RUSSIAN PRISONS AND PRISONERS
Our Convict System--Misunderstood in England--Siberia, an Emigration
Field--A Lax Discipline--Capt. Wiggins' Opinion--A Land of Stoicism--My
Experiences as a Prison Visitor--Divine Literature--Helen Voronoff's
Work--A Russian Heroine--Her Descriptions of Prison Life
To the Englishman the word "Siberia" seems to possess a significance so
sinister as to make death appear almost a luxury; but imprisonment and
the conditions under which the prisoners live are entirely comparative.
To condemn a gourmet to live on roast beef and cabbage would be a
punishment much greater than to sentence a farm labourer to live on
porridge and black bread.
In England our "atrocious convict system" has been a subject for much
comment. I think very few people in England have any conception of
what Siberia really is.
Some, I have no doubt, who speak most freely about it, would be in some
difficulty if they were asked to describe where it is. As a matter of
fact it is the northern half of the Continent of Asia, greater in area
than the whole of Europe. The north is almost uninhabitable, but we do
not send our criminals to the north, but to the fertile south. {217}
It is mostly in the fertile south that our present colonies exist. We
used to send to the quicksilver mines only the worst criminals and
murderers, with whom I do not think even English people would have much
sympathy.
After all, would a man prefer to work in a quicksilver mine or to be
hanged? Another very important point is that transportation to Siberia
does not necessarily involve imprisonment. In some cases the convicts
are turned loose to look after themselves, and are allowed to go
whither they will, provided they do not attempt to return to European
Russia. Moreover, the families of the convicts used also to be
transported at the expense of the Government--which was, of course, a
great consolation to them. But now the whole system of transportation
to Siberia has been abolished.
We wish to do with them just what England strove to do with her
criminals in the first half of last century--get rid of them. They are
undesirable citizens, and as all good government is the greatest good
to the greatest number, the best thing that can happen is to get the
criminal population away from the non-criminal, so that one does not
contaminate the other.
In the old days the English convict was compelled to work under the
penalty of "the cat" or the gallows. On the other hand, the Russian
convict is sent into Siberia, and there he can do what he chooses,
short of actual crime. As a matter of fact, in Russia there is a
strong feeling in certain quarters that our convicts have too much
liberty.
Let me bring the matter nearer home. Suppose {218} instead of being
sent to Portland and shut up in a grim and gloomy building, English
prisoners were sent to the extreme north of Scotland and given their
liberty, and told they must not come further south than a certain
point, is there any question as to which of the two they would choose?
If English people could be persuaded to regard Siberia as a huge field
for emigration, they would understand things much better, and in
sending our convicts there we serve a double purpose--that is to say,
we get rid of them, and we are colonising the country that an
Englishman has described as "offering unique advantages to a young man
with a small capital."
The proportion of prisoners sent to Siberia per annum is about one in
every five thousand of the population, not a very high average I think.
In England and Wales, I believe, the average is vastly higher.
To give some idea of the lack of constraint on the liberty of the
convict, I will give some particulars of escapes.
On one occasion, when a census was taken of the convicts in Tobolsk,
out of some fifty thousand exiles only about thirty-four thousand could
be found.
At Tomsk, five thousand were missing out of thirty thousand.
There is one very serious drawback to our system, that is our method of
pitchforking convicts into Siberia without arranging for their
occupation, and the result is that a large number of them refuse to
take to honest labour, and become good-for-nothings. {219} Siberia is
not a holiday resort. No one could possibly regard it as challenging
the Riviera, for instance; its primary object is to rid European Russia
of her criminal population, and in this it succeeds.
The redoubtable Captain Wiggins has described the convicts in Siberia
as "a happy, rollicking, joyous community--well clad, well fed, and
well cared for."
I do not propose to comment on this, but shall leave the matter between
the British Public and the shade of Captain Wiggins. Some may be
inclined to recall a passage from Sir Thomas Browne which runs (I quote
from memory), "There be those who would credit the relations of
mariners."
