The Teacher’s Motives and Ideals.
The teacher’s life is a most arduous one. Like that of the scholar
and scientist it presents few attractions. It has none of the external
brilliant dramatic quality that makes the soldier’s and stateman’s
career attractive, and as its material remuneration is relatively
scanty, and the chance of promotion to a lucrative position is almost
excluded, it can make little impression on an age whose watchwords are
exterior success and material progress.[1067] Still, the teacher’s
mission is one of the greatest importance while touched with sublimity.
It is in a way a “priestly” office, for the material on which the
teacher works is the mind, the immortal soul of man; his object is
truly “sacerdotal,” namely to consecrate these souls to their Creator,
to make them more God-like in wisdom and moral goodness. The teacher is
also entrusted with the destinies of society; the children and youths
whom he now trains will one day be the heads of families, the parents
of a new generation, the men that powerfully influence public opinion
for good or ill, in the press and from the platform, the citizens whose
vote will make or mar their country. Surely, this is a profession that
deserves the enthusiasm of noble hearts and the absorbing interest of
the ablest minds.
In the case of the Jesuit teacher there can be no question of a
material compensation. What he needs for his sustenance is furnished by
the Order; beyond this he seeks no earthly reward. In this all members
of the Order are equally situated: the professor of philosophy and the
teacher of the lowest grammar class, the President of the college, and
the lay brother who acts as porter. What, then, are the motives that
inspire him to undergo willingly and cheerfully the labors and trials
of his profession? They are in the first place the consideration of
the _utility_ and the _dignity_ of his calling. He is convinced that
teaching is a grand and noble profession. St. Gregory Nazianzen says:
“There is nothing more God-like than to benefit others;”[1068] and what
benefit can be greater than that of education, as we have described it
in previous chapters: the making of man, the harmonious development
of all his faculties, the fitting him for best performing the duties
of this life and the preparing him for the life to come? Is not this
thought a reward as well as a powerful incentive for the teacher to
exert himself most strenuously in his sublime vocation?
The Jesuits Sacchini and Jouvancy have written some beautiful passages
on this subject. Their comparisons may seem to some far-fetched or
even fantastic, but they will appear natural and appropriate to every
person who views things in the light of the teaching of the Great
Master. These two Jesuits say that the school may be considered as a
_garden_, a nursery,[1069] in which the choicest trees and flowers are
cultivated, plants whose saplings are not brought from the tropics,
but from heaven, whither they are again to be transplanted, when fully
grown. They are, under the tender and prudent care of the teacher, to
yield abundant fruit of virtues, of human and divine wisdom. They are
to become the ornaments of Church, State and society. They are the
plants of which the Son of Sirach said: “Hear me, ye divine offspring
and bud forth as the rose planted by the brooks of waters, give ye a
sweet odor as frankincense. Send forth flowers, as the lily, and bring
forth leaves in grace.”[1070] In this garden the teacher, like him
“who sowed the good seed,” has to sow and to plant by instruction,
to dig and to water by practice and exercise, to weed and to prune
by salutary admonition, to fence and restrain by wise regulations.
Besides, the virtuous example of the teacher combined with cheerfulness
in performing all his duties, will be the atmosphere in which the
plants grow wonderfully. However, the husbandman can plant and water,
but not prevent storms and hail and frost and drought, and, therefore,
implores heaven’s protection for his fields; so the teacher must see
the necessity of divine blessing for his class, a grace which will be
given to humble and fervent prayer.
The teacher may consider himself the _shepherd_ of the tender lambs
of the flock of Christ.[1071] The children, in a special sense, may
be called the lambs of Christ’s flock. The teacher’s duty is to feed
them, to lead them to the wholesome pasture and to the clear springs of
divine and human knowledge. He must protect them against the wolves,
especially those that “are clothed in sheepskins,” that come in the
garb of agnostic and infidel science, or in the glittering dress of
pernicious reading. He must protect his flock without sparing himself,
not fly from dangers and exertions like the hireling, but must be
ready to “give his life for his sheep,” that means, he must sacrifice
himself, devote all his time and strength to his class. He should “go
before his sheep” by his good example, attract them by kindness and
meekness, that they may “know his voice and follow him, and fly not
from him as from a stranger whose voice they know not.”[1072]
Again, is not the teacher to be compared to a _sculptor_, or a
_painter_?[1073] We admire the masterpieces of Phidias, Praxiteles,
Lysippus, of Michael Angelo and Raphael. And yet, the teacher’s art
is far nobler. Those artists produced likenesses of marble or bronze,
likenesses that are cold and lifeless, whereas the teacher is working
at living statues. Those artists could produce only exterior likenesses
of men or of superior beings; the teacher shapes the innermost nature
of man. Nay, more, the Christian teacher endeavors to bring out more
beautifully the image of God. Christ, the true teacher of mankind is
his ideal and model. In prayer and meditation on the life of Christ,
he studies line after line of him to whom he applies the words of the
royal prophet: “Thou art beautiful above the sons of men, grace is
poured abroad in thy lips. With thy comeliness and beauty set out,
proceed prosperously and reign.”[1074] Having grasped this beauty he
tries to express in his own character, and then to embody in the hearts
of his pupils that heavenly beauty of purity, humility, meekness and
charity which shines forth from every word and action of the God-man.
Thus he is making real living pictures of Christ, which for all
eternity shall be ornaments in heaven, the trophies of the labors and
struggles of the zealous teacher. And whereas the greatest artist can
work only at one statue or picture at the same time, the teacher is
working on as many as he has auditors.
The teacher is an _architect_; he does not build merely a splendid city
hall, nor a national capitol, nor even a cathedral of stone or marble:
he builds up those living temples, of which St. Paul speaks: “Know you
not that you are the temple of God, and that the Spirit of God dwelleth
in you?”[1075]
The teacher is the _tutor of the sons of the Most High_. King Philip
of Macedon chose Aristotle as preceptor to his son Alexander, an office
which the great philosopher discharged for many years. The letter
which Philip wrote to invite Aristotle, is said to have been couched
in the following terms: “Be informed that I have a son, and that I am
thankful to the gods not so much for his birth as that he was born in
the same age with you; for if you will undertake the charge of his
education, I assure myself that he will become worthy of his father
and of the kingdom which he will inherit.” King Philip’s hope was not
disappointed. His son, Alexander the Great, became one of the greatest
figures in human history, and his success is partly due to his great
teacher. At all times it was a much coveted honor to be the tutor to
the sons of Emperors, Kings, Princes, and other high personages. Is not
every Christian teacher tutor to the sons of the King of Kings?[1076]
St. John says: “Behold, what manner of charity the Father has bestowed
upon us, that we should be called and should be the sons of God.”[1077]
Lastly, the teacher should consider himself the _representative_ and
_successor_ of Christ in his love for his children. No feature in the
life of the Teacher of mankind is more fascinating than his love for
children. The Gospels commemorate a scene of unspeakable tenderness
and sweetness. “Then little children were brought to him that he might
touch them.”[1078] He does not bless them together, but lays his hands
on every child, and takes one after the other in his arms. From this
scene Christian teachers must learn an important lesson: love and
reverence for children. Indeed, princes of heaven are appointed their
guardians, and the teacher should be like them in watchful care for the
young. This care is all the more necessary as the teacher in higher
schools has to do with the young when the first and most attractive
chapter of their history is already over, at the time when the storms
of temptations rage most furiously in their hearts. With Christ’s
love for children must frequently be united the good _Samaritan’s_
compassion and anxious solicitude for the wayfarer who fell among the
robbers. Frequently enough there is sad need of the teacher’s fatherly
care, not only in the case of the children of the poor but also of the
rich. Some wealthy parents pride themselves that they do all in their
power to procure for their children the best possible education, from
the best instructors in elocution, music, gymnastics, etc., and yet
that which above all is education--moral and religious training--is
sadly neglected, owing to the indifference that pervades the family
life. In consequence of this neglect of the most important part of
education, it has happened that many a man ended his life in disgrace
and wretchedness whose childhood was spent among the luxuries of a
splendid home. Fortunate is the youth who is placed under the tutelage
of teachers who endeavor to counteract the baneful influences of a
neglected or ill-directed home training. These considerations explain
the anxious care and strenuous exertions of religious teachers to
promote the moral training of their charges. They realize that now is
the spring-time of life when the good seed must be sown, if a rich
harvest is to be hoped for in the autumn. They know that now their
work is most useful, most promising of success. Now the pupil’s nature
is docile and pliable as wax. And if it were hard as marble, still
the material is not yet spoiled and may be shaped into a beautiful
statue, and it should not be forgotten, of the hardest marble the
most endurable statues are made, though with greater care and labor.
Similarly the most stubborn and headstrong of boys, under patient and
prudent guidance, often develop into the finest character of manhood.
To the Jesuit these considerations furnish powerful incentives, the
motives which inspire him in all his work. St. Ignatius, in calling
his Order the Society of Jesus, wished to impress it forcibly on the
minds of his sons that they were to endeavor to imitate him whose name
they bear, especially in his zeal for the glory of his Father and the
welfare of men. Indeed, other educators may take as their guides and
ideals Spencer, or Rousseau, or Kant, or Pestalozzi, or Herbart--the
Jesuits’ guide and ideal is Christ.[1079] Him they are told to imitate
in his devotion to his life-work, in his all-embracing zeal, in his
patience and meekness. In education they behold a participation in the
work of the Great Master, that work whose end and object it is to make
men truly wise, good, and God-like, and thereby to lead them to true
happiness. Can there be a nobler, a loftier work, a holier mission on
earth?
When the teacher thus reflects on the dignity of his work, and on its
necessity and utility for the individual, the family, the State and
the Church, can he ever become tired and disgusted with it? Are all
these considerations not most encouraging, and do they not constitute
one of the rewards of the teacher? He may truly say with the sacred
writer: “Wisdom I have learned without guile and communicate without
envy and her riches I hide not,”[1080] and again: “I have not labored
for myself alone, but for all who seek discipline.”[1081] Such thoughts
may well inspire a man with love and enthusiasm for this profession.
To the Jesuit the educational work is a labor of love. We read that in
the seventeenth century, in the period of witch panic, some Protestant
writers charged the Jesuits with using secret charms in order to attach
the pupils to themselves and to advance them in learning.[1082] Indeed,
the Jesuits as educators have a spell, and make no secret of it, but
they will be glad if others wish to borrow it. This spell is nothing
but ardent _devotion_ to their work, a devotion which springs from
the conviction of the importance and usefulness of their work. This
devotion is their strongest motive to action and it urges them to use
all the resources within their reach.
Although the teacher does not seek himself in his work, nevertheless he
labors also for himself. What better compensation can there be than the
thought of performing so important a work, the conviction that through
his instrumentality noble characters are formed, that some youths are
preserved in their innocence and others led back from evil paths on
which they had trodden in their ignorance and levity? The teacher may
not receive much recognition and gratitude for his efforts--youths
do not reflect on the debts they owe to a zealous teacher--, nor is
it this that he is looking for in his labors. However, some pupils
will show their thankfulness by a lifelong affection for their former
master. If one wishes to know with what reverence, devotion, and
frequently with what attachment Jesuit pupils regard their teachers,
let him read the biographies of Jesuit educators. The letters written
by former pupils sufficiently testify to the impressions made by their
religious teachers.
If one wishes to see beautiful specimens of the relation of Jesuit
pupils to their teachers, he may read the biography of Father Alexis
Clerc, who left the French Navy to become a Jesuit and professor of
mathematics and was shot by the Communards in Paris 1871.[1083]
But it is rather the success of his pupils over which the teacher
rejoices, than their tribute of gratitude. An incident is related of
the life of Father Bonifacio, a distinguished Jesuit teacher of the
Old Society, who for more than forty years taught the classics. One
day he was visited by his brother, a professor in a university, whom
he had not seen for many years. When the professor heard that the
Father had spent all the years of his life in the Society in teaching
Latin and Greek to young boys, he exclaimed: “You have wasted your
great talents in such inferior work! I expected to find you at least a
professor of philosophy or theology. What have you done that this post
is assigned to you?” Father Bonifacio quietly opened a little book,
and showed him the list of hundreds of pupils whom he had taught, many
of whom occupied high positions in Church or State, or in the world
of business. Pointing at their names, the Father said with a pleasant
smile: “The success which my pupils have achieved is to me a far
sweeter reward than any honor which I might have obtained in the most
celebrated university of the kingdom.”
