Persia was once a great power in the world; the Persian religion,
a conquering and encroaching faith. The Persian Empire threatened
to destroy the independence of Greece. It held the Jews in actual
subjection, and its religious views profoundly influenced the
development of theirs. Through the Jews, its ideas have penetrated the
Christian world, and leavened Europe. It once possessed an extensive
and remarkable sacred literature, but a few scattered fragments of
which have descended to us. These fragments, recovered and first
translated by Anquetil du Perron, have been but imperfectly elucidated
as yet by European scholars; and there can be no doubt that much more
light remains to be cast upon them by philology as it progresses. Such
as they are, however, I shall make use of the translations already
before us to give my readers an imperfect account of the character of
the Parsee Scriptures.
These compositions are the productions of several centuries and are
widely separated from one another in the character of their thought,
and in the objects of worship proposed to the faithful follower of
Zarathustra. The oldest among them, which may belong to the time of the
prophet himself, are considered by Haug to be as ancient as B.C. 1200,
while the youngest were very likely as recent as B.C. 500.
Haug considers the Avesta to be the most ancient text, while the Zend
was a kind of commentary upon this already sacred book.
Taking the several portions of the Zend-Avesta in their chronological
order (as far as this can be ascertained), we shall begin with the five
Gâthâs, which are pronounced by their translator to be "by far the
oldest, weightiest, and most important pieces of the Zend-Avesta" (F.
G., xiii). Some portions of these venerable hymns are even attributed
by him to Zarathustra himself; but this—except where the prophet is in
some way named as the author—must be considered only as an individual
opinion, which can carry no positive conviction to other minds until
it is supported by stronger evidence than any at present accessible.
Meantime, we may rest assured that we possess among these hymns some
undoubted productions of the Zarathustrian age.
SUBDIVISION 1.—_The Five Gâthâs._
Proceeding to the individual Gâthâs, we find that the first, which
begins with the 28th chapter of the Yaçna, bears the following heading:
"The revealed Thought, the revealed Word, the revealed Deed of the
truthful Zarathustra.—The immortal saints chanted the hymns."[71]
The Gâthâ Ahunavaiti—such is its title—then proceeds:—
1. "Adoration to you, ye truthful hymns!
2. "I raise aloft my hands in devotion, and worship first all true
works of the wise and holy Spirit, and the Understanding of the pious
Disposition, in order to participate in this happiness.
3. "I will draw near to you with a pious disposition, O Wise One! O
Living One! with the request that you will grant me the mundane and
the spiritual life. By truth are these possessions to be obtained,
which he who is self-illuminated bestows on those who strive for them"
(F. G., vol. i. p. 24.—Yaçna, xxviii. 1-3).
The most important portion of this Gâthâ is the 30th chapter, because
in it we have a vivid picture of the conflict in which the religion
of Ahura-Mazda was born. Philological inquiry has rendered it clear
beyond dispute, that Parseeism took its rise in a religious schism
between two sections of the great Aryan race, at a period so remote
that the occupation of Hindoostan by an offshoot of that race had
not yet occurred. The common ancestors of Hindus and Persians still
dwelt together in Central Asia, when the great Parsee Reformation
disturbed their harmony; the one section adopting, or adhering to, the
Vedic polytheism which they subsequently carried to India; the other
embracing the more monotheistic creed which afterwards became the
national religion of Persia.
The following hymn of the reformers carries us into the very midst of
the strife:—
1. "I will now tell you who are assembled here, the wise sayings of
the most wise, the praises of the living God, and the songs of the
good spirit, the sublime truth which I see arising out of these sacred
flames.
2. "You shall, therefore, hearken to the soul of nature (_i. e._,
plough and cultivate the earth);[72] contemplate the beams of fire
with a most pious mind! Every one, both men and women, ought to-day
to choose his creed (between the Deva and the Ahura religion). Ye
offspring of renowned ancestors, awake to agree with us (_i. e._, to
approve of my lore, to be delivered to you at this moment)!"
(The prophet begins to deliver the words, revealed to him through the
sacred flames.)
3. "In the beginning there was a pair of twins, two spirits, each of a
peculiar activity; these are the good and the base, in thought, word,
and deed. Choose one of these two spirits! Be good, not base!
4. "And these two spirits united created the first (material things);
the one, the reality, the other, the non-reality. To the liars (the
worshipers of the devas, _i. e._, gods) existence will become bad,
whilst the believer in the true god enjoys prosperity.
5. "Of these two spirits you must choose one, either the evil, the
originator of the worst actions, or the true holy spirit. Some may
wish to have the hardest lot (_i. e._, those who will not leave the
polytheistic deva-religion), others adore Ahura-Mazda by means of
sincere actions.
6. "You cannot belong to both of them (_i. e._, you cannot be
worshipers of the one true God and of many gods at the same time). One
of the devas, against whom we are fighting, might overtake you, when
in deliberation (what faith you are to embrace), whispering you to
choose the no-mind. Then the devas flock together to assault the two
lives (the life of the body, and that of the soul), praised by the
prophets" (Parsees, pp. 141, 142.—Yasna, 30).
In another portion of this Gâthâ it is interesting to observe the
spirit of religious zeal breaking out, as it so generally does, into
the language of persecution:—
xxxi. 18. "Do not listen to the sayings and precepts of the wicked
(the evil spirit), because he has given to destruction house, village,
district, and province. Therefore kill them (the wicked) with the
sword!"
The wicked, as appears from the context, are those who did not accept
the Zarathustrian revelation.
In the second Gâthâ, or Gâthâ Ustavaiti, there are some very curious
passages. A few have been quoted in the notice of Zarathustra. The
following verses indicate the nature of the worship addressed to
Ahura-Mazda in the most ancient period of the Parsee religion:—
xliii. 2. "I believe thee to be the best thing of all, the source of
light for the world. Everybody shall choose thee (believe in thee) as
the source of light, thee, thee, holiest spirit Mazda! Thou createst
all good true things by means of the power of thy good mind at any
time, and promisest us (who believe in thee) a long life.
4. "I will believe thee to be the powerful, holy (god) Mazda! For
thou givest with thy hand, filled with helps, good to the pious
man, as well as to the impious, by means of the warmth of the fire
strengthening the good things. For this reason the vigor of the good
mind has fallen to my lot.