In the past there has been a tendency in England to look for
archangelic qualities in her neighbours, and she has been a little hurt
at not finding them. Once when writing to me in 1876, Mr. Gladstone
said:
"The history of nations is a melancholy chapter, that is, the history
of their Governments. I am sorrowfully of opinion that, though virtue
of splendid quality dwells in high regions with individuals, it is
chiefly to be found on a large scale with the masses; and the history
of nations is one of the most immoral parts of human history."
I have heard it stated of Mr. Gladstone that he was too true a
gentleman to be a good politician. Upon that I will venture no comment
beyond saying that I am convinced that he never did anything in his
life actuated by any other idea than that it was right.
{220}
The same morality that applies in private life never has and probably
never will apply to Governments, and to expect perfection in relation
to the treatment of prisoners in Siberia, or of Chinese labour in South
Africa, is out of the question.
I cannot do better than quote here what I said in my introduction to
_Siberia As It Is_, by Harry de Windt:
"To form a proper opinion of the Russian prisons, it is necessary to
possess, what English people certainly do not possess, some knowledge
of the ordinary conditions of life in our country. A preface to any
book on Russia ought, in fact, to be somewhat of an introduction into
the penetralia of our innermost existence. But in giving real facts
about our country, I have the feeling of printing advertisements about
ourselves--to us Russians a very antipathetic work indeed.
"Russia is, over a great extent, a land of stoicism, fortified by
Christianity--not a bad basis for the formation of character, after
all, but it is a hard school. Our country life is an important study.
It is full of self-denial, of hardships, of privations. Indeed, in
some parts peasant life is so hard that we, the so-called upper
classes, could scarcely endure it.
"Landed proprietors are generally in close intercourse with their
ex-serfs. The latter, though now perfectly free and themselves
landowners, from the fact that their former masters have at heart their
welfare, naïvely think that the latter are still under obligation to
furnish help when needed. This somewhat amusing relationship is
generally accepted good-naturedly by the ex-masters, though very often
{221} it involves great material sacrifices. We could all give our
personal experiences of village life, and I, for one, venture to do so,
though there are many others better qualified.
"To visit the sick and the poor is a common duty recognised by a great
many in our country, although the discharge of this duty sometimes is
rather an ordeal. How overcrowded and dark are their dwellings! How
poor their daily food! (The only approach to the condition that I know
of in the United Kingdom is in the poverty-stricken districts of
Ireland and in some corners of the East End of London.) Yet those who
lead that rough life seem strong and happy, on the whole. They will
make merry jokes, and after a long day's heavy work, from sunrise to
sunset, return home from the fields, singing and dancing.
"Injudicious and indiscriminate charity would do harm here as
elsewhere. In illustration of this, I will mention the following from
my own experience:
"My son, when appointed Zemski Natchalnik (Zemski chief), built a
church over his father's grave and founded two schools for training
male and female teachers on our Tamboff estate.
"The principal local representatives of the Church and the chiefs of
our local school inspectors were invited to discuss the programme of
the teaching and management of these schools--one for boarders, future
primary school teachers, with a class for daily pupils of the parish.
They used to be almost free of charge before the emancipation of the
serfs. So were both my son's schools. But now--since they depend on
the Holy Synod--education has {222} to be paid for. The yearly
Seminarian's fee for board, dress and education is £10 yearly. The
girls' (future school mistresses) fee is £8--but they will soon be
increased. All our schools for the people are, and have always been,
free of charge.
"The educational scheme met with almost unanimous approval, but when
the boarding arrangements came to be discussed, with suggestions about
'light mattresses and pillows,' they were met by a general outburst of
disapproval.
"'Here you are wrong. Why should you spoil them, and make them unfit
for their usual life, by accustoming them to unnecessary luxuries? The
utmost you should provide, as a comfort for peasant boys, is some
straw, and a plain bench to sleep on. Nothing more.' I may add, that
this stoic simplicity partly accounts for their bravery.
"It may perhaps interest my readers to know that there is such a thirst
for learning amongst our peasant children that candidates come in
overwhelming numbers, and this happens to all our educational
institutions--they are overcrowded to the last degree. The population
increases more quickly than church and school accommodation for it.