Not all teachers may have the consolation of seeing their pupils in
high positions. It happens that the best efforts of a devoted teacher
seem to be lost on many pupils. Even this will not discourage the
religious teacher. He will remember that his model, Jesus Christ, did
not reap the fruit which might have been expected from the teaching
of such a Master. Not all that he sowed brought forth fruit, a
hundredfold, not even thirtyfold. Some fell upon stony ground, and
some other fell among the thorns, and yet he went on patiently sowing.
So a teacher ought not to be disheartened if the success should not
correspond with his labors. He knows that one reward is certainly in
store for him, the measure of which will not be his success, but his
zeal; not the fruit, but his efforts. The Great Master has promised
that “whosoever shall give to drink to one of these little ones a cup
of cold water, he shall not lose his reward.”[1084] What, then, may
he expect, who has given the little ones of Christ not a cup of cold
water, but with great patience and labor has opened to them the streams
of knowledge, human and divine? Indeed, “they that instruct many to
justice shall shine as stars for all eternity.”[1085]
FOOTNOTES:
[1067] See _Brownson’s Review_, 1860, pp. 303 and 314.
[1068] Migne, _Patrologia Graeca_, vol. XXXV, 892.
[1069] Sacchini, _Paraenesis_, art. 5, no. 1-2.
[1070] _Ecclesiasticus_ 39, 17 sq.
[1071] Sacchini, _Paraenesis_, art. 5, no. 3.
[1072] _John_ 10, 4. 5. 11.
[1073] Sacchini, _Protrepticon_, Part I, art. 8.
[1074] _Psalm_ 44, 3 sq.
[1075] 1. _Cor._ 3, 16.
[1076] Sacchini, _Protrepticon_, Part I, art. 12.
[1077] 1 _John_ 3, 1.
[1078] _Mark_ 10, 13.
[1079] On the “Pedagogy of Our Lord” there is a beautiful article by
Father Meschler, S. J., in the _Stimmen aus Maria-Laach_, vol. 38,
1890, p. 265 foll.
[1080] _The Book of Wisdom_ 7, 13.
[1081] _Ecclesiasticus_ 33, 18.
[1082] See above pp. 147-148.
[1083] _Alexis Clerc, Sailor and Martyr_, New York, Sadlier, 1879.
See especially chap. XII: “Father Clerc and his pupils.” It may be
interesting to add that the American edition of this biography is
dedicated to the memory of Father Andrew Monroe, S. J. (grand-nephew of
President Monroe), officer in the American Navy and a convert to the
Catholic faith, who, after spending his religious life, like his friend
Father Clerc, chiefly in the humble duties of a professor, died at St.
Francis Xavier College, New York, 1871.
[1084] _Matth._ 10, 42.
[1085] _Daniel_ 12, 3.
Conclusion.
We have examined the educational system of the Jesuits in its various
aspects, its history and its principles, its theory and practice, its
aims and means. There are few of its principles which have not been
censured by some of its opponents. But we have also seen that there
is hardly one principle in it which has not been heartily recommended
by most distinguished educators, Protestants as well as Catholics. We
have seen that on many lines there is, at present, a decided return to
what the Jesuits defended and practised all along.[1086] Can it then be
said in justice that the Jesuit system is antiquated and that little
can be hoped for it, and from its principles, in the improvement of
education at present? Or can it be said with a modern writer that “the
regulations of the Jesuit system of studies, viewed in the light of
modern requirements, need not shun any comparison, and the pedagogical
wisdom contained therein, is in no way antiquated”?[1087] Another
writer declared a few years ago, with reference to modern school
systems: “Those now living may desire that in the new much of the old
may be preserved which has proved of benefit.”[1088] May it not be said
that much, very much, of the Jesuit system should be preserved, and
that many of its principles and regulations could, with best advantage,
be followed in the education of the present day? We leave it to the
impartial reader to pass judgment. It is true that in our times Jesuit
education is not viewed with favor by the many. To some it is too
religious, too “clerical;” to others it appears old-fashioned. For this
reason it is not popular; popular favor is never bestowed on what seems
old. It is the novelty that attracts, and the bolder the innovations,
the more captivating for the large majority of the people. This is as
true now as it was 2600 years ago when old Homer sang:
“For novel lays attract our ravished ears;
But old, the mind with inattention hears.”
And yet the novel songs are not always the best.--As to the Jesuits,
they know full well that there are not many who will take the trouble
to investigate thoroughly their educational system, in order to pass
a fair and independent judgment on its merit, but that there are many
who will content themselves with repeating the verdict passed on this
system by others who were either ignorant of its true character, or
were misled in their estimates by prejudice. Hence the Jesuits do
not expect that the misrepresentations of their system will ever
cease; their experience of three hundred years has taught them not to
entertain such sanguine hopes. On the other hand, this same experience
has taught them another valuable lesson, namely, not to be disheartened
by the antipathy and opposition of those who do not know them, but to
continue their efforts to realize, to the best of their ability, in the
education of Catholic youth that which they have chosen as their motto:
_The greater glory of God, and the welfare of their fellow-men._
FOOTNOTES:
[1086] See especially chapter XVI.
[1087] See above p. 288.
[1088] Dr. Nohle of Berlin, in the _Report of the Commissioner of
Education_, 1897-1898, vol. I, p. 82.
APPENDIX I.
Additions and Corrections.
CHAPTER I.
Observations on American Histories of Education.[1089]
In the course of the present book we have frequently had occasion
to point out that the histories of education by Painter, Seeley and
Compayré are utterly untrustworthy in their account of the Jesuit
system, and of Catholic education in general. It is natural to infer
that in other respects they may be equally unreliable. Professor
Cubberley, in his recent _Syllabus of Lectures on the History of
Education_ (New York, Macmillan, 1902), says, on page 1, that the works
of “Painter, Payne, and Seeley are very unsatisfactory, and are not
referred to in the Syllabus.” The same should have been done as regards
Compayré; for his _History of Pedagogy_ is as unsatisfactory as those
mentioned before; it only assumes an air of impartiality, which makes
it all the more insidious. (See the present book, pp. 10-11.) Some
writers quote from the Ratio Studiorum, but the quotations are often
mistranslated in such a manner that they are hardly recognizable when
compared with the original. Setting aside the disastrous influence
which antipathy and prejudice may have had on some writers, the
following reasons may account for many errors. The Ratio Studiorum is
in many respects a peculiar document, which is unintelligible unless
one is acquainted with the Latin terminology of scholastic philosophy
and theology, and there are exceedingly few non-Catholic writers on
education who possess this knowledge. Further, numerous regulations
of the Ratio are clear only when explained by other documents of the
Society, which have either not been known, or not been examined by
these writers. Another difficulty is to be found in the fact that the
Ratio contains also the regulations for the studies of the members of
the Society. Some writers have confounded rules for the novices and
scholastics of the Order with regulations for the lay pupils in the
colleges. Thus what is said in the _Constitutions_ of the Society about
the obedience to be rendered to Superiors by the Jesuits themselves,
Mr. Painter has applied to the lay students. (_Hist. of Ed._, p.
170.) Evidently an entirely false impression must be produced by such
confusion.
However, in most cases it is almost certain that these writers
have not taken the trouble to examine the Ratio Studiorum, but have
contented themselves with copying the assertions of untrustworthy
secondary authorities. Raumer’s _History of Education_ seems still
to be considered by some a reliable source. Even Professor Cubberley
styles it “still quite valuable” (_l. c._). And yet this work is
altogether antiquated. Besides, in regard to Catholic education it is
so biased that fair-minded Protestants have rejected many parts of it.
Thus Henry Barnard, in his translation of the chapter on the Jesuit
schools, says: “We omit in this place as well as towards the close
of the article, several passages of Raumer’s chapter on the Jesuits,
in which he discusses, from the extreme Protestant stand-point, the
influence of the confessional, and the principles of what he calls
‘Jesuitical’ morality. These topics, and especially when handled
in a partisan spirit, are more appropriate to a theological and
controversial, than to an educational journal. The past as well as
the present organization of the schools of the Jesuits, the course
of instruction, the methods of teaching and discipline, are worthy
of profound study by teachers and educators, who would profit by the
experience of wise and learned men.” (_American Journal of Education_,
vol. V, p. 215.) However, even in the statements which Barnard
accepted from Raumer, there are not a few that are incorrect. Owing to
protests of Raumer, Barnard, in the VI. volume of his journal, added
the passages which he had omitted in the previous translation. The
misrepresentations which Raumer had borrowed from Pascal and others,
need not be dwelt on here.
Nor is the estimate of the Jesuit system correct which is found in
the _History of Modern Education_, by Samuel H. Williams, Professor
of the Science and Art of Teaching, in Cornell University. The author
evidently endeavored at times to be impartial, but he was not fortunate
in the choice of his sources. They were evidently not the original
documents. Otherwise he would not have been betrayed into such absurd
statements as this: “The teachers were mostly novices of the Order,
with a much smaller number of the fully professed brothers.” Now, as
the chapter on the “Training of the Jesuit Teacher” proves, novices are
not employed in teaching, and the Jesuit is not engaged in teaching
until after a training of five or six years succeeding the _completion_
of the novitiate. The expression “fully professed brothers,” also,
shows that this author knows very little about Jesuit teachers.
Mr. Shoup, in his _History and Science of Education_, admits many good
features in the Jesuit system; he expressly states that it has many
points in common with American methods, but then his authorities lead
him away into the old tirades of “neglecting mathematics, sciences,
practical knowledge; suppressing of independent thought,” etc.
We gladly acknowledge that the latest American book on the subject,
Mr. Kemp’s _History of Education_ (Lippincott, 1902), is, in point of
impartiality, superior to most other works. On the whole, it is free
from offensive attacks on the relation of the Church to education.
However, we must say that it is not free from assertions which cannot
stand in the light of modern historical research. Particularly in
chapter XV, many statements need considerable correction, v. g., the
assertion that before the Reformation “the large majority of the people
felt no need of education and took little interest in it.” With this
should be compared the authors from whom we quoted on p. 23 _sqq._
On p. 172, Mr. Kemp repeats Green’s assertions about the Grammar
schools founded by Henry VIII. But Mr. Arthur F. Leach has proved,
from incontestable documents, that this is a pure myth, and that the
statements of Green and Mullinger are a distortion of the historical
facts. In his _English Schools at the Reformation_ (Westminster,
Archibald Constable, 1896), Mr. Leach says: “The records appended to
this book show that close on 200 Grammar [secondary] schools existed in
England before the reign of Edward VI., which were, for the most part,
abolished or crippled under him.... It will appear, however, that these
records are defective.... three hundred Grammar schools is a moderate
estimate of the number in the year 1535, when the floods of the great
revolution were let loose. Most of them were swept away either under
Henry or his son; or if not swept away, they were plundered and
damaged” (pp. 5-6). Of the character of these schools the author says
that they were not mere “monkish” schools, but secondary schools of
exactly the same type as the secondary schools of the present day.
Considering the population of England at the time, there were previous
to the Reformation more higher schools in England than at present; in
Herefordshire, v. g., 17 higher schools for a population of 30,000!
Nearly every town had a higher school. (_Ib._, 99-100.) Mr. Leach
confesses that his researches revolutionize the traditional view of
pre-Reformation schools in England, and that on this account his book
was looked upon unfavorably by some people.--We call attention to these
facts, because they show how the current tradition has influenced
men who earnestly endeavor to be impartial. Had all American writers
been animated by the spirit of fair-mindedness and zeal for correct
information which distinguished that excellent American educator, and
first U. S. Commissioner of Education, Henry Barnard, the cause of
truth and justice would have been better served in this country.
CHAPTER II.
The Brethren of the Common Life.
What is said on pp. 31-34 about the Brethren, must partly be
corrected. Recent investigations have proved that they were not, as
Raumer had represented them, an order of teachers like the Jesuits.