5. "Thus I believe in thee as the holy God, thou living Wise One!
Because I beheld thee to be the primeval cause of life in the
creation. For thou hast made (instituted) holy customs and words, thou
hast given a bad fortune (emptiness) to the base, and a good one to
the good man. I will believe in thee, thou glorious God! in the last
(future) period of creation" (Parsees, p. 149).
xliv. 3. "That which I shall ask thee, tell it me right, thou living
God! Who was in the beginning the father and creator of truth? Who
made the way for the sun and stars? Who causes the moon to increase
and wane, if not thou? This I wish to know besides what I already
know.
4. "That I will ask thee, tell it me right, thou living God! Who is
holding the earth and the skies above it? Who made the waters and
the trees of the field? Who is in the winds and storms that they so
quickly run? Who is the creator of the good-minded beings, thou Wise
One?
5. "That I will ask thee, tell it me right, thou living God! Who made
the lights of good effect and the darkness? Who made the sleep of good
effect and the activity? Who made morning, noon and night, always
reminding the priest of his duties?" (Ibid., p. 150.)
xlvi. 7. "Who is appointed protector of my property, Wise One! when
the wicked endeavor to hurt me? Who else, if not thy fire, and thy
mind, through which thou hast created the existence (good beings),
thou living God! Tell me the power necessary for holding up the
religion" (Ibid., p. 156).
The third Gâthâ is termed Çpeñta-Mainyus. It begins with praise
of Ahura-Mazda as the giver of the two forces of perfection and
immortality. From this holiest spirit proceeds all the good contained
in the words uttered by the good mind. He is the father of all truth.
Of such a spirit is he who created this earth with the fire resting in
its lap. Ahura-Mazda placed the gift of fire in the sticks that are
rubbed together by the duality of truth and piety. The following verse
refers to Mazda's prophet, Zarathustra:—
xlviii. 4. "He who created, by means of his wisdom, the good and the
no-mind in thinking, words, and deeds, rewards his obedient followers
with prosperity. Art thou (Mazda) not he in whom the last cause of
both intellects (good and evil) is _hidden_?" (Parsees, p. 159).
The concluding chapter of this Gâthâ is a hymn of praise supposed to
emanate from the Spirit of Earth and to be addressed to the highest
genii. It is not without beauty and sublimity, but I forbear to make
quotations from it, as some of its most interesting verses are noticed
elsewhere.
The fourth and fifth Gâthâ are much shorter, and are considered by Haug
as an appendix. The following verse may serve as a specimen of the
former:—
lii. 20. "May you all together grant us this your help, truth through
the good mind, and the good word in which piety consists. Be lauded
and praised. The Wise One bestows happiness.
21. "Has not the Holy One, the living wise one, created the radiant
truth, and possession with the good mind by means of the wise sayings
of Ârmaiti, by her actions and her faith?
22. "The living Wise One knows what is always the best for me in
the adoration of those who existed and still exist. These I will
invoke with mention of their names, and I will approach them as their
panegyrist" (F. G., vol. ii. p. 56).
Of the first three verses of the fifth Gâthâ I have spoken above (p.
184). The fourth and fifth run thus:—
liii. 4. "I will zealously confess this your faith, which the blessed
one destined to the landlord for the country people, to the truthful
householder for the truthful people, ever extending the glory and the
beauty of the good mind, which the living Wise One has bestowed on the
good faith for ever and ever.
5. "I proclaim formulæ of blessing to girls about to be married:
Attend! attend to them! You possess by means of those formulæ the life
of the good mind. Let one receive the other with upright heart; for
thus only will you prosper" (F. G., vol. ii. p. 57).
SUBDIVISION 2.—_Yaçna 35-41, or the Yaçna of seven chapters._
The Yaçna of seven chapters, which in the present arrangement of
the text is inserted between the first and second Gâthâs, is of
more recent date than the Gâthâs, but more ancient than the rest of
the Zend-Avesta. "It appears to be the work of one of the earliest
successors of the prophet, called in ancient times _Zarathustra_ or
_Zarathustrotema_, who, deviating somewhat from the high and pure
monotheistic principles of Çpitama, made some concessions to the
adherents of the ante-Zoroastrian religion by addressing prayers to
other beings than Ahura-Mazda" (Parsee, p. 219). The seven chapters
may be most accurately described as Psalms of praise, in which a great
variety of objects, spiritual and natural, receive a tribute of pious
reverence from the worshiper. They are not, however, on that account to
be considered as gods, or as in any way the equals of Ahura-Mazda, who
is still supreme. The beings thus addressed are portions of the "good
creation," or of the things created by the good power, Ahura-Mazda;
and they are either subjects of his spiritual kingdom, such as the
Amesha-çpentas (seven very important spirits), or they are simply
portions of the material universe treated as semi-divine, and exalted
to objects of religious worship. Thus in the last chapter of this
section, the author directs his laudations to the following, among
other, genii and powers: the dwelling of the waters, the parting of the
Ways, mountains, the wind, the earth, the pure ass in Lake Vouru-Kasha,
this lake itself, the Soma, the flowing of the waters, the flying of
the birds. It is plain from this enumeration that we are already a
step beyond the simple adoration of Ahura-Mazda so conspicuous in the
Gâthâs, and that the door is opened to the multitude of spirits and
divinities that make their appearance in other parts of the Parsee
ritual.
This section of the Yaçna opens, however, with a striking address to
Ahura-Mazda:[73]—
xxxv. 1. "We worship Ahura-Mazda the pure, the master of purity. We
worship the Amesha-çpentas (the archangels), the possessors of good,
the givers of good. We worship the whole creation of the true spirit,
both the spiritual and terrestrial, all that supports (raises) the
welfare of the good creation, and the spread of the good Mazdayaçna
religion.
2. "We praise all good thoughts, all good words, all good deeds,
which are and will be (which are being done and which have been done)
and we likewise keep clean and pure all that is good.
3. "O Ahura-Mazda, thou true happy being! we strive to think, to
speak, and to do only those of all actions which might be best fitted
to promote the two lives (that of the body and of the soul).
4. "We beseech the spirit of earth by means of these best works
(agriculture) to grant us beautiful and fertile fields, to the
believer as well as to the unbeliever, to him who has riches as well
as to him who has no possession" (Parsees, p. 163).