That inconvenience is also noticeable with regard to the children of
our prisoners. But to people accustomed to a very hard life, would it
be a punishment if, instead of suffering discomfort for their crimes,
they were surrounded with what to them would appear extreme luxury?
Where is one to draw the line between necessaries and luxuries? A
prison ought to be a punishment, not a reward for crimes.
{223}
"In visiting the prisons I have heard the remark that some of the
convicts would not have committed their misdeeds had they possessed at
home half the comforts provided in the prisons, though, of course, the
privation of every liberty is already a terrible punishment. They also
know that whilst they are away, good care is taken of their children.
I remember a female prisoner, who had to suffer a year's punishment for
theft and smuggling, whose looks of distress and misery forcibly struck
me. Knowing that she was near the end of her term, I asked how it was
that she did not look happier.
"'I am pining for my boy; I feel sure he is dead. I wrote to him
twice, but he never replied,' answered she, sobbing. 'He was taken up
as a beggar and a vagabond by the Beggars' Committee.'
"'Well,' said I, 'since you can tell me where he may be found, I will
go and see him at once, and you shall know the exact truth about him.
Wait patiently till I come back.'
"Off I went to the 'Beggars' Institution,' which is a branch of the
prisons, though geographically a great distance away, and had the boy
brought to me. He looked clean and healthy.
"'Your mother sends you her blessing,' I began; 'she is in good health,
but grieves that you never answered her letters. Have they not reached
you?'
"'Oh yes, they have, but I cannot write. I began learning here, and
can only write O's and pothooks.'
"As I always provide myself with writing materials on visiting the
prisons, and am always ready in deserving cases to write letters,
dictated to {224} me by illiterate prisoners, I offered my services to
the little beggar boy.
"He seemed radiant. 'Yes, tell her that I am very well fed here, three
times every day. Food plentiful.'
"'What else?' asked I. 'Would you not like to see your mother? Don't
you go to church every Sunday, and don't you pray for her?'
"'Oh yes. Tell her to come to live with me here.'
"You should have seen the joy of the mother when I brought her this
very undiplomatic despatch, and the interest created amongst her
fellow-prisoners!
"To help the wretched is a pleasure thoroughly appreciated by Russians.
It is absurd to preach to us charity and compassion. We are brought up
in those notions from our childhood. Christianity with us is not a
vague term; it represents a very clear 'categorical principle' which
forms a link between all of us, from the Emperor down to the humblest
peasant. Our highest classes are very well represented in that
respect. First comes our Empress Marie, the present Dowager Empress,
who is the soul of charity and compassion. I never heard of any appeal
made to her in vain. Nor could anybody, I think, be kinder than the
Emperor. His aunt, the Grand Duchess Constantine, notwithstanding the
endless demands on her generosity, once undertook to feed a thousand
famine-stricken peasants in our district till next harvest. I could
also give other examples from amongst the Imperial family.
{225}
"Then, coming to a lower rank, we had, for instance, the procurator of
the Holy Synod, M. Pobédonostzeff, and his wife. The latter, though
far from strong in health, takes care of a large school, visiting it
almost daily. With the support and sympathy of her husband, she
collected large sums every year in order to send to the prisoners of
Sakhalin (our worst criminals) quantities of clothes, useful tools,
tobacco and toys, writing materials and religious books. Our lower
classes only care for 'divine literature,' as they call it. Religious
books are in great demand in every part of Russia, which helps to
defeat Nihilistic teaching, and saves the people from that criminal
folly.
"Or take another well-known case: a man of good birth and worldly
prospects, a distinguished Moscow professor, Serge Ratchinsky, who,
without any of that self-advertisement which seems to be the necessary
stimulus to similar efforts in Western Europe, buried himself in the
country, and there founded a school which has served as a model for ten
or twelve other schools in the same province, and which he superintends
and guides with fatherly care, and in strictly Greek Orthodox views.
He also organised a large temperance movement, which is now spreading
throughout Russia.
"I could give numerous instances to show that philanthropy, far from
being unknown, is widely practised in Russia. In fact, it permeates
all our work, including the prisons.
