade. Every state in the Union has met the

conditions imposed by this law.

The Smith-Hughes Act created a Federal Board for Vocational

Education to consist of the Secretaries of the Departments of

Agriculture, Commerce and Labor, the United States Commissioner of

Education, and three citizens appointed by the President, one to

represent labor interests, one commercial and manufacturing

interests, and the third agricultural interests. The law

appropriates national funds to be given to the state for the

establishment of vocational schools and for the training of

teachers for these schools; but each state must appropriate an

amount equal to that received from the national government. Each

state must also have a board for vocational education, through

which the national board has its dealings with the state.

BREADTH OF PREPARATION FOR VOCATIONAL LIFE

The duty of the regular elementary and high schools is not to

cultivate special vocational skills; not to turn out trained

farmers, or mechanics, and so on. But the work of these schools

should be such that their graduates will be better farmers, or

mechanics, or lawyers, or doctors, or engineers, or teachers, than

they would be without it. First of all these schools should

produce workers who are physically fit for the work they enter.

They should educate the hand and the eye along with the brain.

They should cultivate habits of working together, give instruction

regarding the significance of all work in community and national

life, and by every means possible prepare the pupil to make a wise

choice of vocation. Moreover, the schools should provide a breadth

of education that will "transmute days of dreary work into happier

lives."

MAKING LIFE EDUCATIONAL

Mr. Herbert Quick in his story of "The Brown Mouse," which is a

plea for better rural schools, says:

Let us cease thinking so much of agricultural education, and

devote ourselves to educational agriculture. So will the nation be

made strong.

The life we live, even on the farm, is full of science and

history, civics and economics, arithmetic and geography, poetry

and art. The modern school helps the pupil to find these things in

his daily life and, having found them, to apply them to living for

his profit and enjoyment. For this reason it works largely through

the "home project," boys' and girls' clubs, gardening, and many

other activities.

A recent writer has said,

What is the true end of American education? Is it life or a

living? ... Education finds itself face to face with a bigger

thing than life or the getting of a living. It is face to face

with a big enough thing to die for in France, a big enough thing

to go to school for in America ... Neither life nor the getting of

a living, but LIVING TOGETHER, this must be the single PUBLIC end

of a common public education hereafter. [Footnote: D. R. Sharp,

"Patrons of Democracy," in ATLANTIC MONTHLY, November, 1919, p.

650.]

EDUCATION FOR LIVING TOGETHER

The more nearly the conditions of living in the school community

correspond to the conditions of living in the community outside of

school, the better the training afforded for living together. In

many schools the spirit and methods of community life prevail,

even to the extent of school government in which the pupils

participate.

Of this community pupils and teachers are members with certain

common interests. Cooperation is the keynote of the community

life. The realization of this cooperation is seen in the

classrooms, in study halls, in the assembly room, in the

corridors, on the playground. It manifests itself in the method of

preparing and conducting recitations; in the care of school

property; in protecting the rights of younger children; in

maintaining the sanitary conditions of the building and grounds;

in the elimination of cases of "discipline" and of irregularity of

attendance; in the preparation and conduct of opening exercises,

school entertainments, and graduating exercises; in beautifying

the school grounds; in the making of repairs and equipment for

"our school"; in fact, in every aspect of the school life.

[Footnote: "Civic Education in Elementary Schools," p. 31, United

States Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1915, No. 17.]

THE SCHOOL AS A COMMUNITY CENTER

The schoolhouse is becoming more and more the center of community

life. We have noticed how, in Randolph County, Indiana, the

consolidated school building affords a meeting place for all sorts

of community activities. The school law of California provides

that:

There is hereby established a civic center at each and every

public schoolhouse within the State of California, where the

citizens of the respective public school districts ... may engage

in supervised recreational activities, and where they may meet and

discuss ... any and all subjects and questions which in their

judgment may appertain to the educational, political, economic,

artistic, and moral interests of the respective communities in

which they may reside; Provided, that such use of said public

schoolhouse and grounds for said meetings shall in no wise

interfere with such use and occupancy of said public schoolhouse

and grounds as is now, or hereafter may be, required for the

purpose of said public schools of the State of California.

Investigate and report on the following:

Provision in your school and in the schools of your state for

health work suggested in the table on page 299.