The following invocation of fire deserves to be mentioned before we
quit this portion of the Yaçna:—
xxxvi. 4. "Happy is the man to whom thou comest in power, O Fire, Son
of Ahura-Mazda.
5. "Friendlier than the friendliest, more deserving of adoration than
the most adorable.
6. "Mayest thou come to us helpfully to the greatest of
transactions....
9. "O Fire, Son of Ahura-Mazda, we approach thee
10. "with a good spirit, with good purity" (Av., ii. 137).
SUBDIVISION 3.—_Yaçna, Chapter XII._
This chapter is stated by Haug to be written in the Gâthâ dialect; it
is therefore extremely ancient, and as it contains the Confession of
Faith made by Zarathustrian converts on their abandonment of idolatry,
or worship of the Devas, it is of sufficient importance to be quoted at
length:—
xii. 1. "I cease to be a Deva _worshiper_. I profess to be a
Zoroastrian Mazdayaçna (worshiper of Ahura-Mazda), an enemy of the
Devas, and a devotee to Ahura, a praiser of the immortal saints
(Amesha-çpentas), a worshiper of the immortal saints. I ascribe all
good things to Ahura-Mazda, who is good, and has good, who is true,
lucid, shining, who is the originator of all the best things, of the
spirit in nature (gâus), of the growth in nature, of the luminaries
and the self-shining brightness which is in the luminaries.
2. "I choose (follow, profess) the holy Ârmaiti, the good; may she
be mine! I abominate all fraud and injury committed on the spirit
of earth, and all damage and destruction of the quarters of the
Mazdayaçnas.
3. "I allow the good spirits who reside on this earth in the good
animals (as cows, sheep, &c.), to go and roam about free according to
their pleasure. I praise, besides, all that is offered with prayer
to promote the growth of life. I shall cause neither damage nor
destruction to the quarters of the Mazdayaçnas, neither with my body
nor my soul.
4. "I forsake the Devas, the wicked, bad, false, untrue, the
originators of mischief, who are most baneful, destructive, the basest
of all beings. I forsake the Devas and those who are Devas-like, the
witches and their like, and any being whatever of such a kind. I
forsake them with thoughts, words and deeds: I forsake them hereby
publicly, and declare that every lie and falsehood is to be done away
with.
5, 6. "In the same way as Zarathustra at the time when Ahura-Mazda was
holding conversations and meetings with him, and both were conversing
with each other, forsook the Devas; so do I forsake the Devas, as the
holy Zarathustra did.
7. "To that party to which the waters belong, to whatever party the
trees, and the animating spirit of nature, to that party to which
Ahura-Mazda belongs, who has created this spirit and the pure man; to
that party of which Zarathustra, and Kava Vistâçpa and Frashaostra
and Jâmâçpa were, of that party of which all the ancient fire-priests
(Soshyañto) were, the pious, who were spreading the truth: of the same
party and creed _am_ I.
8. "I am a Mazdayaçna, a Zoroastrian Mazdayaçna. I profess this
religion by praising and preferring it to others (the Deva religion).
I praise the thought which is good, I praise the word which is good, I
praise the work which is good.
9. "I praise the Mazdayaçna religion, and the pure brotherhood which
it establishes and defends against enemies, the Zoroastrian Ahura
religion, which is the greatest, best, and most prosperous of all that
are, and that will be. I ascribe all good to Ahura-Mazda. This shall
be the praise (profession) of the Mazdayaçna religion."
SUBDIVISION 4.—_The Younger Yaçna, and Vispered._
While the Gâthâs and the confession just quoted represent the most
ancient phase of the Mazdayaçna faith, we enter, in the remaining
portion of the Yaçna, on a much later stage of the growing creed. So
many new divinities, or at any rate, objects of reverential addresses,
now enter upon the scene, that we almost lose sight of Ahura-Mazda in
the throng of his attendants. We seem to be some ages away from the
days when Zarathustra bade his hearers choose between the one true God
and the multitude of false gods worshiped by his enemies. Ahura-Mazda
is safely enthroned, and Zarathustra shines out gloriously as his
prophet; but Zarathustra's creed is overloaded with elements of which
he himself knew nothing. The first chapter of the Yaçna, a liturgical
prayer, brings these elements conspicuously before us. It is an
invocation and celebration of a great variety of powers belonging to
what is termed the good creation, or the world of virtuous beings and
good things, as opposed to the malicious beings and bad things who form
the realm of evil.[74] Thus it opens:—
"I invoke and I celebrate the creator Ahura-Mazda, luminous,
resplendent, very great and very good, very perfect and very
energetic, very intelligent and very beautiful, eminent in purity,
who possesses the excellent knowledge, the source of pleasure; him
who has created us, who has formed us, who has nourished us, the most
accomplished of intelligent beings."[75]
Every verse, until we approach the end, commences with the same
formula:—"I invoke and I celebrate;" or, as Spiegel translates it,
"I invite and announce it;" the sole difference is in the beings
invoked. Many of these are powers of more or less eminence in the
Parsee spiritual hierarchy, but it would be going beyond our object
here to enumerate their names and specify their attributes. To a large
proportion of them the epithets "pure, lord of purity," are added,
while some are dignified with more special titles of honor. After the
above homage to Ahura-Mazda, the writer invokes and celebrates, among
others: Mithra (a very famous god), who increases oxen, who has one
thousand ears, and ten thousand eyes; the fire of Ahura-Mazda; the
water given by Ahura-Mazda; the Fravashis (angels or guardian spirits)
of holy men and of women who are under men's protection; energy, with
a good constitution and an imposing figure; victory given by Ahura;
the months; the new moon; the full moon; the time of fecundation; the
years; all the lords of purity, and thirty-three genii surrounding
Hâvani, who are of admirable purity, whom Mazda has made known,
and Zarathustra has proclaimed; the stars, especially a star named
Tistrya; the moon, which contains the germ of the ox; the sun, the
eye of Ahura-Mazda; the trees given by Mazda; the Word made known by
Zarathustra against the Devas; the excellent law of the Mazdayaçnas;
the perfect benediction; the pure and excellent man; these countries
and districts; pastures and houses; the earth, the sky, the wind; the
great lord of purity; days, months, and seasons; the Fravashis of the
men of ancient law; those of contemporaries and relations, and his own;
all genii who ought to be invoked and adored. It is manifest from this
invocation, in which I have omitted many names and many repetitions,
how far we are from the stern and earnest simplicity of the Gâthâs.