"Our great Empress, Catherine II, used to say: 'Better pardon ten
criminals than punish one innocent.' This became a favourite saying
with us, {226} and perhaps accounts for the leniency of our juries,
which is often carried too far. For what right have we to endanger the
public safety by allowing crime to reign unchecked?
"In England murderers are quietly hanged. According to us, this is
going too far. How are you to manifest Christian compassion and love
to sinners when they are so quickly and definitely disposed of?
"What chance have they to repent? Capital punishment is repellent to
public feeling in Russia, and has been used in cases which, thank God!
were quite exceptional and extremely rare. With us, only the very
worst crimes are punished with imprisonment for life. Even for these
it may at all events be said, 'While there is life there is hope.'
"Very great improvements have been introduced in our prison system.
More are to follow. We see our shortcomings better than ignorant
_dilettante_ critics, whose only object is to excite artificial
indignation.
"These questions are very important and complicated; but, as Thiers
used to say, '_Prenez tout au sérieux, rien au tragique_.'"
It is difficult to write of Russian prisons without reference to the
work of my great friend, Helen Voronoff. It has been said, and nothing
could be truer, that her whole existence might have been summed up in
the three words, "all for others." She killed herself by her devotion
to her self-imposed duty as an angel of light in the gloomy recesses of
Russian prisons.
[Illustration: MISS HELEN VORONOFF]
The first years of her life were devoted to teaching, but in 1906 she
turned her attention to another {227} sphere of activity that had long
attracted her, and which turned out to be her life's mission: the
bringing of comfort and hope and spiritual light into the lives of
criminals in prisons, more especially of political offenders. In spite
of her weak health, and of the fact that she had already in her early
youth been condemned to death by her doctors, she exhibited the most
extraordinary physical and moral energy, and looked upon all fatigue in
connection with her work simply as an unavoidable and unimportant
detail in the carrying out of her divine mission.
She never hesitated before those excessively tiring and depressing
journeys to the Schlüsselbourg Fortress, and other prisons, before
wanderings through cold dark cells, and keeping long vigils at the
bedsides of the dying. Her influence among the prisoners was so
beneficent, that the authorities, in all cases, allowed her to come and
go as she pleased, and to visit even the most dangerous criminals in
their solitary confinement cells.
On one particular occasion that comes to my mind, two gaolers seriously
opposed themselves to her entering a certain cell alone, since the
prisoner confined there was a ruffian who literally boasted of having
killed twelve persons, and whom it seemed most dangerous for an
unprotected woman to approach. Miss Voronoff would not even listen to
the gaolers.
"I must go to him quite alone," she insisted. "Your presence would
show mistrust on my part and would only wound his feelings."
On her entry, the criminal looked up in surprise. {228} "Why have you
come here alone?" he growled. "I have killed twelve people. Are you
not afraid that I shall kill you too?"
"There is no reason why you should do that," was the quiet reply. "I
have only come because I should like to help you a little. Your past
sins can make no difference."
The prisoner seemed taken aback, and gradually allowed himself to be
drawn into a conversation that lasted more than half an hour, after
which, when his visitor rose to go, this rough outcast, touched and
softened, begged her to come again.
Between her visits to the various prisons, Miss Voronoff spent all her
time in correspondence and interviews with the relatives of the
prisoners, and in untiring efforts to alleviate their sufferings and
soften their fate. Many indeed are the bright moments that this
consoling angel brought into the darkness of those hopeless lives!
Miss Voronoff left behind her (she died only recently) an interesting
book of sketches entitled _Among the Prisoners_. Never was a book
published more worthy of being described as a human document. It is
full of the charm and goodness of one saintly personality reacting upon
the victims of a great tragedy. The following quotations that I have
made from this book are so illuminating as to Russian character that
they require no apology or explanation:--
"It was not until after a lapse of six years that I was once more able
to visit the Wiborg Cellular Prison, in the consumptive ward of which I
first began to work for poor prisoners. Then I was in {229} the
company of Princess Maria Dondoukoff-Korsakoff. Now, this noble woman
has gone to her reward, but everything around seemed to speak to me of
her. There was not a bed in that ward upon which she had not sat (she
seldom, if ever, used the chairs provided, feeling that in this way she
was nearer to the patient). And many a sufferer had she comforted.