Other provisions in your school for the physical well-being of

pupils.

The work of your school that relates directly to preparation for

earning a living.

The extent to which a high school can make a farmer.

The operation of the Smith-Hughes Act in your state and in your

county or town.

The meaning of the quotation from "The Brown Mouse" on page 301.

The use of "home projects" by your school.

The meaning of the statement that the end of public education is

"neither life nor the getting of a living, but living together."

Differences and similarities between the government of your school

and that of the community in which you live. The wisdom of making

them more alike.

Different plans of "pupil self-government." (See references.)

Uses to which the schoolhouses of your community are, or might be,

put.

Hours per week and weeks per year during which your schoolhouse is

used.

Economy (or lack of it) in allowing schoolhouses to stand idle

most of the time.

The community center idea. (See references.)

Educational work for adults in your community.

Educational agencies in your community besides schools.

STATE ORGANIZATION FOR EDUCATION

The schools of the local community are a part of the state school

system. Education is considered a duty of the state, though it is

performed largely by local agencies. The constitutions of all

states make provision for it. State control and support of

education are necessary if there is to be equality of educational

opportunity for all children of the state. Every state has a

department of education, and in most states each local community

receives a portion of a general state tax for school purposes. The

state departments of education differ widely from one another both

in organization and in the effectiveness of their work. In most

states there is a state board of education, composed sometimes of

certain state officials, including the governor and the state

superintendent of education, sometimes of citizens appointed for

this purpose alone by the governor or (in four states) by the

legislature. In only one state is it elected by popular vote. In

all states there is also a chief educational officer, usually

called state superintendent or commissioner of education or of

public instruction. In several states women hold this position.

The state superintendent is sometimes elected by popular vote,

sometimes appointed by the state board of education or by the

governor. Under the state superintendent there are deputy

superintendents, heads of departments, and supervisors of the

various branches of educational work. The diagram on page 293

shows a plan of organization proposed for one state by the United

States Bureau of Education.

RELATION OF STATE TO LOCAL ORGANIZATION

The extent of the supervision and control exercised by the state

department of education over the schools of the state varies

within wide limits. In some cases it is very little. In many

states there are state courses of study that are followed more or

less closely by local communities. In a number of states the

textbooks used by all schools are selected either by the state

board of education or by a special state textbook commission. In

New York State the examination questions used in all schools are

prepared by the state educational authorities. Some states furnish

text books free, and in a very few the state even prints all

textbooks. It has not been easy to work out a well-balanced plan

of state administration of schools that would ensure a

thoroughgoing education for the entire state, and that would at

the same time leave sufficient freedom to local school authorities

to adjust the work to local needs.

HIGHER EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS

Many of the states support higher educational institutions, such

as state universities and state agricultural colleges, at which

attendance is free for citizens of the state. There are also

special state schools for defectives, such as the blind and the

deaf.

POLICY OF THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT TOWARD EDUCATION

The national government gave its first support to public education

by the Ordinance of 1787 under which the Northwest Territory was

organized. It provided that "religion, morality, and knowledge

being necessary government to good government and the happiness of

mankind, schools and the means of education shall be forever

encouraged." As new states were organized, sections of the public

lands were to be reserved for school purposes. Grants of public

land were also made for the establishment of agricultural colleges

and experiment stations.

THE UNITED STATES BUREAU OF EDUCATION

We have also noted the national cooperation with the states for

agricultural extension work and for vocational education. The

United States Bureau of Education is under the direction of the

United States Commissioner of Education. It has exerted its chief

influence through its investigations of educational methods and

its numerous reports and other publications. It serves as a sort

of educational "clearing house" for local and state school

authorities. One of its chief endeavors has been to increase the

educational opportunities in rural communities.

Report on the following:

Provisions of your state constitution with regard to education.

Cost of public schools per year to your community; your county;

your state.

How this cost is met in your town or county. Portion paid by the

state.

Organization of your state department of education. Compare with

the organization of state departments in neighboring states.

Arguments for and against the method of choosing your state board

of education and your state superintendent.

Do the rural schools and city schools of your state operate under

the same state supervision? Why?

Use of state course of study in your school and community.

Selection of textbooks for your school.

Advantages and disadvantages of uniform textbooks and course of

study. Of uniform examinations throughout the state.