Regular liturgical forms have sprung up, and these express the more
developed and complicated worship which the Parsee priesthood has now
engrafted on the Zarathustrian monotheism.
The concluding verses run as follows:—
"O thou who art given in this world, given against the Devas,
Zarathustra[76] the pure, lord of purity, if I have wounded thee,
either in thought, word, or deed, voluntarily or involuntarily, I
again address this praise in thine honor; yes, I invoke thee if I have
failed against thee in this sacrifice and this invocation.
"O all ye very great lords, pure, masters of purity, if I have wounded
you, &c. [as above].
"May I, a worshiper of Mazda, an adherent of Zarathustra, an enemy of
the Devas, an observer of the precepts of Ahura, address my homage to
him who is given here, given against the Devas; to Zarathustra, pure,
lord of purity, for the sacrifice, for the invocation, for the prayer
that renders favorable, for the benediction. (May I address my homage)
to the lords (who are) the days, the parts of days, &c., for the
benediction; that is to say: (may I address my homage) to the lords
(who are) the days, the parts of days, the months, the seasons of the
year (Gahanbârs), the years; for the sacrifice, for the invocation,
for the prayer that renders favorable, for the benediction."[77]
The rest of the Yaçna consists mainly of praises or prayers addressed
to the very numerous objects of Parsee adoration, and most of it is of
little interest. The following short section, however, deserves remark:—
_Yaçna 12._
1. "I praise the thoughts rightly thought, the words rightly spoken,
and the deeds rightly done.
2. "I seize upon (or resort to) all good thoughts, words and deeds.
3. "I forsake all bad thoughts, words, and deeds.
4. "I bring you, O Amesha-çpentas,
5. "Praise and adoration,
6. "With thoughts, words, and deeds, with heavenly mind, the vital
force from my own body."[78]
In the following verses again there is some excellence:—
1. "May that man attain that which is best who teaches us the
right way to our profit in this world, both the material and the
spiritual world, the plain way that leads to the worlds where Ahura
is enthroned, and the sacrificer, resembling thee, a sage, a saint, O
Mazda.
2. "May there come to this dwelling contentment, blessing, fidelity,
and the wisdom of the pure."
8. "In this dwelling may Çraosha[79] (obedience) put an end to
disobedience, peace to strife, liberality to avarice, wisdom to
error, truthful speech to lying, which detests purity" (Av. ii. 186,
187.—Yaçna 59).
The prominent position occupied by fire in the Parsee faith is well
known. The presence of fire is indeed an essential part of their
ritual, in which it is treated with no less honor than the consecrated
wafer in that of Catholic Christians. Not only, however, is it employed
in their rites, but it is addressed as an independent being, to whom
worship is due. Not that its place in the hierarchy is to be confounded
with that of Ahura-Mazda. It is not put upon a level with the supreme
being, but it is addressed as his son, its rank being thus still more
closely assimilated to that of the host, which is in like manner a part
of the liturgical machinery and an embodiment of the son of God. A
special chapter of the Yaçna—the 61st—is devoted to Fire, and a summary
of its contents will help us to understand the light in which this
deity was regarded.
The sacrificer begins by vowing offerings and praise and good
nourishment to "Fire, son of Ahura-Mazda." He trusts that Fire may ever
be provided with a proper supply of wood, and may always burn brightly
in this dwelling, even till the final resurrection. He beseeches Fire
to give him much property, much distinction, holiness, a ready tongue,
wit and understanding, activity, sleeplessness, and posterity. Fire
is said to await nourishment from all; whoever comes, he looks at his
hands, saying: "What does the friend bring his friend, the coming one
to him who sits alone?" And this is the blessing he bestows on him who
brings him dry wood, picked out for burning: "Mayest thou be surrounded
with herds of cattle, with abundance of men. May it be with thee
according to the desire of thy heart, according to the desire of thy
soul. Be joyous, live thy life the whole time that thou shalt live."[80]
The last chapter but one of the Yaçna is a hymn in universal praise of
the good creation. All the objects belonging to that creation—that is,
made by Ahura-Mazda, and standing in contrast with the bad creation
of Agra-Mainyus—are enumerated, and as a catalogue of these the hymn
is interesting. Ahura-Mazda himself is named first; then Zarathustra;
after this follows the Fravashi (angel) of Zarathustra, the
Amesha-çpentas, the Fravashis of the pure, and so forth, through a long
list of animate and inanimate beings. Each is named with the formula
"we praise" following the title, as: "The whole earth we praise" (Av.,
vol. ii. p. 202.—Yaçna, 70).
So close is the resemblance between the Vispered and that portion
of the Yaçna which we have just examined, that it will be needless
to dwell upon the contents of the former. We may therefore at once
pass on to a very important section, for theological purposes, of the
Zend-Avesta, namely—
SUBDIVISION 5.—_Vendidad._
Totally unlike either the Yaçna, the Vispered, or the Yashts, the
Vendidad is a legislative code—dealing indeed largely with religious
questions, but not confining itself exclusively to them. It differs
from the remainder of the sacred volume much as Leviticus differs from
the Psalms, or as the Institutes of Menu differ from the hymns of the
Rig-Veda. It is regarded as equally holy with the rest of the Avesta,
and is recited in divine service along with Vispered and Yaçna, the
three together forming what is termed the Vendidad-Sade (Av., ii.
lxxv). Its abrupt termination indicates that the code is not before us
in its entirety; the portion which has been preserved, however, does
not appear to have suffered great mutilation. Let us briefly summarize
its contents, first premising that the form they assume (with trifling
exceptions) is that of conversations between Ahura-Mazda and his
prophet.