They taught, indeed, in a few schools, as in that of Liège; but in
most schools with which they were connected, they received boarders
and looked chiefly after their moral and religious training, while the
secular instruction was in the hands of other teachers, who, however,
were mostly imbued with the spirit of the Brethren. See Paulsen,
_Geschichte des g. U._, 2nd ed., vol. I, pp. 158-160, where this author
modifies, in the same way, the statements expressed in the first
edition of his work. Further see the recent valuable work on _Jakob
Wimpfeling_, by Dr. Knepper (Herder, 1902), page 7.
CHAPTERS V AND VII.
Jesuit Scholars.
CHAPTER V, p. 156.--The importance of Father Saccheri’s work is
being recognized more and more. Professor Ricci of Padua contributed
a highly interesting article to the _Jahresbericht der mathematischen
Verbindung_ (Vol. XI, October-December 1902), on the “Origin and
Development of the Modern Conception of the Foundations of Geometry.”
There it is said that “Saccheri’s works prove him a man of indisputable
merit, and one of the first geometricians of his century.... The
_Euclides vindicatus_ alone is a work which could claim the labors of
a whole life. In this work he erects an edifice of classical beauty
which testifies to the extraordinary ability and geometrical taste of
the architect.” It is a perplexing problem to modern mathematicians
how Saccheri could endeavor to refute his own arguments, with which he
had so ably attacked the Euclidian system. Of this attempt Professor
Ricci says: “To-day it is hard to understand that a man of so sublime
an intellect did not see the truth which he almost could grasp with his
hands, and that he stubbornly tried to destroy with sophisms what he
had built up with so much correct geometrical skill. Able and sagacious
as he is in constructing his system, he is awkward and unskilful,
in tearing it down.”--If for once I may be allowed to venture a
conjecture, I would ask: Is it not possible that Saccheri _did_
grasp the truth, but did not think fit to publish it boldly? He may
have feared lest his contemporaries would raise a cry of indignation
against such a mathematical heresy. Besides, as at that time such
hypotheses would have been looked upon as mere freaks, there may have
been apprehensions that the publication of such a work would injure
the reputation of the college in which Saccheri taught mathematics.
The attacks on the Jesuits on account of the bold theories of Hardouin
(see p. 160), and similar instances in which the whole Society was
reprehended for the attitude of individuals, would have been a
sufficient cause for the wariness of the author. If this explanation
were the correct one, it would certainly account for the weakness of
the arguments which he used to pull down his splendid structure. These
arguments, accordingly, would have been merely a thin veil to hide the
purport of his work. I communicated this conjecture to Father Hagen
of Georgetown, and was surprised to learn that this distinguished
mathematician had given the same explanation of the curious phenomenon
to Professor Halsted of the University of Texas, the translator of
Father Saccheri’s works. However, this is only a conjecture, though
not void of probability. But even if the author did not see the full
truth of his deductions at the time, this has happened to many great
discoverers. Professor Whewell says of Kepler, with reference to a
similar instance, that it seems strange that he did not fully succeed;
“but this lot of missing what afterwards seems to have been obvious,
is a common one in the pursuit of truth.” (_History of the Inductive
Sciences_, vol. II, p. 56. Appleton’s ed., 1859.)
CHAPTER VII.
Among the Jesuit scholars of the last decades mention should have
been made of the sinologist Father Angelo Zottoli, who died in the
College of Zi-ka-wei, near Shanghai, November 9, 1902. In 1876, Baron
von Richthofen, in his work on China, expressed his regret that the
Jesuit missionaries of recent times had not succeeded in regaining
the scientific prestige of the Old Society. But a few years after, in
1879, the first volumes of a work appeared which inaugurated a new
period in the scientific activity of the Jesuits in China. This was
Father Zottoli’s _Cursus Literaturae Sinicae_. When the work had been
completed in five volumes, it put the humble religious in the front
rank of sinologists. It has been styled “a landmark in the history of
Chinese philology,” and received the great prize of the _Académie des
Inscriptions et des belles Lettres_. Mr. Legge, formerly a Protestant
missionary in China, and one of the foremost sinologists of our age,
declares that in Father Zottoli’s _Cursus_ “the scholarship of the
earlier Jesuit missionaries has revived.” (In vol. XXVII of the _Sacred
Books of the East_, Preface, p. XIII.) In Father Zottoli’s school some
able Jesuit sinologists were trained, who now publish their researches
in a special review, the _Variétés Sinologiques_, whose scholarly
character has been frequently attested to by the foremost orientalists.
Father Zottoli was engaged for thirty years in writing a gigantic
Chinese dictionary. The ablest of his pupils are now completing this
work. (See _Kölnische Volkszeitung_, Wochenausgabe, January 1, 1903.)
Some readers may be surprised at the list of Jesuit writers--we have
enumerated only a small fraction of the number of scholars that well
deserve to be known better than is the case--, and ask why so little
is said about them in works that treat of the history of the various
sciences. It is not because their works are not of great importance
for science. The explanation may be found in a remarkable utterance of
the celebrated Kepler, the prince of astronomers: “Alas for prejudice
and hatred! If a Jesuit writes anything, it is completely ignored by
the adherents of Scaliger.” Allusion is made to the famous controversy
on chronology between the Protestant Scaliger and the Jesuit Petavius
(see page 160). The same may be said of many another scientific
discussion. Kepler himself, though a Protestant, was not afraid of
being a friend of Jesuit scholars, nor of asking their opinion on many
of the important questions which he was investigating. (See _Johann
Kepler, der Gesetzgeber der neueren Astronomie_, by Adolph Müller, S.
J., Professor of astronomy in the Gregorian University in Rome [Herder,
1903]; see especially chapters 12 and 17, and page 166.)
CHAPTER VIII.
The Recent Educational Troubles in France.
On page 265 it is said that the non-Catholic view of the Jesuits is
not based on historical facts, but largely on works of fiction. A case
in point is Zola’s posthumous novel, the English edition of which was
issued in this country in February, 1903. The subject of this work was
announced as “illustrating the keenly antagonistic influences of the
_Jesuitical_ and secular parties in France, as instanced in the recent
educational troubles.” Though the book is styled “Truth,” it is in
reality a tissue of falsehoods and enormous charges, not only against
the religious orders, but the Catholic Church as such. The Baltimore
_Sun_, February 19, 1903, says in a very judicious criticism, that the
author “asserts and asserts, but, behold! of proof there is little or
nothing. This, however, will make no difference to those readers to
whom this diatribe appeals [among them the same paper reckons those who
hate the Catholic Church, and who welcome any attack that may be made
upon it]. In the present instance Zola has, seemingly, cared little
about the truth of his statements.” The book furnishes a strong proof
of what we said on page 268, namely, that the present persecution of
the teaching Congregations in France is in reality a brutal attack on
Christianity and all religion. Zola says little about Jesuit education,
but what is meant by secular education, is set forth in clearest light:
All religious beliefs and observances are derided, every sign of
religion is to be banished from the school, women are to be emancipated
from the influence of the Church, experimental science is to take the
place of religion in school and private life. It is the old Voltairian
_Écrasez l’infâme_! This is the antagonist of “Jesuitical” education!
(On this subject see the article of M. Brunetière, in the _Revue des
Deux Mondes_, December 15, 1902: “The Laws of Proscription in France,”
translated in the _Catholic Mind_, New York, 1903, no. 2).
For the Catholic view of the educational movement in France during the
last decade we refer to the _Études_, which contain many excellent
articles not only on the religious side of the question, but also
on modern school reforms, the classics, etc. See especially volumes
54 (page 100 _sqq._), 57 (page 345 _sqq._), 69 (page 224. _sqq._),
70 (page 496 _sqq._), 78 (page 21 _sqq._), 79 (page 41 _sqq._), 84
(page 654 _sqq._), 86 (page 29 _sqq._ and 501 _sqq._). In the volume
mentioned in the last place, the article: _L’Enseignement classique
en Allemagne, son rôle pédagogique_, contains interesting comparisons
between the French and German secondary schools.
CHAPTERS X-XII.
“Impressions of American Education.”
Under the above title, the _Educational Review_ (March, 1903)
published an address delivered by Mr. Sadler, at the Annual Congress
of the Educational Institute, Glasgow, Scotland, December 30, 1902.
Mr. Sadler admires many features in American education: the hearty
belief of Americans in the value of education, the sacrifices they
make for it, etc. But he discovers also the following defects and
weaknesses: 1) In some cases municipal corruption has baleful results
in the sphere of educational administration. 2) There is a grave
doubt whether the stricter forms of intellectual discipline have not
been unduly sacrificed in many American schools. The besetting sin
of some modern methods of education is that they stimulate interest
without laying corresponding stress on intellectual discipline. As it
were, they feed the children on sweeties and plumcake, in a strenuous
revolt against an austere tradition of too much oatmeal porridge.
Nor does home discipline restore the balance. The younger Americans
find it difficult to focus their attention on uncongenial tasks. An
insidious evil is the tendency on the part of teachers to make lessons
interesting by avoiding the harder, duller, and more disciplinary
parts of the subjects. Another evil is the excessive encouraging,
among young children, of what is called “self-realization”, even
occasionally to the point of impertinence. 3) Lack of severe discipline
leads to a third weakness,--superficiality,--with its attendant evils,
exaggeration in language and love of excitement. The Americans do not
as yet sufficiently allow for the slow percolation of ideas into the
mind. They make too many short cuts. They are too fond of the last new
thing. They forget that a pupil gains true independence of taste and
judgment by slowly and thoroughly working his way, under guidance and
with encouragement, through masterpieces as a whole, and through masses
of the same kind of work, often against the grain. All true culture
has in it an element of stubbornness and persistence, which must be
acquired through the lessons of life, and the lessons of the school,
which ought to prepare for life. 4) A fourth danger proceeds from the
tendency of American men to become unduly concentrated in business
pursuits. Many Americans sterilize part of their nature by too great
absorption in the excitement and struggles of commercial competition.
This overzeal for business forms an atmosphere which cannot but affect
educational ideals. Intense absorption in commercial enterprise is
not an aim worthy to dominate the thoughts and lives of the rising
generation of a great people. The noble answer of the Short Catechism
to the question: “What is the chief end of man?”, deserves not to be
forgotten in commercial pursuits.
It may be well to compare these statements with what has been said
in the chapters on the “Intellectual Scope,” “Prescribed Courses or
Elective Studies,” and “Classical Studies”.
FOOTNOTES:
[1089] See also the interesting article: “The History of Education. A
Plea for the Study of Original Sources,” by the Rev. W. Turner, D. D.,
in the new and promising _Review of Catholic Pedagogy_, January, 1903.
APPENDIX II.
Bibliography.
I. Primary Sources.
_The Constitutions of the Society of Jesus._ Numerous editions
in Latin. The English translation, published by a Protestant
in 1838 (London, Rivington, etc.), is very unscholarly and
unreliable.--The fourth part of the Constitutions, which treats of
the studies, is given in Latin and German in the work of Father
Pachtler quoted further on (vol. I, pp. 9-69).
_Decreta Congregationum Generalium._ (Decrees of the General
Congregations of the Society.) The General Congregation is the
legislative assembly of the Order; the decrees of different
Congregations relating to studies are contained in Father
Pachtler’s work, vol. I, pp. 70-125.
_Ratio atque Institutio Studiorum Societatis Jesu_, usually quoted as
_Ratio Studiorum_. Latin text and German translation in Pachtler’s
vol. II, and German translation in Father Duhr’s _Studienordnung_.
Pachtler, G. M., S. J. _Ratio Studiorum et Institutiones Scholasticae
Societatis Jesu per Germaniam olim vigentes._ Berlin, Hofmann,
1887-1894. Volumes II, V, IX, and XVI of the great collection
_Monumenta Germaniae Paedagogica_, edited by Dr. Karl Kehrbach.
This is the standard work on the educational system of the
Jesuits; it contains all the most important historical documents
relating to Jesuit education, particularly in Germany. The great
value of the work has been acknowledged by numerous historians and
writers on pedagogy. (We quote: Pachtler, I, II, III, IV.)
_Monumenta Historica Societatis Jesu_, Madrid, 1894 foll.
A huge collection of material relating to the early history of
the Society. Published since 1894 in monthly instalments of 160
pages each; up to February 1903 there were out 110 instalments.
