companion and I heard a crunching of gravel from the road fifty feet
away. We listened intently, wondering what person would be abroad in the
mountains at midnight. In the vicinity of our car, concealed from our
view by trees, the noise stopped, to be followed a few minutes later by
a rasping and clattering that could be heard far away. We raced to the
car to discover a large porcupine crouched on the running board by a
pile of "pick-up" antlers of the white-tailed deer left there by us. The
"porkie" had been chewing on these, heedless of the noise made by the
loose antlers clashing against the metal side of the car.
[Illustration: FIG. 125. Distribution of the porcupine, _Erethizon
epixanthum_ in Washington. Boundaries between ranges of subspecies are
uncertain.]
In Washington the single young is born late in May or early in June.
There are two pairs of mammae, both pectoral, of which only the anterior
are functional.
=Erethizon dorsatum epixanthum= Brandt
_Erethizon epixanthus_ Brandt, Mem. Acad. Imp. Sci. St.
Pétersbourg, ser. 6, 3 (Sci. Nat. vol. =1=): 390, 1835.
_Erethizon dorsatus epixanthus_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus.,
7:600, 1885.
_Erethizon epixanthum epixanthum_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull.,
128:437, April 29, 1924.
_Erethizon dorsatum epixanthum_ Anderson and Rand, Canadian Jour.
Research, 21:293, September 24, 1943.
_Type._--None. Type locality California.
_Racial characters._--Size large, total length of adults
approximately 30 inches; tail long (nearly one-third of total
length), thick, heavy and spiny; body stout; legs short; claws
long and curved; ears and eyes small; body spines short, thick and
most abundant on posterior part of back, longer and more slender
on sides and shoulders; guard hairs of shoulders and sides long,
almost concealing spines; fur of underparts shorter; color
variable, brown, black or yellow. In winter the fur is longer and
woolly, concealing spines.
_Distribution._--The Columbian Plateau and the Blue Mountains.
_Remarks._--Anderson and Rand (1943A: 295) ascribe two races to
Washington. With inadequate material myself to verify this ascription. I
think it probable that the northern forest porcupine and the Great Basin
animal are racially different. In consequence the available names,
_nigrescens_ and _epixanthum_, are here applied, pending a revision of
the entire genus.
=Erethizon dorsatum nigrescens= Allen
_Erethizon epixanthus nigrescens_ Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat.
Hist., 19:558, October 10, 1903.
_Erethizon epixanthum nigrescens_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull.,
128:437, April 29, 1924.
_Erethizon dorsatum nigrescens_ Anderson and Rand, Canadian Jour.
Research, 21:293, September 24, 1943.
_Type._--Obtained on the Shesley River, British Columbia, by M. P.
Anderson on August 23, 1902; type in American Museum of Natural
History.
_Measurements._--A female from Sherman Creek Pass, Ferry County,
measured: total length 770; length of tail 250; hind foot 95; ear
37. A female from Tye, King County, measured: 930; 280; 125;
weight 20 pounds.
_Distribution._--Forested parts of the state, exclusive of the
Blue Mountains.
_Remarks._--Porcupines are extremely rare west of the Cascades but are
occasionally reported from as far west as the Olympic Peninsula.
=Myocastor coypus= (Molina) subsp?
Coypu, nutria
_Mus coypus_ Molina, Sagg. Stor. Nat. Chili, p. 287, 1782.
_Myocastor coypus_ Kerr, Anim. Kingd., p. 225, 1792.
_Type locality._--Chile.
_Description._--Size large, slightly smaller than a beaver; color rich,
reddish brown; tail long, round; hind feet webbed for swimming.
_Remarks._--The nutria, a native of South America, has been brought to
the United States and raised commercially on "fur farms." The species
has become established in the wild in several localities in western
Washington and at the Colville Indian Reservation in northeastern
Washington. For further details see Larrison (1943).