The first Fargard (or chapter) is an enumeration of the good countries
or places created by Ahura-Mazda, and of the evils—such as the
serpent, the wasp, and various moral offenses, including that of
doubt—created in opposition to him in each case by the president of the
bad creation, Agra-Mainyus. The second Fargard is a long narrative of
the proceedings of a mythological hero named Yima (the Indian Yama),
to whom Ahura-Mazda is stated to have once committed the government
of the world, or of some part of it. Thus far we have not entered on
the proper subject-matter of the Vendidad. The third Fargard, while
still introductory, approaches more nearly to the subsequent chapters,
alike in its form and its contents. In it Zarathustra lays certain
queries before Ahura-Mazda, and the replies given by that deity are
of high importance for the comprehension of both the social and moral
status of the Parsees at the time when this dialogue was written. The
stress laid upon the virtue of cultivating the soil is especially to be
noticed. Similar sentiments are frequently repeated in the Vendidad,
and indicate a people among whom agriculture was still in its infancy,
the transition from the pastoral state to the more settled condition of
tillers of the soil being still incomplete. The compilers of this code
evidently felt strongly the extreme value to their youthful community
of agricultural pursuits, and therefore encouraged them at every
convenient opportunity by representing them as peculiarly meritorious
in the sight of God.
Zarathustra begins his inquiries by asking what is in the first place
most agreeable to this earth, and successively ascertains what are the
five things which give it most satisfaction, and what the five which
cause it the most displeasure. Ahura-Mazda answers that, in the first
place, a holy man with objects of sacrifice is the most agreeable; then
a holy man making his dwelling-place, and storing it with all that
pertains to a happy and righteous life; then the production of grain
and of fruit trees, the irrigation of thirsty land, or the drainage of
moist land; fourthly, the breeding of live-stock and draught-cattle;
fifthly, a special incident connected with the presence of such animals
on the land. The five displeasing things are, the meetings of Daevas
and Drujus (evil spirits), the interment of men or dogs (which was
contrary to the law), the accumulation of Dakhmas, or places where
the bodies of the dead were left exposed, the dens of animals made by
Agra-Mainyus, and lastly, unbecoming conduct on the part of the wife
or son of a holy man. Further questions are then put as to the mode of
conduct which wins the approbation of the earth, and it is stated to
consist in actions which tend to counteract the evils above enumerated.
In the course of these replies occasion is again taken to eulogize the
man who vigorously cultivates the soil, and to censure him who idly
leaves it uncultivated. Certain penalties are then imposed on those who
bury dogs or men, but the sin of leaving them underground for two years
is declared to be inexpiable, except by the Mazdayaçna Law, which can
purify the worst offenders:—
"For it (the Law) will take away these (sins) from those who praise
the Mazdayaçna Law, if they do not again commit wicked actions. For
this the Mazdayaçna Law, O holy Zarathustra, takes away the bonds of
the man who praises it. It takes away deceit. It takes away the murder
of a pure man. It takes away the burial of the dead. It takes away
inexpiable actions. It takes away accumulated guilt. It takes away
all sins which men commit" (Av., vol. i. p. 87, 88.—Vendidad, iii.
140-148).
We see from this that the power of the Law to deliver sinners from
the burden of their offenses was in no way inferior to that of the
Atonement of Christ.
It is unnecessary to dwell upon the fourth Fargard, which deals with
the penalties—consisting mainly of corporal punishment—for breach of
contract and other offenses. The fifth and sixth, being concerned
with the regulations to be observed in case of impurity arising from
the presence of dead bodies, are of little interest. A large part of
the seventh is occupied with the same subjects, but its course is
interrupted by certain precautions to be attended to in the graduation
of students of medicine, which may be commended to the notice of
other religious communities. Should a Mazdayaçna desire to become a
physician, on whom, inquires Zarathustra, shall he first try his hand,
the Mazdayaçna (orthodox Parsees), or the Daevayaçnas (adherents of
a false creed)? Ahura-Mazda replies that the Daevayaçnas are to be
his first patients. If he has performed three surgical operations on
these heretics, and his three patients have died, he is to be held
unfit for the medical profession, and must on no account presume to
operate on the adherents of the Law. If, however, he is successful
with the Daevayaçnas, he is to receive his degree, and may proceed to
practice on the more valuable bodies of faithful Parsees. So careful a
contrivance to ensure that none but infidels shall fall victims to the
knife of the unskilful surgeon evinces no little ingenuity.
The eighth Fargard relates chiefly to the treatment of dead bodies,
while the ninth proceeds to narrate the rites for the purification of
those who have come in contact with them. A terrible penalty—that
of decapitation—is enacted against the man who ventures to perform
this rite without having learnt the law from a priest competent
to purify. The tenth Fargard prescribed the prayers by which the
_Drukhs_, or impure spirit supposed to attach itself to corpses, and
to come from them upon the living, is to be driven away: and the
subject is continued in the eleventh, which contains formularies
for the purification of dwellings, fires, and other objects. Along
with injunctions as to the purification of houses where a death has
occurred, the twelfth Fargard informs its hearers how many prayers
they are to offer up for deceased relatives. The number varies both
according to their relationship, being highest for those that are
nearest akin, and according to their purity or sinfulness, double as
many being required for the sinful as for the pure. After a short
introduction expounding the merit of killing a certain species of
animal and the demerit of killing another (what they are is uncertain),
the thirteenth Fargard proceeds to enumerate in detail the various
kinds of offenses against dogs, and the corresponding penalties. Dogs
were evidently of the utmost importance to the community, and their
persons are guarded with scarcely less care than those of human beings.
They are held to have souls, which migrate after their decease to
a canine Paradise. It seems, too, that shades of departed dogs are
appointed to watch the dangerous bridge over which men's souls must
travel on the road to felicity, and which the wicked cannot pass; for
we are informed of the soul of a man who has killed a watch-dog, that
"the deceased dogs who guard against crime and watch the bridge do
not make friends with it on account of its abominable and horrible
nature" (Av., vol. i. p. 192.—Vendidad, xiii. 25); while a man who has
killed a water-dog is required to make "offerings for its pious soul
for three days and three nights" (Av., vol. i. p. 201.—Vendidad, xiii.
173). The place to which the souls of these animals repair is termed
"the water-dwelling," and it is stated that two water-dogs meet them
on their arrival, apparently to welcome them to their aqueous heaven
(Av., vol. i. p. 200.—Vendidad, xiii. 167). Not only killing dogs,
but wounding them or giving them bad food, are crimes to be severely
punished; and even in case of madness the dog's life is on no account
to be taken. On the contrary, the utmost care is to be taken, by
fastening him so as to prevent escape, that he should do himself no
injury, for if he should happen in his madness to fall into water and
die, the community will have incurred sin by the accident.[81] The
following verses convey an interesting notion of the esteem in which
the dog was held among the early Parsees. The speaker is Ahura-Mazda:—
"I have created the dog, O Zarathustra, with his own clothes and his
own shoes; with a sharp nose and sharp teeth; attached to mankind,
for the protection of the herds. Then I created the dog, even I
Ahura-Mazda, with a body capable of biting enemies. When he is in good
health, when he is with the herds, when he is in good voice, O holy
Zarathustra, there comes not to his village either thief or wolf to
carry off property unperceived from the villages" (Av., vol. i. p.