Management and support of your state university.

Qualifications for admission to the state university and state

agricultural college.

Why you are (or not) going to college.

The value of the state university or agricultural college to your

state.

State educational institutions for the blind, the deaf, etc.

Arguments for and against national control of education.

Chief provisions of any bill now before Congress for a national

Department of Education.

READINGS

In LESSONS IN COMMUNITY AND NATIONAL LIFE:

Series A: Lesson 11, Education as encouraged by industry.

Series C: Lesson 8, Preventing waste of human beings.

In Long's AMERICAN PATRIOTIC PROSE:

Educated men in politics (Grover Cleveland), pp. 255-257.

The educated man and democratic ideals (Charles E. Hughes), pp.

286-288.

In Foerster and Pierson's AMERICAN IDEALS:

The American scholar (R. W. Emerson), pp. 133-155.

Democracy in education (P. P. Claxton), pp. 156-157.

Reports of local and state departments of education.

Publications of the United States Bureau of Education.

Latest annual report of the U. S. Commissioner of Education. These

annual reports contain excellent summaries of every phase of

education in the United States and in many foreign countries.

Bulletins. Send to the Bureau for List of Available Publications.

These bulletins relate to every important aspect of education,

school organization and administration, etc. Many of them are of

special application to rural education.

Teachers of civics will find the following helpful:

1915, No. 17, Civic education in elementary schools as illustrated

in Indianapolis (Government Printing Office, 5 cents).

1915, No. 23, The teaching of community civics (Government

Printing Office, 10 cents).

1916, No. 28, The social studies in secondary education

(Government Printing Office, 10 cents).

1917, No. 46, The public school system of San Francisco, chapter

on civic education.

1917, No. 51, Moral values in secondary education.

1918, No. 15, Educational survey of Elyria, Ohio, chapter on civic

education (Government Printing Office, 30 cents).

1919, No. 50, Part 3, Civic education in the public school system

of Memphis. Write to the U.S. Bureau of Education for list of

references on pupil self-government. Also write to the School

Citizens' Committee, 2 Wall St., New York City, for material on

the same subject.

Earle, Alice Morse, CHILD LIFE IN COLONIAL DAYS (Macmillan).

Dewey, John, THE SCHOOL AND SOCIETY and SCHOOLS OF TO-MORROW.

Quick, Herbert, THE BROWN MOUSE (Bobbs-Merrill Co., Indianapolis).

Foght, H. W., THE RURAL TEACHER AND HIS WORK.

Jackson, Henry E., A COMMUNITY CENTER--WHAT IT IS AND HOW TO

ORGANIZE IT. Bulletin, 1918, No. 11, U. S. Bureau of Education.

CHAPTER XX

THE COMMUNITY'S HEALTH

PHYSICAL DEFECTS AND THE NATIONAL DEFENSE

There is nothing else that concerns the community or the nation so

much as the health of its citizens. Of more than three million men

between the ages of 21 and 31 examined for military service in

1918, only about 65 per cent were passed as physically fit to

fight for their country. [Footnote: Public Health Reports, U. S.

Public Health Service, vol. 34, No. 13, p. 633 (March 28, 1919).]

The remaining 35 per cent were either totally unfit for any kind

of service, or were capable only of the less strenuous activities

connected with warfare. Most of the defects found could have been

remedied, or prevented altogether, if proper care had been taken

in earlier years.

PHYSICAL DEFECTS AND THE NATION'S INDUSTRY

The nation loses by this physical unfitness in other ways than in

fighting power. Investigations have shown that wage earners lose

from their work an average of from six to nine days each year on

account of sickness.

[Footnote 2: Public Health Reports, U. S. Public Health Service,

vol. 34, No. 16, pp. 777-782 (April 18, 1919).]

The cost to the individual in loss of wages, doctors' bills, and

otherwise, is a serious matter, to say nothing of the absolute

want to which it reduces many families and the suffering entailed.

In addition to this, the country loses the wage earner's

production. Sometimes death brings to the family permanent loss of

income, and to the nation complete loss of the product of the wage

earner's work. The nation spends large sums of money every year in

providing for dependent families and individuals.

If each of the 38 million wage earners in the United States in

1910 lost 6 days from work in a year, how many days' work would

the nation lose? How many years of work would this amount to?