=Ochotona princeps= (Richardson)
Pika or cony
_Description._--The pika is of guinea-pig size, with a short, chunky
body about 200 mm. in length. The tail is represented externally merely
by a tuft of white fur. The short, wide head has large, circular ears,
large black eyes, and long whiskers. The legs are short and the soles of
the feet are furred. The color of the Washington races varies from
grayish-yellow to dark reddish brown. Like rabbits, all pikas have two
pairs of upper incisors. The second pair, located just in back of the
first, is small and delicate.
_Ochotona_ is a wide-ranging genus with many more species in Asia and
extreme eastern Europe than in North America. Three races of the species
_princeps_ occur in the state of Washington, where they are confined to
the Cascade, Kettle River, and Pend Oreille Mountains. The ranges of all
three races extend northward into British Columbia; one (_brunnescens_)
occurs also in Oregon, and one (_cuppes_) in Idaho.
In Washington pikas live only in talus slides and rock piles, where they
find refuge from most of the carnivores that prey on small mammals.
Their distribution in the state seems to be regulated by the
distribution of talus slides, and areas free of talus act as effective
barriers to pikas. They are abundant throughout the Cascades but are
absent from the Olympic Mountains although conditions there are well
suited to them. Probably the lowlands of western Washington which, owing
to moderate temperature and low relief, have little talus and exposed
rock, serve as a barrier. The Columbian Plateau is also free of pikas.
This may be due to the relative scarcity of talus as compared with
mountainous areas, and the fact that much of the talus on the Plateau is
composed of fragments of basalt too small to afford the shelter needed
by pikas. The aridity of the Columbian Plateau may contribute to the
absence of pikas, although this seems unlikely in view of the fact that
they occur on arid lands in Nevada and elsewhere.
Altitudinally, pikas range from 300 feet, in Clark County, to 6,000 feet
on Mt. Rainier, Pierce County, and on Round Top Mountain, Pend Oreille
County. They occur from the arid subdivision of the Transition
Life-zone, at Milk Creek, Kittitas County, to the upper edge of the
Hudsonian Life-zone, at Glacier Basin, Mt. Rainier. Generally speaking,
they are mammals of the mountains.
Common enemies of the pikas are the weasel (_Mustela frenata_), marten
(_Martes caurina_), and hawks of several species. Pikas are active by
day, especially in the early morning. Their call note is a short "eek!"
which carries a long distance. This squeaking note is often heard
throughout the night when rain threatens their drying hay.
[Illustration: FIG. 126. Distribution of the pika in Washington. A.
_Ochotona princeps brunnescens._ B. _Ochotona princeps fenisex._ C.
_Ochotona princeps cuppes._]
Vegetation used as food, either for immediate consumption or for winter
use, includes almost all grasses, vines, shrubs, and trees available
near the pika's home. The subalpine lupines are especially favored. Even
such a thorny growth as the devil's club (_Oplopanax horridum_) is
eaten. Heather (_Phyllodoce, Cassiope_) has not been found in any of the
numerous hay piles examined, even when it is the commonest plant in the
vicinity. Large bundles of plants are carried in the pika's mouth. The
forefeet do not assist in transporting the load. If intended for
immediate consumption, the plants are deposited on one of last year's
hay piles and are eaten at leisure. The eating habits of the pika are
rabbitlike. A large leaf is seized at the tip and drawn into the mouth
with rapid chewing motions without assistance from the forefeet. Plants
destined to become hay are carefully spread out and exposed to the sun.
In cloudy or rainy weather the exposed plants are gathered and stored
under large rocks, to be reëxposed for curing when the weather improves.
Large hay piles often include more than fifty pounds of perfectly cured
grasses, annuals, bushes and evergreens.
No record of embryos is available for Washington pikas, but a male with
enlarged testes was taken at Lake Keechelus, Kittitas County, on March
22, 1940. Half-grown young of _fenisex_ were taken at Sawtooth Mountain,
Skamania County, on July 13, 1939, and of _brunnescens_ at Slate Creek,
Whatcom County, on August 16, 1937. Nearly full-grown young of _fenisex_
are reported taken at Bald Mountain, head of Ashnola River, Okanogan
County, on September 16, 1920. Young _cuppes_ of several sizes were
taken at Sherman Creek Pass, Ferry County, on September 11, 1938. The
breeding season possibly extends from March to August with a tendency to
be earlier at lower elevations.