197.—Vendidad, xiii. 106-113).
In the fourteenth Fargard, water-dogs are further protected against
wounds; while in the fifteenth, the preservation of the canine species
at large is ensured by elaborate enactments. To give a dog bones which
he cannot gnaw, or food so hot as to burn its tongue, is a sin; to
frighten a bitch in pup, as by clapping the hands, is likewise to incur
guilt; and they are gravely criminal who suffer puppies to die from
inattention. If born in camel-stalls, stables, or any such places,
it is incumbent on the proprietor to take charge of them; or, if the
litter should be at large, at least the nearest inhabitant is bound to
become their protector. Strangely intermingled with these precautions
are rules prohibiting cohabitation with women in certain physical
conditions, and enactments for the prevention of abortion, and for
ensuring the support of a pregnant girl by her seducer, at least until
her child is born. The crime of abortion is described in a manner which
curiously reveals the practices occasionally resorted to by Parsee
maidens. Should a single woman be with child, and say, "The child was
begotten by such and such a man"—
"If then this man says, 'Try to make friends with an old woman and
inquire of her; if then this girl does make friends with an old woman,
and inquire of her, and this old woman brings Baga, or Shaêta, or
Ghnâna, or Fraçpâta, or any of the vegetable purgatives, saying, 'Try
to kill this child;' if then the girl does try to kill the child, then
the girl, the man, and the old woman are equally criminal."
Neither the sixteenth nor the seventeenth Fargard need detain us. They
relate, the one to the above-mentioned rules to be observed towards
women, the other to the disposal of the hair and nails, which are
held to pollute the earth. The eighteenth Fargard begins, as if in
the middle of a conversation, with an address by Ahura-Mazda, on the
characteristics of true and false priests, some, it appears, having
improperly pretended to the priesthood. After some questions on other
points of doctrine put by Zarathustra, we are suddenly introduced to a
conversation between the angel Çraosha and the Drukhs, or evil spirit,
in which the latter describes the several offenses that cause her to
become pregnant, or, in other words, increase her influence in the
world. After this interlude, we return to Ahura-Mazda and Zarathustra.
The prophet, having been exhorted to put questions, inquires of
his god who causes him the greatest annoyance. Ahura-Mazda replies
that it is "he who mingles the seed of the pious and the impious,
of Daeva-worshipers and of those who do not worship the Daevas, of
sinners and non-sinners." Such persons are "rather to be killed than
poisonous snakes." Hereupon Zarathustra proceeds to ascertain what are
the penalties for those who cohabit with women at seasons when the
law requires them to be separate. At the beginning of the nineteenth
Fargard, we have an account of the temptation of the prophet by the
evil one, to which allusion has been made in another place. Zarathustra
seeks for information as to the means of getting rid of impurities, and
is taught by Ahura-Mazda to praise the objects he has created. In the
latter part of the chapter we have a remarkable account of the judgment
of departed souls. In conclusion, we have a psalm of praise recited
by the prophet in honor of God, the earth, the stars, the Gâthâs, and
numerous other portions of the good creation. There is little in the
twentieth Fargard beyond the information that Thrita was the first
physician, and a formula of conjuration, apparently intended to be
used in order to drive away diseases. In the twenty-first, we find
praises of the cloud, the sun, and other heavenly bodies. The last
Fargard of the Vendidad differs widely from the rest in its manner of
representing Ahura-Mazda. It is, no doubt, as Spiegel observes, of late
origin. Ahura-Mazda complains of the opposition he has encountered
from Agra-Mainyus, who has afflicted him with illness (whether in
his own person, or in that of mankind, is not clear). He calls upon
Manthra-Çpenta, the Word, to heal him, but that spirit declines, and a
messenger is accordingly sent to Airyama to summon him to the task.[82]
Airyama commences his preparations on an extensive scale, but at this
point the Vendidad breaks off, and we are left in doubt as to the
result of his efforts.
SUBDIVISION 6.—_The Khorda-Avesta, with the Homa Yasht._
The term Khorda-Avesta, or little Avesta, is applied, according to
Spiegel, to that part of the Zend-Avesta which includes the Yashts,
and certain prayers, some of them of extreme sanctity, and constantly
employed in Parsee worship. He informs us that, while the remainder
of the sacred texts serve more especially for priestly study and for
public reading, the Khorda-Avesta is mainly used in private devotion
(Av., vol. iii. p. 1). Some of its prayers belong to a comparatively
recent period, being composed no longer in the Zend language, but in
a younger dialect; and we meet in them with the Persian forms of the
old names—Ormazd standing for Ahura-Mazda, Ahriman for Agra-Mainyus,
and Zerdoscht for Zarathustra. The names of the genii have undergone
corresponding alterations. We find ourselves in these prayers, and
indeed throughout the Yashts, many centuries removed from the age of
Zarathustra and his immediate followers. Some of the more celebrated
prayers, however (not belonging to the class of Yashts), must be of
considerable antiquity, if we may judge from the fact of their being
mentioned in the Yaçna. Thus, in the 19th chapter of the Yaçna, we
find an elaborate exaltation of the powers of the Ahuna-Vairya, which
stands second in the Khorda-Avesta. Zarathustra is represented as
asking Ahura-Mazda, "What was the speech which thou spokest to me, as
existing before the sky, before the water, before the earth, before
the ox, before the trees, before the fire, son of Ahura-Mazda, before
the pure men, before the Daevas with perverted minds, and before
men, before the whole corporeal world, before all things created by
Mazda which have a pure origin?" This speech, existing prior to all
created objects, is declared to have been a part of the Ahuna-Vairya.