The collection is a most valuable source of information for the
history of religion and education in the sixteenth century. Of
particular importance for the history of Jesuit education are
instalments 93, 97, 99, 100, 101, 194, entitled:
_Monumenta Paedagogica_, Madrid, 1901-1902.
To be carefully distinguished from Father Pachtler’s volumes in
the _Monumenta Germaniae Paedagogica_.
The following works are important commentaries on the Ratio Studiorum:
Sacchini, F., S. J., _Paraenesis ad Magistros Scholarum Inferiorum
Societatis Jesu_, and _Protrepticon ad Magistros Scholarum
Inferiorum Societatis Jesu_ (1625).--German translation by J.
Stier, S. J., in Herder’s _Bibliothek der katholischen Pädagogik_,
1898, vol. X, pp. 1-185.
Jouvancy, J., S. J., _Ratio Discendi et Docendi_ (1703). Of this
important educational work (see above pp. 434-435) there exist
eighteen editions in the original Latin, a French translation
by J. Lefortier, Paris 1803, and a recent German translation:
_Lern- und Lehrmethode_, by R. Schwickerath, S. J., in Herder’s
_Bibliothek_, etc., 1898, vol. X, pp. 207-322.
Kropf, F. X., S. J., _Ratio et Via Recte atque Ordine Procedendi in
Literis Humanioribus Aetati Tenerae Tradendis_ (1736). German
translation: _Gymnasial-Pädagogik_, by F. Zorell, S. J., in
Herder’s _Bibliothek_, vol. X, pp. 323-466. (We quote Kropf,
_Ratio et Via_.)
2. Works Treating Exclusively of Jesuit Education.
Hughes, T., S. J., _Loyola and the Educational System of the Jesuits_.
New York, Scribners, 1892.--Belongs to the _Great Educators
Series_, edited by Nicholas Murray Butler.
Duhr, B., S. J., _Die Studienordnung der Gesellschaft Jesu_.--Freiburg
(Germany) and St. Louis, Mo., 1896.--
Contains the translation of the Ratio Studiorum (both of 1599 and
of 1832), and a valuable commentary. Father Duhr’s work is volume
IX of Herder’s _Bibliothek der katholischen Pädagogik_.
Maynard, Abbé, _The Studies and Teaching of the Society of Jesus
at the Time of its Suppression_. Translated from the French.
Baltimore, John Murphy, 1855.
De Rochemonteix, C., S. J., _Un Collège de Jésuites aux XVII. et
XVIII. siècles. Le Collège Henri IV. de la Flèche._ 4 volumes. Le
Mans, Leguicheux, 1889.--
This work gives the history of one of the most flourishing
colleges of the Society in France; from detailed descriptions
based on documentary evidence, one can learn how the Ratio
Studiorum was carried into practice.
Chossat, M., S. J., _Les Jésuites et leurs oeuvres à Avignon_,
1553-1768. Avignon, Seguin, 1896.
This work, like the preceding, furnishes interesting details about
the working of the Jesuit system.
De Badts de Cugnac, A., _Les Jésuites et l’éducation_. Lille,
Desclée, 1879.
3. Works Having Particular Reference to Jesuit Education.
Paulsen, F., _Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts auf den deutschen
Schulen und Universitäten vom Ausgang des Mittelalters bis zur
Gegenwart_. Leipsic, Veit and Co., 1885; second edition in two
volumes, 1896-1897.
Dr. Paulsen is one of the leading Professors of the University of
Berlin. Of the present work the _Report of the Commissioner of
Education_ (1896-1897, I, p. 199) says: “It is a most thorough
historical review of higher education known in the educational
literature of any country.” The chapter on the colleges of the
Society and the educational labors of the Jesuits (vol. I,
pp. 379-432) is far more thorough, more independent, and more
impartial, than most books written on the Jesuits by non-Catholics.
Schmid, K. A., _Geschichte der Erziehung vom Anfang bis auf unsere
Zeit_. 5 volumes in 10 parts, by a number of scholars and
educators. Stuttgart, Cotta, 1884-1901 (Part 3 of volume V, which
will complete this great history of education, is not yet out).
On Jesuit education see volume III, Abteilung 1, pp. 1-109 (by
Prof. Dr. Müller of Dresden); pp. 159-175 (“Jesuit Colleges in
France,” by Dr. E. von Sallwürk, Karlsruhe).--Volume IV, Abteilung
1, pp. 455-467; 538-543.--Volume V, Abteilung 2, pp. 176-221
(“Jesuit Education since 1600; Suppression and Restoration of the
Society; the Revised Ratio Studiorum,” by Dr. von Sallwürk).--The
articles on the Jesuit schools are not free from some serious
misinterpretations of the Ratio Studiorum. Especially Dr. Müller
has misunderstood and rendered falsely several passages. In other
cases, he applies to the secular students of Jesuit Colleges rules
which are only for the younger members of the Society engaged in
studies (_scholastics_).
Ziegler, T., _Geschichte der Pädagogik_. Munich, Beck, 1895. Is part
1, of vol. I of the _Handbuch der Erziehungs- und Unterrichtslehre für
höhere Schulen_, edited by Dr. A. Baumeister.
Dr. Ziegler, Professor of Philosophy and Pedagogy in the
University of Strasburg, is a prominent writer on education in
Germany. In point of impartiality he is inferior to Professor
Paulsen.
Willmann, O., _Didaktik als Bildlungslehre_. 2 volumes, Braunschweig,
Vieweg, second edition, 1894.
The author, a pupil of Herbart, became a Catholic, and is now
Professor of Philosophy and Pedagogy in the University of Prague,
and one of the ablest educational writers in the German tongue.
His _Didaktik_ is one of the most important pedagogical works
published within the last decades.
Quick, H., _Educational Reformers_. London, Longmans, Green and Co.,
1868. The revised edition forms part of the _International Education
Series_, New York, Appleton, 1890.
Jourdain, C., _Histoire de l’Université de Paris aux 17e et 18e
siècles_. 2 volumes. Paris, Didot, 1888.
A very valuable work; gives an account of the struggles of the
Jesuits with the University.
Duhr, B., S. J., _Jesuitenfabeln_ (Jesuit myths). Freiburg and St.
Louis, Herder, 3. edition, 1899.
To this work readers must be referred who wish to see the
absurdity of most legends about the Jesuits. The book has, in
the words of a non-Catholic review, “done away With a heap of
calumnies against the Order.” (_Literarisches Centralblatt_,
Leipzig, 1899.)
Du Lac, S. J., _Jésuites_. Paris, Librairie Plon, 1901.
Huber, J., _Der Jesuiten-Orden_. Berlin, Habel, 1873.
Janssen, J., _Geschichte des deutschen Volkes seit dem Ausgang des
Mittelalters_. 8 volumes. Herder, Freiburg and St. Louis. The edition
used is the 18th of the first three volumes (1897-1899); 16th of vols.
IV and VI; 14th of vol. V; 12th of vols. VII and VIII. The first three
volumes have been translated into English:
_History of the German People at the Close of the Middle Ages_, by M.
A. Mitchell and A. M. Christie. 6 volumes. London, Kegan Paul, 1896,
1900, 1903, and St. Louis, Mo., Herder.
It is superfluous to comment on this famous work. No historical
work of the 19th century caused such a stir all over Europe as
the history of the Reformation period written by Janssen from the
testimony of the Reformers and their contemporaries. Unfortunately
the greater part of Dr. Janssen’s illustrative notes, in which
the chief value of the work consists, are missing in the English
version. Besides, it is not free from mistranslations; hence
the German original ought to be consulted.--Jesuit education is
chiefly treated in volumes IV, V and VII.
4. Miscellaneous Works.
Butler, N. M., _Education in the United States_. A Series of Monograms
prepared for the United States Exhibit at the Paris Exposition,
1900. Edited by Nicholas Murray Butler. Albany, J. B. Lyon
Company, 1900.
Newman, Cardinal, _Idea of a University_, and _Historical Sketches_.
London and New York, Longmans.
Russell, J. E., _German Higher Schools_. New York, Longmans, 1899.
Gives a good account of the German Gymnasium, its history,
organization and practical working.
_The Life of James McCosh._ A Record Chiefly Autobiographical. Edited
by W. M. Sloane. New York, Scribners, 1897.
The life of the President of Princeton College is deserving of the
careful study of all American teachers.
Fitch, Sir Joshua, _Thomas and Matthew Arnold and their Influence on
English Education_. New York, Scribners, 1897. (_Great Educators
Series._)
Alzog, J., _Manual of Universal Church History_. Translated from the
German by Dr. Pabisch and Professor Byrne. 3 volumes. Cincinnati,
Clarke, 1878.
Pastor, L., _The History of the Popes from the Close of the Middle
Ages_. Edited by F. I. Antrobus. 6 volumes. London, John Hodges
and Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner and Co., 1891 foll., and Herder,
St. Louis, Mo. The original German edition in 3 volumes, Herder,
Freiburg and St. Louis, Mo.
Guggenberger, A., S. J., _A General History of the Christian Era_. 3
volumes. St. Louis, Herder, 1900-1901.
Rashdall, H., _Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages_. 2 volumes
in 3 parts. Oxford, 1895.
Drane, A. T., _Christian Schools and Scholars, or Sketches of
Education from the Christian Era to the Council of Trent_. 2
volumes. London, Longmans, 1867.
Popularly written; in many parts antiquated.
Taylor, H. O., _The Classical Heritage of the Middle Ages_. New York,
Columbia University Press (Macmillan), 1900.
Einstein, L., _The Italian Renaissance in England_. New York, Columbia
University Press, 1902.
Woodward, W. H., _Vittorino da Feltre and other Humanist Educators_.
Cambridge, University Press, 1897.
Gasquet, F. A., O. S. B., _The Eve of the Reformation_. London and New
York, 1900.
Baumgartner, A., S. J., _Geschichte der Weltliteratur_. Herder,
1897-1900.
Of this magnificent history of Universal Literature four volumes
are out so far. Volumes III and IV were used chiefly. (On this
great work see pp. 233-234.)
Nägelsbach, C. F., _Gymnasial-Pädagogik_. Third edition, Erlangen, 1879.
Dettweiler, P., _Didaktik und Methodik des Lateinischen_. Munich, Beck,
1895.
---- _Didaktik und Methodik des Griechischen_. Munich, Beck, 1898.
These two excellent books belong to Baumeister’s _Handbuch der
Erziehungs- und Unterrichtslehre_.
Schiller, H., _Handbuch der praktischen Pädagogik für höhere
Lehranstalten_. Leipsic, Reisland, 1894, 3d edition.
_Lehrpläne und Lehraufgaben für die höheren Schulen in Preussen_, 1901
(The Prussian School Order). Official edition. Halle, Waisenhaus, 1901.
_Verhandlungen über die Fragen des höheren Unterrichts._ Berlin, 6. bis
8. Juni 1900. Halle, Waisenhaus, 1902.
The transactions of the Berlin Conference on questions of higher
education.
_Report of the Commissioner of Education._ Washington, Government
Printing Office.
Chiefly used were the volumes from 1888-1901.
5. Periodicals Quoted Frequently.
American: _Educational Review_, _Atlantic Monthly_, _North American
Review_, _Forum_, _American Catholic Quarterly_, _American
Ecclesiastical Review_, _Messenger_, _The Review_, _Woodstock
Letters_ (published at Woodstock College, for private circulation).
English: _Month_, _Tablet_, _Dublin Review_, _Fortnightly Review_,
_Nineteenth Century_, _Contemporary Review_.
German: _Neue Jahrbücher für das klassische Altertum_, _Geschichte
und deutsche Literatur und für Pädagogik_ (Leipsic, Teubner),
_Monatschrift für höhere Schulen_ (Berlin, Weidmann), _Stimmen aus
Maria-Laach_ (Freiburg, Herder).
French: _Études_ (Paris, Victor Retaux).
INDEX.
Academies, in Jesuit colleges, 518 _sqq._
Accessories, in Jesuit curriculum, 118, 125, 192.
Acosta, Jesuit writer, 159.
Adaptability, of Jesuit system, 197 _sqq._, 280-296.
Adaptation, in the Old Society, 283;
since the revision of the Ratio Studiorum, 191 _sqq._, 283 _sqq._
Affection, of pupils, as element of teacher’s authority, 612, 644.