At $2.50 a day (is this a high wage?) how much would be lost in

wages in a year?

Get information regarding the cost of a long case of sickness,

such as typhoid fever, in some family of your acquaintance

(perhaps your own), including doctor's bills, medicines, time lost

from work, etc.

What would such expense mean to a family living on as low wages as

those mentioned on page 167?

EDUCATION AND PHYSICAL DEFECTS

Moreover, the nation loses a great deal (how much cannot be

calculated) from the physical unfitness of many who keep on

working, but who are not fully efficient because of bodily defects

or ailments. We see the results of this even in school. Pupils who

lag behind their mates in their studies are often suffering from

physical defects of which their teachers, and even they

themselves, may be unaware. It may be that they are ill-nourished,

or that they have defective vision, or hearing, or teeth, or that

they sleep in poorly ventilated rooms. The community does not get

its money's worth from its schools if its children are not in

physical condition to profit by them. In a similar manner earning

and productive power are reduced.

PHYSICAL UNFITNESS IN RURAL COMMUNITIES

It has usually been assumed that the people in rural districts are

more healthy than those who live in cities; but it has been found

that there is as much physical unfitness there as elsewhere. It is

true that the records of the war department seem to show fewer men

rejected in rural districts as totally unfit for any kind of

military service; but evidence of other kinds has been collected

that indicates that some kinds of disease, at least, and many

physical defects are more prevalent in the country than in the

city. In THE LURE OF THE LAND, Dr. Harvey Wiley makes a comparison

of the death rate from certain diseases in a few states where the

figures are available for both city and country.

[Footnote: Dr. Harvey Wiley, THE LURE OF THE LAND, Chapter VIII,

"Health on the Farm," pp. 53-60.]

RURAL AND CITY SCHOOL CHILDREN COMPARED

Studies have been made of the comparative health of city and rural

school children, which show results in favor of the former. Of

330,179 children examined in New York City 70 percent were found

defective, while of 294,427 examined in 1831 rural districts of

Pennsylvania 75 per cent were defective. The preceding chart shows

the comparative prevalence of health defects among city and

country children.

Investigate the following:

Meaning of "vital statistics." Importance of vital statistics to

your community. Where recorded for your county or town. What the

vital statistics of your community for the last year show.

Causes of deaths in your community for the last year. The

percentage of these deaths that were "preventable." Increase or

decrease of death rate in your community during recent years, in

your state.

The nature of the prevailing sicknesses in your community during

the last year. Per cent of these that were contagious. List of

contagious diseases in the order of their prevalence.

Quarantine regulations in your community against contagious

diseases. Extent to which they are observed. Who is responsible

for their observance? For their enforcement?

Observe condition of sidewalks and other public places with

respect to expectoration. Is there a law on the subject in your

community'? Is it observed or enforced? Who is responsible?

Dangers from expectoration.

Medical inspection in the schools of your county, town, and state.

If any, its results. Kinds of defects most commonly found. How is

it conducted? Who sends the inspectors? To what extent the homes

of the community cooperate with the schools in getting results

from medical inspection.

BETTER CONDITIONS IN CITIES DUE TO ORGANIZED TEAM WORK

We may well ask why ill health and physical defects seem to be

more prevalent in rural communities than in cities. The answer

probably is, simply, that in cities they are PREVENTED more

effectively. The chart on page 313 shows that while the death rate

in New York City was 20.6 per thousand in 1900, it had declined to

14 per thousand in 1914; while that in the rural districts of New

York State remained practically the same during these years (15.5

per thousand in 1900, 15.3 in 1914).

This indicates that health conditions in the city were originally

much worse than in the country. They were rapidly improved by

organization for health protection. There is not the occasion, in

rural communities, for the elaborate health-protecting

organization that is now found in all large cities, because the

people in rural communities are not so completely dependent upon

one another nor at the mercy of conditions over which, as

individuals, they have no control. And yet even in rural

communities physical well-being depends largely upon organized

team work.