The immense benefits of repeating this prayer, which is stated to
ensure salvation, are then recounted to the prophet. The 20th chapter
is occupied with the merits of another of these short formularies,
the Ashem-vohû. These prayers are in continual use, not only in the
liturgy, but among the laity. They are sometimes required to recite
great numbers of Ahuna-Vairyas at one time, and at the commencement of
sowing, or of any good work, it is proper to repeat it. The Ashem-vohû
is to be said on various occasions, particularly on waking and before
going to sleep (Av., vol. ii. pp. lxxxii., lxxxiii). The higher
sanctity, as well as greater antiquity, of these prayers is evinced
by the fact that we find them constantly introduced in the course of
others, to which they form a necessary supplement. There are often
several Ashem-vohûs in a single brief prayer. The Ashem-vohû, in
fact, fulfills a function much like that of the Lord's prayer in the
liturgies of some Christian Churches.
Let us now see what these most sacred forms of adoration contain. The
Ashem-Vohû is to this effect:—
"Purity is the best possession.
Hail, hail to him:
Namely, to the pure man best in purity."[83]
It is strange that, in a formulary occupying so conspicuous a place
in Parsee devotion, there should be no acknowledgment of God. But
this want is supplied in the Ahuna-Vairya, or Yathâ-ahû-vairyo, which
follows it.
Yathâ-ahû-vairyo:—
"As it is the Lord's will, so (is he) the ruler from purity.
(We shall receive) gifts from Vohu-mano for the works (we do) in the
world for Mazda.
And (he gives) the kingdom to Ahura who protects the poor" (Av., vol.
iii.—Khorda-Avesta, 2).
Certainly this is not very intelligible, but the last clause is
remarkable, as implying that the way to advance God's kingdom on earth
is to confer benefits on the poor.
Passing over a number of other prayers, we enter upon the Yashts,
which are distinguished from all other parts of the Avesta by the fact
that each of them is written in celebration of some particular god or
genius. Ahura-Mazda, indeed, still retains his supremacy, and every
Yasht begins with a formula, of which the first words are "In the name
of the God Ormazd," while the first Yasht is devoted exclusively to his
praise. Subject to this recognition, however, the inferior potentates
are each in turn the object of panegyrics in that exaggerated style in
which Oriental literature delights. We need not stop to recount the
particular honors rendered to each. One Yasht, however, is sufficiently
curious to merit our attention, the more so as we possess a translation
of it by Burnouf.[84] It is termed the Homa Yasht, and is intended to
extol the brilliant qualities of the god whose name it bears. At that
period of the day which is termed Hâvani—so it begins—Homa came to
find Zarathustra, who was cleaning his fire, and singing the Gâthâs.
"Zarathustra asked him: 'What man art thou who in all the existing
world appearest to my sight as the most perfect, with thy beautiful
and immortal person?' Then Homa, the holy one, who banishes death,
answered me: 'I am, O Zarathustra, Homa, the holy one, who banishes
death. Invoke, O Çpitama,[85] extract me to eat me, praise me to
celebrate me, in order that others, who desire their good, may praise
me in their turn.' Then Zarathustra said: 'Adoration to Homa! Who is
the mortal, Homa, who first in the present world extracted thee for
sacrifice? What holiness did he acquire? What advantage accrued to him
thereby?'" Homa replies that Vivanghat was the first to extract him for
sacrifice, and that he acquired the advantage of becoming father to the
glorious Yima, in whose reign "there was neither cold nor (excessive)
heat, nor old age nor death, nor envy produced by the Deva. Fathers
and sons alike had the figure of men of fifteen years of age, as
long as Yima reigned." Similar questions are then put by Zarathustra
regarding the second, third, and fourth mortals who worshiped Homa, and
similar replies are given. All had distinguished sons; but the last,
Puruchaspa, was rewarded beyond all others by the birth of Zarathustra
himself. Homa thereupon magnifies Zarathustra in the usual style of
the later parts of the Zend-Avesta, and Zarathustra, who is not to be
outdone in the language of compliment, thus addresses him in return:
"Adoration to Homa! Homa, the good, has been well made; he has been
made just; made good; he bestows health; he has a beautiful person; he
does good; he is victorious; of the color of gold; his branches are
inclined to be eaten; he is excellent; and he is the most celestial
way for the soul. O thou who art of the color of gold, I ask thee for
prudence, energy, victory, beauty, the force that penetrates the whole
body, greatness which is spread over the whole figure;" and so forth,
through several other by no means modest petitions. In a more formal
manner Zarathustra then demands of Homa the following favors: 1st, the
excellent abode of the saints; 2dly, the duration of his body; 3dly, a
long life; 4thly, and 5thly, to be able to annihilate hatred and strike
down the cruel man; 6thly, that they (the faithful?) may see robbers,
assassins, and wolves before being seen by them. After this, Homa is
praised generally. He gives many good gifts, among them posterity to
sterile mothers, and husbands to spinsters of advanced years. He is
finally requested, if there should be in the village or the province a
man who is hurtful to others, to take from him the power of walking, to
darken his intelligence, and to break his heart (For another Yasht, see
ch. i).
The Yashts are succeeded by various pieces, of which one relates to
Parsee eschatology, and the others, celebrating numerous supernatural
objects of worship, do not call for any special remark. After these we
come to the so-called Patets, which belong to the most recent portions
of the book, and indicate a highly developed consciousness of sin,
and of the need of divine forgiveness. They correspond in tone and
character to the General Confession which has been placed by the Church
of England in the forefront of her Liturgy, except that they contain
long enumerations of the several classes of offenses for which pardon
is to be entreated. One of them, after such a catalogue, thus addresses
the Deity:—
"Whatever was the wish of the Creator Ormazd, and I ought to have
thought and did not think, whatever I ought to have said and did not
say, whatever I ought to have done and did not do.—I repent of these
sins, with thoughts, words, and works, both the corporeal and the
spiritual, the earthly and the heavenly sin, with the three words
(that is, with thoughts, words, and works). Forgive, O Lord; I repent
of the sin.
"Whatever was the wish of Ahriman, and I ought to have thought and yet
did think, whatever I ought not to have said and yet did say, whatever
I ought not to have done and yet did,—I repent of these sins with
thoughts, words, and works, both the corporeal and the spiritual, the
earthly and the heavenly sins, with the three words. Forgive, O Lord;
I repent of the sin" (Av., vol. iii. p. 211.—Khorda-Avesta, xlv. 8, 9).