Laying her hand upon his shoulder or his head, she would speak words
which, delivered in her sweet and affable voice, could not fail to
reach his heart. Ah! how many a heart was softened, how much physical
pain relieved, how many souls gained back to God by her sweet
ministrations!
"And now, with these dear memories crowding upon me, I visited once
again the Wiborg Cellular Prison.
"It has been much improved; now there are two wards for consumptive
patients, whereas formerly there was but one, which was both
overcrowded and airless. In fact, the place, I remember, on one
occasion was so close as to overcome the Princess, who was obliged to
lie down and recover before continuing her ministrations to the sick.
"Upon the occasion of this my first visit to the prison after six
years, a touching incident occurred, which I should like to recall.
"Upon entering the ward I saw at once that there were three there who
would not be long upon this earth, for they remained motionless as I
advanced. But the others brightened up at my coming, trying to check
their troublesome coughs, and even, where strong enough, raising
themselves to greet me.
"During my conversation with them I asked if {230} those so near their
end had received Holy Communion. Upon this point I was reassured, and
was much comforted to see how anxious were those not yet about to die
that their fellow-sufferers should receive this consolation when the
end approached.
"I noticed as I passed along the ward a specially young and handsome
face, the face of one of the three about to breathe their last. I drew
closer, and silently watched him for a few moments, fearing to rouse
him, for his eyes were closed, and his breath was short and
interrupted. Bright red spots burnt upon his cheeks.
"As I stood thus his neighbour called him, and, looking above his bed,
I read the name, 'Paul Rostchin.'
"'Why do you disturb him?' I asked. The man explained that Rostchin
expected me, and wished to ask me something, and that when he regained
consciousness he would be very sad that he had not been roused to speak
to me.
"'After some time, Rostchin opened his eyes. I shall never forget
their expression. It was a mingling of pain and hope and entreaty. He
tried hard to speak, but, although his lips moved, I could hear no
sound.
"Gently I tried to soothe him, begging him to be calm, and telling him
that I was in no hurry, and would wait until I understood what it was
he wished to say to me.
"At last I caught one word, 'Mother.' 'Ah!' said I, 'you are calling
your mother; you want to see her; perhaps I could find her. Where does
she live?'
{231}
"'She is far from here,' he whispered, 'and cannot come.'
"My heart ached for him. It was pitiful to hear him in these his last
moments calling for his mother. I bent over him and said:
"'Your own mother, as you say, is far from here; but God has sent me to
comfort you. Can you not count me your spiritual mother, and confide
in me, when I come to you and sit with you and listen to all you have
to say?'
"His face brightened at the thought, and a little strength seemed to
return. 'I have something,' he said, 'to tell her before I die.'
"Then I begged him to say to me what he wished to say to her, promising
that I would hear it as though I were his mother. Hardly had I said
this than the man on the bed at our right, being able to walk, got up
and moved away, and the other, who was not equal to that effort, turned
his back to us, that he might not hear. I was touched at the feeling
displayed by these apparently rough, though simple Russian men.
"And then I made out from his laboured words his sad story. A good,
kind, and loving mother abandoned for more than a year and a half,
while he suffered in prison. His great wish now was to let her know
how much he felt his guilt, and beg for her forgiveness.
"I listened, holding my breath that I might catch the halting words,
and as he bared his soul, and made clear the confession he wished to
make, it seemed as though a great weight fell from him; and when, from
sheer exhaustion, he sank back and closed his {232} eyes, I knew that
the tears were there, as he said brokenly, 'I shall never see her again
to tell her this. I have only a few days, perhaps a week, left to
live.'
"I never hold out vain hopes to the poor patients when they are about
to die, so, seeing how near he was to his end, I did not undeceive him.