SCHOOLS AS AN AGENCY FOR HEALTH CONSERVATION

Cities have used their school organization to combat physical

defects and weaknesses of pupils, and that is why they make a

better showing than rural communities in such matters as those

shown in the table on page 312. Removing such defects from young

people means a stronger and more efficient adult population ten or

twenty years from now; for these defects are often the causes of

more serious illness in later years. The table on page 299,

Chapter XIX, shows how much behind cities rural communities have

been in the use of their school organization for this purpose. The

encouraging thing is, however, that rural communities are

beginning to find the means to use their schools in this way. The

way has been opened by school consolidation (p. 295), by the

grouping of all the small and isolated schools of a county under a

central county administration (p. 294), by aid from the state,

both in money and in supervision, and by cooperation from the

national government.

HEALTH EDUCATION FOR ADULTS IN CITIES

Cities have extended their health-educational work to the adult

population. This takes place in part through the schools also.

Instruction given to children is of course taken home by them.

Visiting nurses employed by the schools visit the homes. Classes

for mothers are conducted at the school in the afternoon or

evening. But more than this, city boards of health, often in

cooperation with the school authorities, conduct educational

campaigns by means of literature distributed to the homes through

school children, by means of evening lectures and moving pictures,

and through the newspapers.

AGENCIES FOR HEALTH EDUCATION IN RURAL COMMUNITIES

Means are not wanting for similar work in rural communities. The

homes may be reached by the right kind of instruction in the

schools. The classes or clubs for women conducted by women county

agents may be, and often are, used as means of health instruction.

Public meetings at the "community center" at the schoolhouse may

be devoted at times to public health problems, with lectures,

moving pictures, and discussions. The local newspapers always

afford a channel through which to get matters of this kind before

the people. Local and state boards of health, the United States

Department of Agriculture, and the Public Health Service may and

do use these and other agencies to reach the people.

RESPONSIBILITY OF THE HOME

No matter how much machinery for cooperation we may have in our

community, like that described above, it cannot help much unless

every family and every citizen cooperates intelligently.

In a large city, a small group of men, constituting the city

council, may inaugurate measures which will accomplish sanitary

improvements at thousands of homes; but for the accomplishment of

sanitary improvements at 1000 farm homes at least 1000 persons ...

must be convinced that the sanitary measures are needed, become

informed how to apply them, and be willing to put them into

operation.

[Footnote: RURAL SANITATION, by L. L. Lumsden, Public Health

Bulletin No. 94, United States Public Health Service, p. 10.]

THE IMPORTANCE OF PURE AIR

Pure air is essential to good health. It is not always easy to get

in the crowded living and working conditions of cities. There it

is necessary to regulate these conditions by law, and factories

and tenements are inspected to see that they are properly

ventilated and not overcrowded. In rural communities there is less

excuse for bad air, and the responsibility for it rests more

directly upon the individual, as illustrated on page 112, Chapter

X.

BAD AIR AND THE SPREAD OF DISEASE

It might seem that it is nobody's business but our own how we live

in our homes or at our work. But bad air lessens vitality and

nurtures disease. This reduces productive power. Moreover, colds,

influenza, and tuberculosis (of which more than a million people

are constantly sick in the United States), all of which are

nourished in bad air, may be spread by contact, or by food handled

by those who are sick. People who live in bad air at home mingle

with others at church, in moving picture theaters, at school, in

the courtroom, and in other public meeting places, which are

themselves often poorly ventilated. It is strange that court

rooms, where justice is administered, schools where children are

prepared for life, and churches where people worship, are so often

badly ventilated.

Report on the following:

Is your schoolroom well ventilated? How do you know? What effect

does poor ventilation have upon your feelings and your work?

If the law requires school attendance, why should it also require

good ventilation of the school?

If the ventilation of your school is not good, what may you do

about it? Who is responsible for it?

Observe and report upon the ventilation of the court rooms, moving

picture theaters, churches, and other meeting places in your

community.

PURE WATER AND HEALTH

Cities go to great expense to get an abundant pure-water supply.

It is of the greatest importance in community sanitation Impure

water is one of the chief sources of typhoid fever and other

diseases of the intestines. About 400,000 persons have typhoid

fever every year in the United States, and 30,000 are killed by

it; and it is unnecessary. We have from three to five times as

much typhoid as many European countries have, and for no other

reason than that we are negligent.