=Ochotona princeps cuppes= Bangs
_Ochotona cuppes_ Bangs, Proc. New England Zoöl. Club, 1:40, June
5, 1899.
_Ochotona princeps cuppes_ A. H. Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 47:27,
August 21, 1924.
_Type._--Obtained by Allan Brooks at the Monashee Divide, 4,000
feet, Gold Range, British Columbia, on August 2, 1897; type in
Museum of Comparative Zoölogy.
_Racial characters._--Smallest and palest of the Washington pikas;
total length less than 8 inches; color of upper parts
grayish-yellow, grayest on posterior third of back; underparts
pale buff; skull small, but with relatively wide zygomatic and
interorbital regions.
_Measurements._--Eight males and 3 females from Round Top
Mountain, Pend Oreille County, average, respectively: total length
183.5, 181.5; hind foot 30.7, 31.0; ear 22.4, 23.7; one adult male
from the same locality weighed 141.6 grams.
_Distribution._--This pika has been found at Round Top Mountain
(W.W.D.) and Pass Creek Pass (W.W.D.) in northeastern Washington.
=Ochotona princeps fenisex= Osgood
_Lagomys minimus_ Lord, Proc. Zoöl. Soc. London, p. 98, 1863 (not
of Schinz, 1821).
_Ochotona minimus_ Bangs, Proc. New England Zoöl. Club, 1:39, June
5, 1899.
_Ochotona fenisex_ Osgood, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 26:80,
March 22, 1913 (substitute for _minimus_ Lord).
_Ochotona princeps fenisex_ A. H. Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 47:28,
August 21, 1924.
_Type._--Obtained by J. K. Lord at "Ptarmigan Hill," near head of
Ashnola River, Cascade Range, British Columbia, in early fall of
1860 (?); type in British Museum.
_Racial characters._--Size and color intermediate between
_brunnescens_ and _cuppes_; length about 8 inches; color of upper
parts near Pinkish Cinnamon, becoming gray on posterior third of
back; underparts washed with buff; skull of medium size and
proportions.
_Measurements._--Nine males and 5 females from Okanogan and Chelan
counties average, respectively: total length 190.0, 197.4; hind
foot 31.1, 32.8; ear 21.6, 22.0.
_Distribution._--Specimens referable to this race occur from the
British Columbian boundary south, through the eastern Cascade
Mountains. Along the western border of its range, _fenisex_
becomes larger and darker, merging into the race _brunnescens_.
Marginal records are: Hidden Lakes (U.S.N.M.), Lyman Lake
(U.S.N.M.), Mt. Stuart (W.W.D.), Easton (U.S.N.M.), Mt. Aix
(U.S.N.M.), Steamboat Mt. (M.V.Z.).
=Ochotona princeps brunnescens= Howell
_Ochotona fenisex brunnescens_ A. H. Howell, Proc. Biol. Soc.
Washington, 32:108, May 20, 1919.
_Ochotona princeps brunnescens_ A. H. Howell, N. Amer. Fauna.
47:31, August 21, 1924.
_Type._--Obtained by George G. Cantwell at Lake Keechelus, Kittitas
County, Washington, on August 23, 1917; type in United States
National Museum.
_Racial characters._--Largest and darkest of the three races of
Washington pikas; total length 8 inches or more; color of upper
parts rich cinnamon, heavily washed with blackish; posterior part
of back slightly paler; underparts buffy cinnamon; skull large and
heavy with wide zygomatic arches but relatively narrow
interorbital region and relatively narrow across maxillary tooth
rows.
_Measurements._--Eight males and 9 females from within three miles
of Stevens Pass, King and Chelan counties, average, respectively:
total length 201.8, 208.3; hind foot 33.3, 33.0; ear 22.3, 22.6.