Agricola, humanist, 33, 60, 67.
Albertus Magnus, 39, 99.
Alcala, university, 42-43, 79.
d’Alembert, 149, 174, 176.
Algué, Jesuit scientist, 230-231.
Aloysius, St., feast of students, 557;
devotion to, 559-560.
Alvarez, 121 _sqq._;
grammar, 286.
America, school reforms, 1 _sqq._, 292 _sqq._;
weaknesses of education, 293 _sqq._, 301 _sqq._, 307, 326 _sqq._,
659-661;
scholarship, 411-414;
aid to schools, 412;
classical studies, 344 _sqq._;
Jesuit colleges, 201 _sqq._;
American Histories of Education, 649 _sqq._
Ancient authors, see “Classical Studies.”
Antiquities, as taught in schools, 199, 284, 382, 451-454;
method of teaching, 486 _sqq._, 519-520;
Jesuit writers on, 157-158, 233.
Appointment, of teachers according to ability, 439-442.
Aquaviva, General of the Society of Jesus, 103, 109 _sqq._, 113.
Aquinas, St. Thomas, 39, 99;
in Jesuit system, 132, 136, 193-194.
Archæology, see “Antiquities”.
Aristotle, study of in Middle Ages, 45;
Luther’s attacks, 63;
in Jesuit system, 131, 136, 193, 283;
in Protestant schools, 136 note 262;
in modern times, 193-194.
Arnold, Matthew, on translating, 354.
Arnold, of Rugby, on general education, 306;
school exercises, 309;
Latin and Greek, 351, 356;
scholarship of teachers, 406;
dangers of boarding schools, 537 note 927, 552 note 945;
Jesuit methods, 549-550;
on athletics, 571 note 968;
religious instruction, 602-603;
cultivating truthfulness in pupils, 629.
Arnold, Thomas, son of former, 163 note 332.
Astronomers, Jesuits, 179-180, 226-229, 232.
Astronomy, in Jesuit curriculum, 131, 194.
Athletics, in college, 569 _sqq._
Auger, Jesuit writer, 593.
Austen, T., 321-322.
Authority of teacher, 610-614.
Avignon, Jesuit College, 127-128.
Azarias, Brother, 11 note 16.
Bacon, Roger, 39-40, 46.
Bacon, Francis, 39-40;
on Jesuit schools, 145.
Bain, Professor, on home lessons, 475-476;
teaching English, 491-492.
Balde, Jesuit writer, 130, 161-162.
Ballestrem, Count, on Jesuit teachers, 535.
Bancroft, G., on Jesuit colleges, 145;
Catholics in Maryland, 203.
Barbier, Jesuit educator, 623-624.
Barnard, Henry, on Jesuit schools, 650 _sqq._
Barnes, Dr., 323-324.
Barth, Professor, 566.
Bartoli, Jesuit writer, 137.
Baumgartner, Jesuit writer, 162, 233-234, 236, 238, 377, 381, 383,
384, 386, 387, 390, 391, 393, 396, 398, 401.
Bayer, Jesuit educator, 121 note 228.
Beaumont (England), Jesuit College, 257.
Beckx, General of the Society, 362 note 626;
on national and political attitude of Jesuits, 262-263;
religious instruction, 599, 604.
Beissel, Jesuit writer, 236.
Bellarmine, Robert (Cardinal), Jesuit theologian, 109;
his catechism, 592, 593 note 999.
Benedict, St., 86, 633.
Benedict XIV., Pope, Jesuit pupil, 172;
on the Sodalities, 561.
Benedictines, educational labors, 25-26, 86-87;
as historians, 160.
Bennett, Professor in Cornell University, on experimenting in
American schools, 293 note 538;
on Latin, 349 note 593;
on Roman pronunciation, 460 note 804;
on compositions, 505.
Berlin Conferences on higher studies, 136 note 262, 289-291, 333
_sqq._, 351, 356, 378, 509, 517.
Beschi, Jesuit linguist, 152.
Beirut, Jesuit University, 206.
Bible, and Reformers, 62-63;
in Jesuit colleges, 121-124, 590;
in Greek, 398-399;
alone not sufficient for religious instruction, 583 _sqq._;
objections of Catholics to reading in public schools, 587 _sqq._
_Biblical World_, on religious instruction, 577-578, 585, 603.
Bidermann, Jesuit writer, 130.
Bishops of France, on Jesuits, 273 _sqq._
Boarding schools, of Jesuits, 250;
dangers of boarding schools, 537 _sqq._, 552, and note 945.
Boccaccio, humanist, 50.
Bohemia Manor, Maryland, Jesuit school, 204.
Bollandists, Jesuit historians, 161, 234-235.
Bolsius, Jesuit scientist, 233.
Bombay, St. Francis Xavier, Jesuit College, 206, 216.
Bonaventure, St., 39, 99.
Bonifacio, Jesuit educator, 163, 453, 645.
Bonvalot, Jesuit educator, 127.
Boscovich, Jesuit scientist, 179.
Boston College and President Eliot, 224 _sqq._
Branch teacher, 442 _sqq._
Braun, Jesuit scientist, 232.
Braunsberger, Jesuit historian, 236.
Brethren of the Common Life, 31-33, 138;
see correction 653.
Briggs, Dean of Harvard College, 320, 406, 538-539.
Bristol, Professor in Cornell University, 397 note 695, 398, 401 note
700, 505.
Broderick, G. C., 409-410, 415.
Brosnahan, Jesuit writer, controversy with President Eliot, 223 note
434, 224-225, 327.
Browning, O., on Jesuit education, 16, 186, 244-245, 263.
Brownson, O., 331, 529.
Brunetière, F., 550, 658.
Brunswick, laws against Jesuit schools, 240-241.
Bryce, James, 305-306, 338.
Buckle, H. T., 263.
Buffier, Jesuit geographer, 128, 448 note 785.
Bunyan, 265.
Busaeus, Jesuit, 44, 138.
Butler, President of Columbia University, 66-67 note 135, 293-294.
Caesar, 381-382.
Cajori, Professor, 155-156, 157.
Calcutta, Jesuit College, 216.
Calmette, Jesuit Sanskrit scholar, 151-152.
Cambridge, 69-70.
Campbell, Thomas, Jesuit writer, 577 note 976.
Canfield, President, 313-315, 572 note 968.
Canisius, Peter, Jesuit, 43, 109, 138;
care for poor pupils, 248-250;
on emulation, 512;
catechisms and catechetical instructions, 593-599.
Carroll, Charles of Carrollton, 204, 260, 340.
Carroll, John, Jesuit and first Archbishop of Baltimore, 204-205, 260;
founder of Georgetown College, 205.
Castelein, Jesuit writer, 235.
Catalogues of authors in Jesuit colleges, 374-375;
of philological helps, 446-447, 453-454.
Catechetical training of Jesuits, 421;
instruction in Jesuit schools, 590 _sqq._
Catechisms written by Jesuits, 592 _sqq._
Catharine II., of Russia, and the Jesuits, 177-178, 189, 258.
Catholic Church, and education, 21 _sqq._, 28, 30-31, 36-39, 50,
85-87.
Catholics, and the Bible, 587 _sqq._;
and sectarian schools, 579 _sqq._
Cathrein, Jesuit writer, 235 note 453, 237.
Changes of teachers, 91-97, 444-445.
Character training, 317 _sqq._, 522 _sqq._
Charlemagne, 23, 26.
Chateaubriand, 184-185.
Chevalier, Jesuit scientist, 231.
China, cartographic works of Jesuits, 129, 158;
philological works, 153-154, 158, 232, 656;
Jesuit mathematicians, 156, 158;
Jesuit schools, 206-208.
Chossat Jesuit writer, 128, and _passim_.
Christ, the teacher’s model, 420, 631, 638, 643, 646;
centre of history, 449 _sqq._;
his teaching in relation to pedagogy, 526-527, 540;
Christian interpretation of authors, 365, 600.
Christian Brothers, 88, 98.
Chrysostom, St., 85.
Church and education, see “Catholic Church.”
Cicero, 88, 139, 376, 377 _sqq._, 395-396, 468-471, 500.
Clarke, Jesuit writer and educator, 212, 235, 423-424, 551-555.
Classes in Jesuit schools, 118 _sqq._, 370, 372 _sqq._
Classical studies, in Middle Ages and at time of Renaissance, 27
_sqq._, 33 _sqq._, 41-45, 47 _sqq._;
in Jesuit system, 286-287, 331 _sqq._, 360;
educational value of, 330-369;
dangers of, 50-55, 367, 563 _sqq._;
the Gaume controversy, 366 _sqq._;
classical authors, 351-352, 370-401;
explained in Christian spirit, 365, 600.
Class matches, 515 _sqq._; see “Emulation.”
Class teachers, 442 _sqq._
Clavius (Klau), Jesuit, mathematician, 133-134, 155, 438.
Clement XIV., Pope, 175.
Clerc, A., Jesuit teacher, 645.
Clergymen as educators, 100, 408, 601-602.
Clerics, Regular, 80 note 162.
Cleveland, President of the United States, on patriotism of Jesuit
schools, 261;
on modern school reforms, 294.
Cleveland, Ohio, Jesuit College and Meteorological Observatory, 227,
229.
Coe, Professor in Northwestern University, 579.
Coeurdoux, Jesuit Sanskrit scholar, 151.
Colet, Dean, 30.
College, American, its equivalent in Jesuit system, 118, 370;
function of, 304, 306 _sqq._
Colleges of the Society, 78, 107;
number, 144-146;
in United States, 200-205;
in other countries, 201, 205 _sqq._;
success of Jesuit colleges, 89 _sqq._, 145-150, 207, 208-222;
Roman College, 108;
German College, 138.
Comenius, 292.
Communion, educational influence, 557-558.
Comparative philology, contributions by Jesuits, 149-151.
Compayré, character of his _History of Pedagogy_, 10, 11 note 16, 649;
on primary schools, 24;
medieval universities, 40 note 75;
attacks on Jesuit education, 10-11, 13 note 18, 77 note 154, 104
note 197, 125, 130, 135, 159, 163, 194-195, 233, 243, 245-247,
249, 250, 361, 362-363, 366 _sqq._, 437, 489, 493, 511, 618.
Competition, see “Emulation.”
Composition, see “Written exercises.”
Compulsory education, 23, 29, 66.
Confession, educational influence of, 550-557.
Conservatism in Jesuit education, 288 _sqq._;
Grover Cleveland on conservatism in education, 294.
Constitutions of the Society, 74-75, 101 _sqq._
Contests, exercises in Jesuit schools, 511 _sqq._
Conway, James, Jesuit writer, 577 note 976.
Copernicus, 33, 42.
Cortie, Jesuit astronomer, 229.
Coster, Jesuit educator, 44, 138.
Cramming in modern systems, 299 _sqq._
Cubberley, Professor, 649, 650.
Cusanus, Cardinal, 33.
Dahlmann, Jesuit scholar, 233, 236.
Dalberg, Bishop, patron of learning, 34.
Dana, C., 343.
Daniel, Jesuit writer, 128, 366.
Dante, 48-49, 387, 391.
Darjeeling, Jesuit College, 216.
Dark Ages, 21 _sqq._
Davidson, Thomas, on Jesuit system, 13-14, 76 note 153.
Decline of teaching, 404-407.
Decurions, 139, 286.
Deharbe, J., Jesuit, 599.
Delaney, W., Jesuit, 606.
Demosthenes, 398.
Denis, Jesuit writer, 131, 162, 181.
Denominational schools, 580 _sqq._
Devotions, as educational means, 558-560;
devotion of teacher to work, 14, 147, 440-441, 643-644.
Dewey, Admiral, on Jesuit Observatory at Manila, 230.
Dierckx, Jesuit scientist, 233.
Discipline, in school, 537 _sqq._, 608-635.
Disputations, in Jesuit colleges, 139, 422-425, 511, 518.
Disraeli, 583, 589-590.
Döllinger, 58, 61;
on the Jesuits, 103, 189, 277.
Dominicans, 39, 56, 86-87, 99.
Dowling, M. P., Jesuit, 298.
Drama, in Jesuit colleges, 164 _sqq._;
in vernacular, 165 note 338, 192.