"Again I asked him for his mother's address, promising to write and
tell her that he was dying, and asked forgiveness, and that I would ask
her to reply immediately, so that he might hear the answer before the
end. The face of the dying man shone with a great joy; the forgiveness
of his mother was all he sought now upon the earth. Then, sinking back
upon his bed, he murmured, 'If I get the answer, I shall take it with
me.'
"Before leaving the hospital I made the sign of the Cross upon his
forehead. His eyes were closed, but he whispered, 'Thanks, thanks.'
"Meeting the doctor on my way out, I inquired whether he thought it was
worth while to suggest that the mother should come, or could he last so
long. The doctor seemed unable to decide, saying he might live a week
or he might die that day.
"Hurrying home, I despatched the promised letter, and for days awaited
the answer. Each day I telephoned to the prison for news of the dying
man, and each time I received the same reply, 'He is alive, but very
weak.' And this for five days.
"On the sixth day, when I came home in the afternoon, my servant met me
with the information that a very old woman, poorly dressed, in bast
shoes and {233} a wallet on her back, had been there asking for her son
Paul.
"Rostchin's mother, upon the receipt of my letter, had determined to
come in person to pardon her son. As the journey cost five roubles
twenty copecks, she sold all her possessions, pledging even her felt
shoes, thus being forced to travel in bast shoes, in spite of the
intense cold. It was her first visit to a large town; she was
bewildered by all she saw; but her mother's love helped her to surmount
all obstacles.
"The next morning, very early, I went to her. In her anxiety to get to
her son, she came to the tram with one golosh only over her bast shoe;
the other she had forgotten. It was not until we were on the way that
I broke the sad tidings to her that the hospital to which we were going
was the hospital of a prison. 'Oh! Paul, Paul, my beloved son. My
darling! How did you get to prison?' she sobbed. 'He was a warrant
officer, and now he is in prison.'
"To me it was most touching that she did not once reproach him. She
only pitied him without end. She warmly thanked me that I had not
mentioned in my letter that he was in prison.
"'Oh, God! Oh, Holy Virgin Mary! Let me find him alive; let me but
hear one word from him; let him look on me only one moment,' prayed the
old woman.
"We found, on our arrival at the prison, that Rostchin yet lived, but
to give an adequate description of the meeting between mother and son I
feel is beyond me.
{234}
"When I led the poor woman into the room where Rostchin lay, and showed
her the bed on which he was stretched, she staggered, and would have
fallen had I not supported her. But her eyes fell on the picture of a
saint, and, making the sign of the Cross, she approached the bedside of
her son. He was so weak that he could not even turn his head, but
tears rolled down his cheeks, and the poor mother, bending over him,
gazed so earnestly into his eyes that her tears fell and flowed with
his.
"'Forgive me, forgive me, my own mother. I am very guilty,' repeated
the dying man.
"'My son, my dear son Paul, God will forgive you,' wept the sorrowing
woman.
"I could stand the scene no longer, and I withdrew. When later I
returned, some of the sick prisoners came up and thanked me for the
great joy I had given to Rostchin.
"Once more was I thrilled to find such feelings in these poor
prisoners, themselves suffering and outcast, yet rejoicing with their
fellow-sufferer. It is easy to weep with those who weep, but when
one's own heart is sad and suffering, is it so easy to rejoice with
those that rejoice? Envy so easily creeps in.
"Rostchin did not live long after the visit of his mother. Having
received her pardon, he became calmer, asked for the clergyman, and
once more received the Holy Sacrament. His death was that of a good
Christian. His sufferings were great, but he remained still in the
same peaceful disposition. Before he breathed his last, he repeated
again and again, 'Forgive, forgive!'
{235}
"It is interesting to note that his mother did not remain until the
end, but, having pardoned and blessed her son, asked to be sent back to
her home.
"This is characteristically Russian. Having satisfied herself that his
soul was prepared to meet his God, she was less anxious about the dying
body, asking only to be informed when God had called him away.
"I let her know when all was over, and in reply received a simple and
touching letter, in which she begged me to 'go to his grave, take from
it a handful of earth, and send it to me.'
"What treasures lie hidden in the faithful soul of the simple Russian!"
{236}