The average weights of 4 males and 3 females from 3 mi. S E Tumtum
Mountain, Clark County, are 178.0 and 174.3 grams, respectively.
_Distribution._--From the British Columbia boundary south to the
Columbia River and from the western Cascades east to the area of
intergradation with _fenisex_. Marginal occurrences are: Whatcom
Pass (U.S.N.M.), Stevens Pass (W.W.D.), Keechelus (U.S.N.M.),
Cowlitz Pass (U.S.N.M.), Tumtum Mountain (M.V.Z.).
=Lepus townsendii townsendii= Bachman
White-tailed jack rabbit
_Lepus townsendii_ Bachman, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 8
(pt. 1):90, pl. 2, 1839.
_Lepus campestris townsendi_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington,
17:132, July 14, 1904.
_Lepus townsendii townsendii_ Hollister, Proc. Biol. Soc.
Washington, 28:70, March 12, 1915.
_Type._--Obtained by J. K. Townsend at old Fort Walla Walla
(present town of Wallula), Walla Walla County, Washington; type in
Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences.
_Measurements._--A male from Miller's Island, Klickitat County, in
the Columbia River, measured: total length 564; length of tail
117; hind foot 156; ear 110; weight 337.5 grams.
_Distribution._--Previously found over the grasslands of eastern
Washington. Now restricted and scarce except in the Okanogan
Valley.
_Remarks._--The white-tailed jack rabbit is the largest rabbit in the
state, adults measuring 24 or more inches in length. The long legs and
long ears accentuate the impression of large size. Its body is more
bulky than that of its relative, the black-tailed jack rabbit. In summer
the pelage of the upper parts is dark gray and in winter it is white
over nearly the entire body.
The white-tailed jack rabbit occurs from southern Saskatchewan south to
extreme northern New Mexico, and from eastern Washington east to
Wisconsin. A single race occurs in Washington. In eastern Washington
"whitetails" favor the hilly, bunchgrass territory of the arid
subdivision of the Transition and Upper Sonoran life-zones. In winter
they descend to the lower sagebrush valleys.
The principal enemies of the white-tailed jack rabbit are the eagle,
coyote, and bobcat. Of 1,186 stomachs of coyotes from Washington, Sperry
(1941: 11) found that 27 percent contained rabbits, including jack
rabbits, snowshoe hares, and cottontails.
In the daytime, white-tailed jack rabbits hide in forms which consist of
shallow holes dug at the bases of bushes or beside rocks. They feed in
the morning, evening, and in the night along wide, well-defined trails
through the bunchgrass. If startled from their forms they dash off in
bounding, erratic leaps, skimming away until lost to sight. A whitetail
has been timed at a speed of 34 miles per hour (Cottam and Williams,
1943: 262).
The early explorers and settlers found the white-tailed jack rabbits
abundant in eastern Washington. With the invasion and spread of the
black-tailed jack rabbit, and the reduction of native bunchgrass through
overgrazing by livestock, the whitetail has become rare. In several
years of field work on the Columbian Plateau, I saw none. Near Wallula,
the type locality, residents had not seen whitetails for years, but
thought there might be a few left "back in the hills." There are thought
to be a few left near Ellensburg and Yakima.
Only in the Okanogan Valley are the whitetails holding their own; they
are reasonably common there. In winter they come down from the hills on
to the sagebrush flats along the Okanogan River in Okanogan County. In
January it is not unusual to see as many as five in a day's drive. When,
as will most certainly occur, the black-tailed jack rabbit enters the
Okanogan Valley, the splendid whitetail may be expected to disappear
from Washington.
Because this species has been so reduced in numbers, no distributional
map has been included. Taylor and Shaw (1929: 28) give its range as:
"north to Oroville, east to Pullman, south to Asotin, Walla Walla, and
Kennewick, and west to Lake Chelan (Manson), Yakima Valley, and
Klickitat County." This range is similar to that of the Nuttall
Cottontail (Fig. 129).