Draper, President, 293, 301 note 546, 327.
Dressel, Jesuit scientist, 236-237.
Dreves, Jesuit writer, 236.
Dufrène, Jesuit educator, 121, 126.
Du Halde, Jesuit geographer, 159.
Duhr, Jesuit historian, 12, 112, and _passim_.
Du Pons, Jesuit linguist, 151.
Duruy, A., on Jesuit schools, 218, 260, 535 note 924.
Education, meaning of, 297-298;
scope, 298-300;
liberal education, 301, 305, 307, 341;
commercial, 306, 337-338;
professional, 303, 335;
education and the Society, 87 _sqq._, 104 _sqq._;
see “Ratio Studiorum.”
Edward VI, 29, 30, 652.
Efficiency, of Jesuit schools, 89 _sqq._, 145-150, 182 _sqq._,
208-223;
causes of, 13-14, 17-18, 89-98, 135, 415 _sqq._, 643-644.
Ehrle, Jesuit historian, 234, 236, 238.
Einstein, L., 28, 31, 37.
Elective system, 5-6, 9-10, 310-329.
_Electrical World_, 293-294, 311, 339 note 590.
Elementary education, before Reformation, 23 _sqq._;
and the Jesuits, 104-106, 209, 247-248.
Eliot, President of Harvard University, on the Jesuit system, 5, 9,
199, 223-225, 243-244, 283, 311 _sqq._;
school reform, 293-294;
elective system, 311 _sqq._;
on Roman pronunciation, 460 note 804;
on failure of education, 523.
Elsperger, Professor, 196-197.
Emery, Abbé, 184.
Emulation, as a factor in education, 511-518.
England, education before Reformation, 29-31, 652-653;
humanism, 28, 30, 37, 53;
decline of learning, 69-71;
penal laws against Jesuit schools, 239-240;
recent attacks on Jesuits, 256 _sqq._
England, Bishop, 330 note 578, 340.
English, teaching of, see “Mother-tongue.”
Eobanus Hessus, 55, 61.
Epping, Jesuit scientist, 236.
Erasmus, leader of the humanists, 34, 36, 54-55;
on schools in Spain, 41, 43;
on decline of learning in consequence of the Reformation, 61-62;
St. Ignatius and Erasmus, 140.
Erudition, part of interpretation of the authors in Jesuit system,
the same as subject explanation, 447 _sqq._, 452, 461, 470, 485
_sqq._
Esteem, element of teachers authority, 611 _sqq._
Ethics, 131, 284.
Euclid, 153;
non-Euclidean geometry, 156-157, cf. “Saccheri.”
Example of teacher, 419, 531 _sqq._, 627, 630.
Exercises, means of intellectual training, 308-309, 456 _sqq._;
written exercises, 499-506;
correction, 503 _sqq._
Explanation, of authors, see “Prelection.”
Expulsion of the Jesuits from various countries, 200, 225.
Expurgated editions of the classics, 363 _sqq._, 562 _sqq._
Eyre, Jesuit educator, 111.
Faber, F. W., 630 note 1054.
Faber, Peter, Jesuit, 43, 60, 79.
Fabri, Jesuit writer, 349, 392.
Family, relation of Jesuit schools to, 250-251.
Fear, element of authority, 614.
Febres, Jesuit linguist, 155.
Feldkirch, Austria, Jesuit College, 411, 573.
Feltre, see “Vittorino.”
Ferry, French Premier, 222, 260.
Fisher, John, Bishop, 30, 53.
Fischer, Joseph, Jesuit writer, 237.
Fitch, Sir Joshua, on clergymen as educators, 100;
on home work, 475;
on writing Latin verses, 506;
on Jesuit education, 549-550;
on religious instruction, 602;
on corporal punishment, 616 note 1035.
Fox, Jesuit philologist, 236.
France, success of Jesuit schools, 92, 182-184, 218-222;
cause of opposition to teaching congregations, 268-269, 658;
testimony of Bishops to Jesuits, 273-276.
Francis Xavier, St., 43, 78, 79;
Jesuit College in: Bombay, 206, 216;
Calcutta, 216;
New York, 202.
Franciscans, 39, 56 note 110, 99.
Frederick the Great, of Prussia, 90;
and the Jesuits, 176-178, 189, 258.
Freiburg, Jesuit College, 163 note 332, 332 note 579, 573.
Friars, 39 _sqq._, 80 note 162.
Frisbee, S. H., Jesuit, 479 _sqq._
Gambetta, 220.
Gates, Professor, 577.
Gaubil, Jesuit sinologist, 153.
Gaume, Abbé, 366 _sqq._
Geiler, of Kaisersberg, 34-35.
Genelli, Jesuit writer, 15, 73, 280.
General of the Society of Jesus, 101-102.
General Congregations, 101-102.
Genung, Professor, 353.
Geography, in Jesuit colleges, 127-129, 192, 447 note 785, 448;
Jesuit geographers, 128-129, 158-159, 237.
Georgetown, Jesuit College, 205, 227, 261, 411.
Gerard, J., Jesuit writer, 298, 337.
German higher schools, before Reformation, 31 _sqq._;
modern, 9, 289 _sqq._, 333 _sqq._;
Jesuits as educators and writers, 206, 235-238, 262, 271.
Gibbon, 450, 514.
Gietmann, Jesuit writer, 236.
Gnauck-Kühne, Mrs., 96 _sqq._
Goethe, 161;
on Jesuit drama, 171;
on specialization, 324;
on classics, 360;
on reading, 566.
Goodwin, Professor, 544.
Grammar, study of, 370 _sqq._;
Greek, 392 _sqq._
Gratuitousness of instruction, 246, 249-250.
Greek, study of, 339 _sqq._, 392 _sqq._
Gretser, Jesuit writer, 121 note 227.
Grimaldi, Jesuit scientist, 157.
Grisar, Jesuit historian, 46, 234.
Groot, Gerard, 31.
Guggenberger, Jesuit historian, 54 _sqq._
Guizot, 425.
Günther, Professor, 180-181.
Hadley, President of Yale University, 2 note 1, 339 note 590.
Hadley, Professor, 479 _sqq._
Hagen, Jesuit mathematician, 227, 237, 655.
Hall, Stanley, President of Clark University, 307 note 554, 321, 360,
476-477, 501.
Hallam, 67-69, 71, 251.
Hanus, Professor, 310-311.
Hanxleden, Jesuit scholar, 151.
Hardouin, Jesuit historian, 160.
Harnack, Professor (Berlin), 22 note 32, 52, 60 note 119, 75-76,
83-84, 103, 290, 351.
Harris, W. T., Commissioner of Education, 330 note 578.
Hartmann, Edward von, 52-53.
Harvard University, 1, 203, 223, 315, 326, 327.
Health, of pupils cared for, 124, 572 _sqq._
Hegius, humanist, 33-34, 53, 60.
Hell, Jesuit astronomer, 179.
Helmholtz, Professor, 333, 356.
Herodotus, 395.
Hervas, Jesuit linguist, 149-151, 181.
Henry VIII, 29-30, 69, 70, 652.
Herder, 161.
High school, equivalent in Jesuit system, 118, 370;
function of, 303, 306;
modern high school, 332.
Hildebrand, 337, 349.
Hillig, F., Jesuit, 232.
Historians, among Jesuits, 160-161, 233-234, 235.
History in Jesuit colleges, 124-126, 192, 199, 447-448;
ancient, 448-451;
viewpoint of Christian teacher, 448 _sqq._, 600.
Hohenlohe, Prince, 173.
Holguin, Jesuit scholar, 154.
Holzmüller, Director, 333.
Home tasks, 475 _sqq._
Homer, 354, 399-401, 480 _sqq._
Horace, 391.
Howorth, Sir Henry, on the Jesuits, 175, 256 note 481, 532 note 918.
Huber, Professor, 77-78, 103, 104, 148, 252, 258.
Hughes, T., Jesuit writer, 200 and _passim_.
Humanism, rise and character, 26-30, 33-37, 47-49 _sqq._;
attitude of Church, 28, 30, 50, 60;
radical humanists, 54-57;
Luther’s alliance with, 58-60;
relation of the Jesuits to, 88, 138-140.
Humanities, class in Jesuit system, 119, 370.
Humphrey, W., Jesuit writer, 81 note 163.
Hutten, humanist, 55, 59, 60.
Ignatius of Loyola, 15;
character, 73-75;
studies, 32, 43, 78 _sqq._, 137;
and Luther, 59-60, 77-78, 140;
and the Constitutions, 75-77, 101;
as educator, 87 _sqq._, 106;
on Paris and Louvain, 137-138;
on self-activity, 308, 499;
on self-conquest, 420;
on individuality, 426;
on dangers of reading, 51, 140, 563, 569;
adaptation of his system, 15, 280, 281;
prayer for persecution, 278;
summary of Christian philosophy, 527-528;
on good example, 532, 569;
summary of religion, 574;
obedience, 610;
modesty, 627;
prayer, 633 _sqq._;
see “Spiritual Exercises.”
Imitation exercises, 500 _sqq._
Impartiality of teacher, 612, 619-622.
India (East), Jesuit writers, 151-152;
colleges, 206, 216.
Individuality, 317 _sqq._;
and Jesuit training, 367 note 633, 425-429.
Intellectual scope of education, 297 _sqq._, 316, 322 _sqq._;
liberty, 136 note 262, 251-253, 270-271, 489.
Interpretation, see “Prelection.”
Ireland, monastic schools, 26;
modern Jesuit colleges, 213-216.
Italy, education, see “Humanism.”
Jäger, Dr., 351, 371.
Jansenists, 164, 174.
Janssen, 23 _sqq._, and _passim_.
Jesuits, see Society of Jesus, Constitutions, Ratio Studiorum,
Colleges, Teachers, Writers, Pupils, Opposition.
Jogues, Jesuit in New York, 201-202.
Jones, President of Hobart College, 307, 321, 339, 541 note 930.
Jourdain, 182-184, 270-271.
Jouvancy, (Juvencius), Jesuit educator, 162, 164, 248, 331, 353, 362,
377, 382, 383-385, 387, 400, 434-435, 447, 453, 454, 461, 467
_sqq._, 484-485, 502, 548, 565, 600, 610, 622, 624-625, 634,
637;
his educational treatise: _Ratio Discendi et Docendi_, 162, 163
note 331, 434-435.
Jullien, Jesuit scientist, 232.
Juniorate, 422, 431 _sqq._
Kant, 324, 513, 643.
Kemp, E. L., 10 note 15, 513, 652-653.
Kempis, Thomas a, 31, 32, 322, 527, 610.
Kepler, astronomer, on Jesuit writers, 657.
Kern, Professor, 531.
Ketteler, Bishop, 241, 534.
Kino (Kühn), Jesuit missionary and geographer, 129.
Kircher, Jesuit scholar, 157-158;
_Museo Kircheriano_, 158, 226.
Knecht, Bishop, 592-593.
Kohlmann, Jesuit in New York, 202.
König, Jesuit writer, 127.
Körner, 535-536.
Kreiten, Jesuit writer, 236.
Kropf, Jesuit educator, 121 _sqq._, 126, 163, 448, 548, 610, and
_passim_.
Kübler, Dr., 290, 510.
Kugler, Jesuit scholar, 236.
Labbe, Jesuit historian, 128, 160, 448 note 785.
La Cerda, Jesuit philologist, 162, 163.
Ladevèze, M. de, on Jesuits, 267, 609.
La Flèche, Jesuit College, 168, 484.
Lainez, General of the Society, 79, 101.
Lalande, 179, 180, 186.
Lang, Andrew, 265.
Lang, Jesuit writer, 165.
La Rue (Ruaeus), Jesuit philologist, 163-164.
Latimer, 70.
Latin, during Middle Ages, 29, 44 _sqq._;
in Protestant and Jesuit schools, 6-9, 129, 345-346;
in modern German schools, 290 _sqq._, 333 _sqq._, 476 _sqq._, 509
_sqq._;
in American schools, 2, 345;
as means of logical training, 346-351, 357-358;
speaking and writing, 6-9, 129, 422, 429-430, 498-511;
“Monkish” Latin, 430 note 746.
Leach, A. F., 30, 430, 652-653.