PURE FOOD AND HEALTH

Pure, clean, wholesome food is equally essential. We need not

dwell upon the importance of the right kinds of food and well-

cooked food. Much illness is caused by "spoiled" foods. Disease

germs may be carried by food as well as by water. Tuberculosis may

be carried by milk, either from diseased cattle, or from victims

of the disease who handle the milk at some point in its progress

from the dairy farm to the home. The death rate among babies is

appalling, especially in cities, because of the use of milk

containing germs of intestinal diseases. Typhoid fever may be

contracted from milk, green vegetables, and oysters from beds

contaminated with sewage.

The food supply of cities passes through many hands before it

reaches the consumer. At almost every point it is protected by

regulations and inspection. Most of it, however, comes originally

from the farm which is beyond the control of the city authorities.

The producers and handlers of food products in rural districts

therefore owe it not only to themselves but also to their city

neighbors to exercise every possible precaution against the spread

of disease. Such precautions consist in cleanliness in handling

and storing milk, butter, and meats; in the cleansing of milk

receptacles with pure water; in the proper location and

construction of wells; in protecting springs from surface

drainage; in sanitary disposal of sewage and other wastes from the

household; in protection of food against flies.

SANITATION IN CITIES

In cities a great deal of attention is given to sanitation. Sewage

is carried off by public sewers. Householders are required to

place garbage in sanitary cans, whence it is collected and

disposed of in such a way as not to pollute the soil. Ashes and

refuse are carried away from homes and shops, and the streets are

cleaned daily. In rural communities such matters are left almost

entirely to the householder.

FLIES AS DISEASE CARRIERS

Exposed garbage, improperly built outdoor toilets, and stable

manure are breeding places of flies; and flies are notorious

carriers of disease. Yet, out of more than 3000 homes in one

county in Indiana only 31 made provision to prevent stable manure

from breeding flies, and the same was true of only 1 out of more

than 2000 homes in a county in North Carolina, and only 86 out of

nearly 5000 homes in an Alabama county.

DANGER FROM MOSQUITOES

Malaria is widespread in the United States and imposes a heavy

toll upon the nation's health. It is carried from one victim to

another by a certain kind of mosquito, of which it is

comparatively easy to get rid by proper drainage of breeding

places, by treating the surface of pools with kerosene, by

screening, and by seeing to it that rain barrels are covered and

that tin cans and other receptacles of water are not left lying

around. But flies and mosquitoes do not stop with fences, nor do

they recognize city or county boundaries. Hence, individual effort

without community cooperation is likely to be useless.

POLLUTED SOIL AND HOOKWORM DISEASE

The terrible hookworm disease so prevalent in our southern states

is caused by a minute worm that infests soil polluted with sewage.

It penetrates the soles of the feet of those who go barefoot and

the palms of the hands of those who work in the soils, finds its

way through the blood to the intestines, and thence to the soil

again. An investigation in 770 counties in 11 states where

hookworm disease is prevalent showed that out of 287,606 farm

homes only six tenths of one per cent disposed of their sewage in

such a way as to prevent soil pollution.

Out of 305 homes in a little community in Mississippi, only 4

properly disposed of sewage. When the first investigations were

made, there were 407 cases of hookworm disease out of 1002

residents. Besides, there had been recently 12 cases of

tuberculosis, 47 of typhoid fever, 184 of malaria, and 384 of

dysentery.

Safe methods of disposing of sewage were introduced, houses were

screened, an artesian well was bored for a public water supply,

and the community cleaned up generally. After these improvements

the various diseases almost entirely disappeared. Similar results

were obtained in 99 other communities in the southern states.

[Footnote: Report of the Rockefeller Foundation, 1917, pp. 136-

138.]

Topics for investigation:

The water supply of farms in your locality. Any recent

improvements.

The public water supply (if any) of your community. Its sources.

Method of purification. Quality of water. How the people know it

is pure or impure. Public or private ownership of the supply. Cost

to the householder.

Extent to which the families represented in your class depend upon

private wells. How many have had their well water examined to test

its purity. How to proceed to have water tested. Who tests it? Who

pays for the test? (If possible, visit the laboratory where the

tests are made.)

Number of cases of typhoid fever in your community, now or during

last year. How the information can be obtained. Is the information

likely to be accurate? Whose business is it to keep a record? Why

should a record be kept? Why should it be made public?