=Lepus americanus= Erxleben
Snowshoe rabbit
_Description._--The appearance, size, and proportions of the snowshoe
rabbit are similar to those of the Belgian hare. The body is about 16
inches in length, the ears are midway in size between those of the
cottontail and the jack rabbit, and the feet are relatively long and the
tail is short. In summer the color of the upper parts is reddish brown,
varying with the subspecies. The winter pelage of _Lepus a.
washingtonii_ is a slightly paler brown than the summer coat. In the
other three races in Washington the winter coat is entirely white,
except for the dusky borders of the ears.
Snowshoe rabbits occur in Alaska, Canada, and the northern United
States, from the Atlantic to the Pacific. They are absent in desert or
prairie regions but range far southward in the United States in
mountainous areas. They are found throughout Washington, except on the
Columbian Plateau and in the Okanogan River Valley. None of the four
races found in Washington is restricted exclusively to the state.
Snowshoe rabbits live only in wooded areas. Their habitat varies from
dense, impenetrable rain-forests along the ocean to the alpine parks,
dotted with trees, of the Hudsonian Life-zone. They occur in humid and
arid subdivisions of the Transition, Canadian, and Hudsonian life-zones.
Altitudinally they range from sea level to 6,000 feet (Mt. Rainier).
Enemies of the snowshoe rabbit include the coyote, bobcat, lynx,
long-tailed weasel, and great horned owl.
Snowshoe rabbits are largely nocturnal or crepuscular in habit. They are
secretive and slip away quietly at the least threat of danger. Persons
often live for years in localities where snowshoe rabbits are abundant
without seeing a live individual. Those that are seen ordinarily have
been startled from their forms at midday, or surprised while feeding on
clover along a highway in the early morning. More commonly they are seen
crossing a road in the lights of an automobile. Tracks, easily found
after a fresh snowfall, give some indication of their numbers in any
locality.
Little information is available on the fluctuations of numbers of
snowshoe rabbits in Washington. Floyd Thornton, a trapper living at
Forks, Clallam County, states that they were numerous in 1924, scarce in
1930-31, and fairly common in 1938-39. More rabbits are seen shortly
after the breeding season than at other times of the year. From April
8-10, 1941, I saw none on a highway extending about 100 miles along the
west coast of the Olympic Peninsula, but on June 4-5 here counted 3 dead
on the road and saw 3 running across it. One was about one-third grown
and another two-thirds grown.
[Illustration: FIG. 127. Distribution of the snowshoe hare in
Washington. A. _Lepus americanus washingtonii._ B. _Lepus americanus
cascadensis._ C. _Lepus americanus columbiensis._ D. _Lepus americanus
pineus._]
The snowshoe rabbits are classed as game animals in Washington but few
people hunt them. Their winter food includes buds and needles of
hemlock, Douglas fir, and probably other evergreens. Annuals, grasses,
and shrubs, as well as Douglas fir needles, are eaten in the summer.
Snowshoe rabbits do some damage by eating the bark of trees and the
boughs of newly planted evergreens. Together with rodents they are
responsible for serious damage to plantations of Douglas fir and hemlock
on the Olympic Peninsula.
At least in summer, they are heavily parasitized by fleas and ticks and
may in addition carry tularemia, or rabbit fever.
Scheffer (1933: 77-78) found that the young were born from May 5 to July
4 in the Puget Sound area and that there were from 2 to 5, usually 5 per
litter.
=Lepus americanus washingtonii= Baird
_Lepus washingtonii_ Baird, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia,
7:333, 1855.
[_Lepus americanus_] var. _Washingtoni_ J. A. Allen, Proc. Boston
Soc. Nat. Hist., 17:434, February 17, 1875.
_Lepus americanus Washingtoni_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7:601,
1885.
_Type._--Obtained by G. Suckley at Steilacoom, Pierce County,
Washington, on April 1, 1854; type in United States National
Museum.