Ledesma, Jesuit educator, 108, 138, 403-404, 445.
Lehmkuhl, Jesuit writer, 237.
Leibnitz, 52, 156, 161.
Lemaître, J., 368 _sqq._
Leo XIII, Jesuit pupil, 278;
on religious orders, 277;
on Sodalities, 560;
Bellarmine’s catechism, 593;
religious instruction, 601, 605.
Leon, Jesuit, founder of Sodalities, 560.
Leopold I., King of Belgium, on Jesuit schools, 259.
Liberal education, 301, 305, 307, 341.
Liège, school, 33, 107, 139, 140-141, 240.
Limerick, P., 276.
Lines, as punishment, 497, 619.
Literature, Jesuit writers on, 130-131, 161-163, 181, 233-234, 235.
Littledale, Canon, 73, 103, 264.
Livy, 382.
Longhaye, Jesuit writer, 234.
Louis-le-Grand, Jesuit College, 144.
Louvain, school, 33, 138.
Lowell, 323, 357.
Loyola, see “Ignatius.”
Lucas, Herbert, Jesuit writer, 532.
Lugo, Jesuit theologian, 109, 427.
Luther, in Protestant tradition, 57-58;
alliance with radical humanists, 58-60;
and Loyola, 59-60, 77, 140;
violent language against universities and Aristotle, 63-65;
appalled at decline of schools, 65-66;
Hallam’s estimate of, 67-69;
on vows and monasticism, 81;
his catechism, 593-594.
Mabillon, Benedictine historian, 87.
Macaulay, 73.
Madagascar, Jesuits in, 231.
Maher, M., Jesuit writer, 235.
Mallinckrodt, von, 534.
Manare, Oliver, Jesuit, 444.
Manila, Jesuit College and Observatory, 229 _sqq._
Manning, Professor, 157 note 314.
Marquette, Jesuit, 128-129.
Martin, Luiz, General of the Society, 286-287, 297, 509.
Martineau, 320 _sqq._
Martini, Jesuit geographer, 129, 159.
Maryland, Jesuits in, 202-204.
Masen, Jesuit writer, 164.
Matches, class matches, 515 _sqq._
Mathematicians, Jesuits, 155-158, 182, 227-228, 232.
Mathematics, in Jesuit colleges, 132-134, 182, 192, 194, 284;
educational value compared with linguistic training, 333, 336, 355;
training of Jesuit teachers of mathematics, 438-439.
Matthias, Dr., of Berlin, 4 note 5, 290, 510.
Maynard, Abbé, on educational labors of the Jesuits before the
suppression, 178 _sqq._
McCosh, President of Princeton, on liberal education, 302;
on elective system at Harvard, 315-316;
on American scholarship, 413;
on moral training, 522, 537-538;
on athletics, 570;
on religious instruction, 582.
McCloskey, Cardinal, Archbishop of New York, 557-558.
Melanchthon, on decline of education, 61;
attitude towards higher studies, 64, 67;
drew inspirations from medieval schools, 72, 530 note 912;
on Canisius, 595.
Memory lessons, 493-499.
Messina, Jesuit College, 108, 137.
Messmer, Bishop of Green Bay, 592, 593 note 999.
Meteorology, cultivated by Jesuits, 227, 229-232.
Method of teaching in practice, 456 _sqq._
Meyer, Theodore, Jesuit writer on ethics, 237.
Middle Ages, educational conditions, 21-44;
character of education, 44 _sqq._, see “Scholasticism.”
Modern languages, 332;
modern high school, _ib._
Modesty, to be inculcated in pupils, 626 _sqq._
Mommsen, Theodore, 378, 380, 381.
Monasticism, 80-84.
_Monita Secreta_, 102-103.
Monks, Protestant view of, 80 note 162;
as educators, 84-87.
Monroe, Jesuit educator, 645 note 1083.
Morality in Jesuit schools, 251 _sqq._, 531-536.
Moral training, 317 _sqq._, 522-573.
More, Thomas, 53.
Mother-tongue, studied in Jesuit colleges, 129-131, 191-192, 284, 448
note 785, 491 _sqq._;
and study of classics, 356 _sqq._
Müller, Max, Professor at Oxford, on Jesuit writers, 149-151, 233.
Munich, splendor of Jesuit drama, 168-170.
Münsterberg, Professor at Harvard, on modern school reforms, 5;
American teachers, 92-94;
premature specialization, 303;
elective system, 319-320, 325-327;
preparation of teachers, 402, 403;
American scholarship, 413.
Nadal, Jerome, Jesuit educator, on elementary education, 106;
plan of studies, 108 note 204, 116, 117 note 222;
geographical reading, 128 note 241;
study of German, 130;
relation to the Ratio Studiorum, 138;
instruction gratuitous, 249;
training of teachers, 404, 441-442;
religious toleration, 596.
Nägelsbach, Professor, 385, 387, 389-390, 398, 473.
Natalis, see “Nadal.”
_Nation_, New York, on electivism, 326;
on decline of teaching, 404-406.
National questions, attitude of the Jesuits, 262-263.
Natural sciences, see “Sciences.”
Neander, on monks as educators, 85-86.
Nepos, 384.
Netherlands, humanist schools, 31-32, 43;
influence on formation of Ratio Studiorum, 138 _sqq._
Newcomb, Simon, on Father Hell, 179;
on American scholarship, 413.
Newman, Cardinal, on medieval education, 23 note 32;
on monks, 81 note 162;
religious as educators, 86-87;
on classics, 355, 359-360, 378;
on individuality among Jesuits, 367 note 633, 425-427;
on moral training, 555 _sqq._;
Jesuit obedience, 609 note 1021.
New York, Jesuit College, 201-202.
Nightingale, Professor, 307 note 554, 357.
Nobili, Robert, Jesuit, first European Sanskrit scholar, 151.
Notes, taken in class, 463-465.
Non-sectarian school, 580 _sqq._
Noviciate, in the Society, 418-422.
Number of Jesuit colleges, 78, 107, 144 _sqq._, 200-206;
of Jesuit pupils, 13, 144-146, 206.
Obedience, of teacher, 609-610, 650;
of pupil, 650.
Oberammergau, Passion play, and Jesuit drama, 169.
Observatories, of Jesuits, 180, 227, 229-232.
Odenbach, F. L., Jesuit meteorologist, 227.
Officials, in Jesuit colleges, 115-118.
Oliphant, L., 208.
Opposition, to Jesuit education, 5 _sqq._, 146-148, 239-279;
causes of, 6-13, 264 _sqq._
Oratorians, 127, 448 note 785.
Ovid, 44, 385, 386, 565.
Oxford, 69-71, 212, 411.
Pachtler, Jesuit historian, 112, 283, 410, 494, and _passim_.
Painter, F. V. N., 10 note 14, 37, 131, 245, 252-254, 361, 511, 596.
Pantel, Jesuit scientist, 233.
Papenbroeck, Jesuit historian, 161.
Paris, University of, 32, 39, 43, 79, 99, 137;
influence on Jesuit system, 137 _sqq._;
opposition to Jesuits, 182 _sqq._, 269-271.
Patience, of teacher, 420, 630, 631-632, 646.
Patriotism, and Jesuit schools, 255-263.
Paulsen, Professor, 7, 22, 52, 59-60, 81-82, 90-91, 100, 136,
195-197, 324, 407-409, 425;
on Jesuit schools, 17-18, 79-80, 193-194, 254-255, 271-272, 512,
532-533.
Peck, Professor in Columbia University, 223 note 434, 224, 327.
Pedagogy, meaning of, 524 _sqq._;
relation to philosophy, 524-525;
pagan and Christian, 526;
Jesuit writers on, 162-163, 434-435.
Permanent teachers, 435 _sqq._
Perpinian, Jesuit writer, 162.
Perry, Jesuit astronomer, 228.
Pesch, Henry, Jesuit writer, 237.
Petavius, Jesuit scholar, 160, 427, 448 note 785.
Petrarch, 49-50.
Phaedrus, 385, 472-473.
Philology, in the Society of Jesus, 149-155, 199, 446-447, 453-454;
Jesuit contributions to comparative philology, 149-150.
Philosophy, Aristotelian, see “Aristotle”;
in Jesuit system, 131, 193-197;
philosophy neglected in modern systems, 195-197;
philosophical training of Jesuits, 422 _sqq._;
philosophy in relation to pedagogy, 524-525.
Physics, in Jesuit curriculum, 131, 134, 194.
Pitt, on classics, 358.
Plans of studies, previous to the Ratio Studiorum, 108-109.
Plato, 396-398, 451.
Plautus, 165-166, 391, 565.
Polanco, Jesuit, 137.
Poland, W., Jesuit writer, 11 note 16, 577 note 976.
Politeness, of pupils, 626 _sqq._
Politics, attitude of Jesuits, 262-263.
Pombal, 174.
Pompadour, 174.
Pontanus, Jesuit philologian, 110, 121 note 226, 162.
Poor pupils, care of, in Jesuit schools, 247-250.
Porée, Jesuit educator, 181.
Porter, Noah, of Yale, on Jesuit schools, 245, 246, 269.
Port Royal, 127, 164.
Portugal, suppression of Society, 174.
Postgate, Professor, 498 note 849.
Poulton, Jesuit, founder of school in Maryland, 203.
Prayer, educational help, 632 _sqq._
Prefect of Discipline, 117.
Prefect of Studies, 117, 609.
Prelection, i. e. interpretation of authors, etc., 457-493;
preparation of, 464-466.
Prémare, Jesuit sinologist, 153.
Prescribed courses, 310-329.
Primary education, see “Elementary.”
Prince Henry, and the Jesuits in China, 207-208.
Private talks with pupils, 548 _sqq._
Prizes, 514;
see “Emulation.”
Pronunciation, correct, 459-461;
Roman, of Latin, 460 note 804.
Protestant, Reformation and education, 57-72;
schools in 16. and 17. centuries, 89-91;
view of Jesuits, 264-267;
moral training in Protestant and Catholic schools, 538 _sqq._, 541
note 930, 551-557;
reading of Bible, 583 _sqq._
Provincial, 101.
Prussia, Jesuit colleges after suppression, 176.
Prussian School Order, 9, 289, 291, 392, 394 note 690;
on class teachers, 443;
on translations, 478;
on written exercises, 500;
religious instruction, 581, 601-602.
Psychology, in Jesuit course, 131, 194.
Punishments, 614-619; corporal, 616.
Pupils, of Jesuit schools, number, 13, 144-146, 206;
distinguished, 172, 204-205, 258.
Quick, on Jesuit system, 10, 13, 98, 135-136, 241, 243, 246-249, 265,
431, 437, 466, 489, 516-517, 518, 530, 565, 624.
Quigley, Archbishop of Chicago, 302.
Quintilian, 419, 564, 614.
Ranke, 18, 89, 145, 246, 322, 595, 628.
Rashdall, H., 21 _sqq._, 29-30, 39-40, 41, 430.
_Ratio Discendi et Docendi_, of Jouvancy, 162, 163 note 331, 434-435.
Ratio Studiorum, 107-143, 189-199;
modern criticism on, 5-16;
drawn up, 109-111;
name, 111;
seized by Spanish Inquisition, 112 _sqq._;
character, 114 _sqq._;
classes, 118, 121 _sqq._;
school hours, 124;
branches: languages, 118, 331 _sqq._, 345-360;
mother-tongue, 129, 284, 491 _sqq._;
history, 125 _sqq._, 447 note 785;
geography, 127 _sqq._;
archaeology, see “Antiquities”;
philosophy, 131 _sqq._, 193-197;
mathematics, 132-134;
sciences, 134, 192, 194-195, 197-199;
successive teaching, of branches, 132;
class teachers, 442 _sqq._,
sources of Ratio, 19-20, 136-143;
revision, 191 _sqq._;
results, see “Efficiency”, adaptability, 280 _sqq._;
essentials, 286 _sqq._;
defects, 14, 92 note 177, 444-445.
Raumer, 17, 166, 251-252;
character of his history of education, 650 _sqq._
Reading, according to sense, 458-461, 498;
amount of, 482 _sqq._;
dangers of reading, 51, 166, 367, 562 _sqq._
Rector, President in Jesuit colleges, 115-116.