Another of these Patets contains the following comprehensive formula:—
"In whatever way I may have sinned, against whomsoever I may have
sinned, howsoever I may have sinned, I repent of it with thoughts,
words, and works; forgive!" (Av., vol. iii. p. 216.—Khorda-Avesta,
xlv. 1.)
The same Patet contains a confession of faith, which, as it alludes to
the several dogmas that were held to be of first-rate importance in the
creed of the true disciple of Zarathustra, may be worth quoting before
we quit the subject:—
"I believe in the existence, the purity, and the indubitable truth
of the good Mazdayaçna faith, and in the Creator Ormazd and the
Amschaspands, in the exaction of an account, and in the resurrection
of the new body. I remain in this faith, and confess that it is not
to be doubted, as Ormazd imparted it to Zertuscht, Zertuscht to
Fraschaostra and Jâmâçp, as Âderbât, the son of Mahresfand, ordered
and purified it, as the just Paoiryotkaeshas and the Deçtûrs in family
succession have brought it to us, and I thence am acquainted with it"
(Av., vol. iii. p. 218.—Khorda-Avesta, xlv. 28).
In more than one respect this confession is interesting. First, it
asserts the excellence and the unquestionable infallibility of the
traditional faith in terms which a Catholic could hardly improve upon.
Secondly, it brings before us in succinct form the leading points
included in that faith—the Creator, at the head of all the created
world; the seven Amschaspands or Amesha-Çpentas, heavenly powers of
whom Ormazd himself was chief; the judgment to be expected after
death, and the strict account then to be required; lastly, the general
resurrection with its new body. Proceeding next to the manner in which
this faith had been handed down from generation to generation, we have
first the cardinal doctrine that God himself was the direct teacher of
his prophet; after that, a statement that the prophet communicated it
to others, from whom it descended to still later followers, one of whom
is declared to have "ordered and purified it." Thus the consciousness
of subsequent additions to the original law is betrayed. Thus amended,
the priests, or Deçtûrs, are said to have transmitted it to the time
of the speaker, the authority of the ecclesiastical order in the
interpretation of the sacred records being thus carefully maintained.
How many generations had elapsed before the transmission of the law
could thus become the subject of deliberate incorporation among
recognized dogmas, it is impossible to say. Undoubtedly, however, we
stand a long way off—not only in actual time, but in modes of thought
and forms of worship—from the ancient Iranian prophet. The change from
the faith of Peter to that of St. Augustine is not greater than that
from the faith of Zarathustra's rude disciples to that of the subtle,
self-conscious priests who composed these later formularies, or the
laity who accepted them. Still, after all has been said, after it has
been freely admitted that subsequent speculation, or imagination,
or the influence of neighboring creeds, introduced a host of minor
spirits or quasi-gods, of whom Zarathustra knew nothing, it must also
be emphatically asserted that the God of Zarathustra never loses, among
the multitude of his associates, either his supremacy or his unique
and transcendent attributes. While in the Gâthâs Ahura-Mazda alone
is worshiped; while in the later chapters of the Yaçna many other
personages receive a more or less limited homage along with him; while
in the Yashts these personages are singled out one after another for
what appears unbounded adoration,—the original God invariably maintains
his rank as the Creator; the one Supreme Lord of mankind, as of all his
creatures; the instructor of Zarathustra; the Being compared to whom
all others stand related as the thing made towards its Maker. Theism
does not in the Avesta pass into polytheism. Strictly speaking, its
spirit is monotheistic throughout, though we might often be betrayed
into thinking the contrary by the extravagance of its language. Nor
can I discover in its pages the doctrine which some have held to be
contained in it, namely, that above Ahura-Mazda, somewhere in the
dark background of the universe, was a God still greater than him,
the ultimate Power to which even he must yield, Zrvâna-Akarana, or
Infinite Time. The very name of this highly abstract being appears
but rarely in the Avesta, and never, so far as I am able to discover,
in the character thus assigned to him. Ahura-Mazda remains throughout
the God of Gods; his is the highest and most sacred name known to his
worshipers, and none can compare with him, the Infinite Creator, in
greatness, in glory, or in power.
It is not to be expected that, in the early stage of social progress
at which a great part at least of the Avesta was written, its moral
doctrines should be altogether faultless. Nevertheless, it may well
sustain a comparison in this respect with the codes which have been
received as authoritative by other nations. Subject to the drawback,
common to all theologically-influenced systems of ethics, of laying
as much stress upon correct belief and the diligent performance of
the customary rites as upon the really fundamental duties of men, the
Zend-Avesta upholds a high standard of morality, and honestly seeks
to inculcate upon believers the immense importance of leading an
upright and virtuous life. Such a life alone is pleasing to God; such
a life alone can insure a safe passage over the hazardous bridge by
which the soul must pass to Paradise. Not only are the more obvious
virtues—respect for life, careful observance of promises, industrious
conduct—sedulously enjoined on the faithful Parsee, but some others,
less obvious and too frequently overlooked, are urged upon them. The
seducer is bound to provide both for the infant he has called into
existence, and for its mother, at least for a certain period. Domestic
animals are not forgotten, and humanity towards these dependent
creatures is commanded in a series of precepts, the spirit of which
would do honor to any age. And, in general, the blamelessness required
in thoughts, words, and works imposed on the devout Mazdayaçna a
comprehensive attention to the many ways in which he might lapse from
virtue, and held before him an exalted conception of moral purity.
Yet, when all this has been said, it must still be admitted that the
Zend-Avesta hides its light, such as it is, under a bushel. Such is
the number of supra-mundane spirits to be lauded, such a mass of
ceremonies to be attended to, so great the proportion of space devoted
to guarding against legal impurities as compared with that consigned
to preventing moral evil, that the impression left upon the minds of
unbelieving readers is on the whole far from favorable. Morality has,
in fact, got buried under theology. The trivialities, inanities, and
repetitions that abound in the sacred text draw off the mind from the
occasional excellences of thought and expression which it contains.
Thus he who toils through the verbose Fargards of the Vendidad, the
obscure chapters of the older and younger Yaçna, or the panegyrical
rhapsodies of the Yashts, will find but little to reward his search.
With the Gâthâs indeed it is otherwise. These are full of interest, and
not quite devoid of a simple grandeur. But as a whole, the Avesta is a
mine which, among vast heaps of rubbish, discloses but here and there a
grain of gold.