_Racial characters._--Size small for a snowshoe rabbit; color of
upper parts dark, in summer between Sayal Brown and Cinnamon, in
winter slightly paler, near Pale Cinnamon Buff (capitalized color
terms in the accounts of the lagomorphs are after Ridgway, Color
Standards and Color Nomenclature, Washington, D. C., 1912);
underparts white; soles of feet usually stained yellowish,
brownish, or blackish.
_Measurements._--Two males and 6 females from the Olympic
Peninsula average, respectively: total length 407, 402.5; hind
foot 114, 119. Weight of a 408 mm. male from the same locality
2-1/4 lbs.
_Distribution._--This snowshoe rabbit occupies the humid
subdivision of the Transition Life-zone of western Washington from
the British Columbian boundary south to the Columbia River.
Marginal occurrences are (from Dalquest, 1942: 175): Mt. Vernon,
Paradise Lake, Lake Kapowsin, and White Salmon.
=Lepus americanus cascadensis= Nelson
_Lepus bairdi cascadensis_ Nelson, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington,
20:87, December 11, 1907.
_Lepus americanus cascadensis_ Racey and Cowan, Ann. Rept.
Provincial Mus. British Columbia, p. H 18, 1935.
_Type._--Obtained by W. C. Colt near Hope, British Columbia, on
June 12, 1894; type in Museum of Comparative Zoölogy.
_Racial characters._--Size medium for a snowshoe rabbit; color of
upper parts in summer near Orange Cinnamon; head paler, sharply
marked off from body; underparts white. Color in winter: entire
body pure white except for dusky borders of ears and eyelids.
_Measurements._--Three males and 5 females from Kittitas County,
Washington, average, respectively: total length 405, 440; hind
foot 124, 133.
_Distribution._--The Cascade Mountains from the British Columbia
boundary south to Mount Adams. Marginal occurrences are: Skykomish
(Dalquest, 1942: 177), Vance (Dalquest, 1942: 177) and 7 mi. W
Guler (W.W.D.).
=Lepus americanus pineus= Dalquest
_Lepus americanus pineus_ Dalquest, Jour. Mamm., 23:178, May 14,
1942.
_Type._--Obtained by P. G. Putnam at Cedar Mountain (now Moscow
Mountain), Latah County, Idaho, on May 29, 1921; type in University
of Michigan, Museum of Zoölogy.
_Racial characters._--Size small for a snowshoe rabbit; in summer,
upper parts Cinnamon Brown, with sides slightly paler and rump
patch blackish; color of the head between Sayal Brown and
Cinnamon; hips Light Olivaceous Buff; chest-band light Cinnamon;
ears blackish, often edged with white. In winter the color of the
entire body is white, save for the dusky edges of the ears and the
blackish eyelids. The color of the underfur in winter is usually
Pale Pinkish Cinnamon, rarely Light Vinaceous Cinnamon or Orange
Cinnamon, with the basal portion slaty.
_Measurements._--Two males and 5 females, from northeastern
Washington, average, respectively: total length 419, 439; hind foot
138.5, 138. The average measurements of 3 males and 7 females from
the Blue Mountains are: 407, 422; 128, 131.
_Distribution._--The pine forests of the arid subdivision of the
Transition Life-zone along the eastern border of Washington, in
the Blue Mountains, and in the forested parts of northeastern
Washington as far west as the Kettle River Range. Western records
of occurrence are (Dalquest, 1942: 179): Deep Lake, Colville,
Calispel Peak.
=Lepus americanus columbiensis= Rhoads
_Lepus americanus columbiensis_ Rhoads, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.
Philadelphia, p. 242, June, 1895.
_Type._--Obtained by S. N. Rhoads at Vernon, British Columbia, on
July 29, 1892; type in Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences.
_Racial characters._--Size large; color in summer: upper parts
near Cinnamon Brown, sides and head slightly paler; top of tail
and small rump-patch blackish; chest-band pale Cinnamon Brown;
hips light Ochraceous Buff; chin and belly white.
_Measurements._--A male from Molson, Okanogan County, measures:
total length 435; length of tail 150. A male and a female from
Danville, Ferry County, measure, respectively: 460, 430; 150, 142.