Reformation, and education, 57 _sqq._;
decline of schools, 60-66;
in England, 69-71;
elementary school not child of Reformation, 24;
Jesuit system not borrowed from Protestant schools, 19-20, 140
_sqq._;
compulsory education and state-monopoly result of, 66.
Reform-Gymnasium, 291-292, 336.
Reforms, modern, 1-5;
in Germany, 289-292;
in America, 292-296;
towards elective system, 310-312.
_Relations_, of Jesuits, 128.
Religious, name, 80 note 162;
as educators, 84 _sqq._, 96-98, 209;
opposition to, 89, 98-100;
success of, 92-98, 221 _sqq._
Religions instruction, 574-607;
necessity, 574-578;
Catholic position, 578-582;
undenominational religion, 582-583;
reading of Bible, 583 _sqq._;
catechism, 590 _sqq._;
correlation of all branches with religion, 599-605;
religious instruction in higher schools, 605 _sqq._
Renaissance, see “Humanism.”
Repetition, in Jesuit system, 466-467, 474.
Resistance, value of, in education, 319-322.
Rethwisch, C., 7 _sqq._
Revival of Learning, see “Humanism.”
Revision of the Ratio Studiorum, 191 _sqq._
Rhetoric, class in Jesuit system, 120, 370;
meaning of, 432.
Ribadeneira, Peter, Jesuit writer, 102, 138, 511.
Ribot, M., on secondary schools in France, 218-219.
Ricci, Jesuit scholar, 153, 156.
Richelieu, Cardinal, Jesuit pupil, 172;
on Jesuit colleges, 271.
Richthofen, Baron, on Jesuit scholars, 129, 158-159.
Rickaby, Joseph, Jesuit writer, 235.
Rivals, see “Class matches.”
Rogers, Thorold, 30.
Roman College, 108, 110, 144, 227.
Roman history, 448-451.
Roothaan, General of the Society, 191, 197-198, 296, 329, 360-361.
Roth, Jesuit, author of first European Sanskrit grammar, 151.
Rousseau, 175, 643.
Rowland, Professor in Johns Hopkins University, 413.
Ruaeus (La Rue), Jesuit scholar, 163-164.
Ruhkopf, on morality in Jesuit schools, 537.
Ruiz, Jesuit linguist, 155.
Russell, Dr., Columbia University, 8-9, 19, 20, 141, 244, 313.
Russia, Society preserved in, 177, 189.
Sabatier, P., 209.
Saccheri, Jesuit mathematician, 156-157, 654-655.
Sacchini, Jesuit writer, 162, 249, 436, 438, 497, 530, 548, 592, 600,
624, 634, 637.
Sadler, Mr., 659.
Saintsbury, on Southwell, 162.
Saint-Vincent, Gregory, 156.
Salamanca, University, 41, 43, 79.
Salisbury, Lord, on undenominational religion, 583.
Sallust, 382-383.
Sallwürk, Dr. von, 435, 448 note 785.
Sanskrit, Jesuit scholars, 151-152.
Sanson, geographer, 448 note 785.
Sarbiewski, Jesuit poet, 161.
Savonarola, 51, 60.
Scaliger, 160, 657.
Schall, Jesuit mathematician, 156.
Scheiner, Jesuit scientist, 157.
Schiller, Director, 478, 566 note 960, 588-589, 601-602.
Scholars, Jesuits, see “Writers.”
Scholarship, among Jesuits, 198-199, 226-238, 410-411;
in America, 411 _sqq._;
scholarship and teaching ability, 402-414.
Scholasticism, 45-57;
defects of, 46 _sqq._;
humanists on, 52;
relation of Jesuit system to, 136.
School drama, 164 _sqq._
School management, 608-635.
Schopenhauer, 325.
Sciences, in Jesuit curriculum, 134, 192, 194-195, 197-198, 199, 283;
and classics, 359.
Scientists, among Jesuits, 157, 178-181, 226-233, 654-656.
Scoraille, Jesuit writer, 515-516.
Scotland, education before Reformation, 28-29.
Scope of education, intellectual, 297 _sqq._;
injured by electivism, 316 _sqq._;
moral, 317 _sqq._, 522 _sqq._
Scotus, 39, 193, 425.
Secchi, Angelo, Jesuit astronomer, 226-227.
Secondary schools before Reformation, 26 _sqq._, 652-653.
Sectarian schools, 580 _sqq._
Seeley, Levi, 10 note 15, 37, 246-247, 511, 649.
Selfishness, alleged of Jesuits, 251, 254-255.
Seminary of teachers in Society, 433-434, 453.
Seneca, 384-385.
Seyffert, M., 309, 379, 507.
Shea, Gilmary, 536-537.
Shoup, W. J., 652.
Sirmond, Jesuit historian, 448 note 785.
Sixtus V., and the Ratio Studiorum, 112-113.
Sloane, Rev. M., on Jesuits, 243.
Smith, Clement L., 304-305.
Smith, Sydney, Jesuit writer, 173 note 354.
Snyder, Carl, 413.
Society of Jesus, name, 75;
foundation and aim, 75-77, 79 _sqq._;
and education, 80 _sqq._;
constitutions, 101 _sqq._;
suppression, 173-175, 189-190.
Socrates, 253, 397.
Sodalities, 560-562.
Sommervogel, Jesuit writer, 148.
Sources, of Ratio Studiorum, 136-143.
Southwell, Robert, Jesuit poet, 162.
Spahn, Deputy, on Jesuit scholars, 235-237.
Spain, schools, 40-44;
suppression of Society, 174.
Spanish Inquisition, seized Ratio Studiorum, 112 _sqq._
Spe, Frederick, Jesuit writer, 130 and note 248.
Speaking Latin, 506 _sqq._
Specialization, 303, 317, 322-325;
in Society, 198-199, 440.
Spencer, 525, 643.
_Spiritual Exercises_, of St. Ignatius, 75, 420, 426, 527, 532 note
917, 560, 574.
Sport, see “Athletics.”
St. Boniface, Jesuit College, 216.
Stephens, Jesuit linguist, 152.
Stiglmayr, Jesuit scholar, 237, 397.
Stonyhurst, Jesuit College, 228, 229, 257-258, 564, 617.
Strassmaier, Jesuit assyriologist, 233, 236.
Stryker, President of Hamilton College, on liberal education, 341.
_Studia inferiora_, 118 _sqq._
Sturm, Reformer and schoolman at Strasburg, 19-20, 72;
his system not model of Ratio Studiorum, 140 _sqq._
Suarez, Jesuit theologian, 81 note 162, 88, 109, 426, 427.
Success, of Jesuit colleges, see “Efficiency.”
Successive teaching, preferred to simultaneous, 118, 132.
Sunday schools, and religious training, 578.
Supervision in college, 537 _sqq._, 541 _sqq._, 546-547.
Suppression of the Society, 173-175;
effects on education, 184-186.
Sydney Smith, discipline in English public schools, 539 note 929.
Syria, Jesuit schools, 106, 206-207, 209.
Tacitus, 383-384.
Taunton, E., 427-428.
Taylor, H. O., 45, 49, 82-83.
Teaching, in relation to scholarship, see “Scholarship.”
Teachers of the Society, 91-98, 415 _sqq._;
permanent teachers, 435, 437 _sqq._;
changes of teachers, 92 note 177, 444-445;
training of, 415-455;
direct training for teaching, 431-434, cf. 410;
continued self-training, 446 _sqq._;
training of teachers of mathematics in the Old Society, 133,
438-439;
appointment according to ability, 439-442;
qualities requisite: in general, 415-416;
in particular: mastery of the subject, 403-404, 410, 446 _sqq._,
453 sq., 611;
see also “Scholarship”;
qualities of character: authority, 610-614;
submission, 608-610;
self-control, 419-420, 531-533, 611-612, 615;
impartiality, 420, 612, 619 _sqq._;
politeness, 627-628;
truthfulness, 630;
patience, 420, 630, 631-632, 646;
kindness, 420, 612-613, 622;
firmness, 612, 614, 619, 623 _sqq._;
prudence, 418-419, 615, 624-625, 628-629;
zeal and devotion to work, 94, 98, 420, 436-438, 528-531, 535-537,
540-543, 545-547, 548-550, 562 _sqq._, 637-644;
piety, 419-421, 643 _sqq._;
perseverance, 95 _sqq._, 435-438, 642;
motives and ideals, 636-648.
Terence, 165-166, 391, 565.
Tetlow, Principal, 327-328.
Text-books, of Jesuits, 163-164, 393.
Theiner, 173, 178, 185.
Thomas, see “Aquinas” and “Kempis.”
Thornton, A., 578-579.
Thring, E., 337, 616.
Thucydides, 395.
Tiraboschi, Jesuit writer, 181.
_Times_, London, 222, 256-257.
Tolerance, religious and the Jesuits, 252-254, 595-596.
_Tom Brown’s School Days_, 537, 572.
Tragedies, 401.
Training of teachers, see “Teachers.”
Translation, of classical authors, 353 _sqq._;
by the teacher, 462-463;
in class, 474-478.
Trendelenburg, Professor, 193.
Trent, Council of, and reform of education, 71.
Trichinopoli, Jesuit College, 206.
_Trivium_ and _Quadrivium_, 27, 44.
Trotzendorf, 530.
_Truth_, on “Jesuit and Gaol-Bird System,” 546-547.
Truthfulness, 628 _sqq._
Tursellini, Jesuit writer, 126 note 234, 164.
Undenominational school, 579 _sqq._
Universities, before Reformation, 38-44;
denounced by Luther, 63-64;
opposition of, to Jesuits, 182 _sqq._, 269 _sqq._
Valla, humanist, 51.
Vasquez, Jesuit theologian, 109, 426, 427.
Vatican library, 28.
Vest, Senator, on Jesuit schools among the Indians, 209-211.
Viger, Jesuit philologist, 164.
Virchow, Professor, 290, 334.
Virgil, 44, 49, 387-391, 471.
Visconti, General of the Society 431-432, 434, 442.
Vitelleschi, General of the Society, 549.
Vittorino da Feltre, 26-28, 60, 563 note 953.
Vives, Luiz, humanist, 141-142.
Vogt, Professor, 336.
Voltaire, 152, 174, 435;
on Jesuit colleges, 174-175, 181;
on morality in Jesuit colleges, 533-534.
Wagner, Jesuit writer, 126.
Waldeck-Rousseau, and Jesuit schools, 186, 219.
Washington, George, at Georgetown College, 205;
on religion, 576.
Wasmann, Jesuit entomologist, 232-233, 236, 238.
Weissenfels, Professor, 306 note 553, 317.
Wellington, Duke of, on effects of suppression of Society, 185;
on schools without religion, 576.
Werenfels, Reformed theologian, 587.
West, Professor in Princeton, 344.
Whitton, Professor, 251, 406.
Wiese, Dr., 309, 356.
Wilamowitz, von, (University of Berlin), 369, 378, 505.
William of St. Amour, 99.
Williams, Professor in Cornell University, 651.
Willmann, Professor, 4 note 5, 468 _sqq._, 473, 485.
Wimpheling, humanist, 35-36, 54, 60.
Windle, Dr., 581.
Winsor, Justin, on Jesuit writers, 154-155, 159.
Witchcraft, charges against Jesuit teachers, 148.
Women, education of in Middle Ages, 41, and note 81.
Writers of the Society, 148-164, 179-182, 225-238;
why often ignored, 154, 657.
Written exercises, see “Exercises.”
Xavier, see “Francis.”
Xenophon, 394-395.
Ximenez, Cardinal, 42.
Yenni, Jesuit educator, 438.
Zahorowski, 103.
Zallinger, three Jesuit scientists, 180-181.
Ziegler, Professor, 82 note 163, 140, 255, 270, 433, 582.
Zi-ka-wei, Jesuit College and observatory, 207-208, 232.
Zottoli, Jesuit sinologist, 656.
Transcriber’s Notes
• Italic text represented with surrounding _underscores_.
• Bold text represented with surrounding =equal signs=.
• Small caps converted to ALL CAPS.
• Obvious typographic errors silently corrected.
• Variations in hyphenation and spelling kept as in the original.
• Footnotes renumbered consecutively and moved to the end of their
respective chapters. Corresponding references to notes also updated.