CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS, 1436-1506.
I.
Discovery of Madeira, Cape de Verd Islands, the Azores, Congo, and
Guinea--Bartholomew Diaz--Cabot and Labrador--The geographical and
commercial tendencies of the middle ages--The erroneous idea of the
distance between Europe and Asia--Birth of Christopher Columbus--His
first voyages--His plans rejected--His sojourn at the Franciscan
convent--His reception by Ferdinand and Isabella--Treaty of the 17th
of April, 1492--The brothers Pinzon--Three armed caravels at the
port of Palos--Departure on the 3rd of August, 1492.
The year 1492 is an era in geographical annals. It is the date of
the discovery of America. The genius of one man was fated to
complete the terrestrial globe, and to show the truth of Gagliuffi's
saying,--
Unus erat mundus; duo sint, ait iste; fuere.
The old world was to be entrusted with the moral and political
education of the new. Was it equal to the task, with its ideas still
limited, its tendencies still semi-barbarous, and its bitter
religious animosities? We must leave the answer to these questions
to the facts that follow.
Between the year 1405, when Bethencourt had just accomplished the
colonization of the Canary Islands, and the year 1492, what had
taken place? We will give a short sketch of the geographical
enterprise of the intervening years. A considerable impetus had been
given to science by the Arabs (who were soon to be expelled from
Spain), and had spread throughout the peninsula. In all the ports,
but more especially in those of Portugal, there was much talk of the
continent of Africa, and the rich and wonderful countries beyond the
sea. "A thousand anecdotes," says Michelet, "stimulated curiosity,
valour and avarice, every one wishing to see these mysterious
countries where monsters abounded and gold was scattered over the
surface of the land." A young prince, Don Henry, duke of Viseu,
third son of John I., who was very fond of the study of astronomy
and geography, exercised a considerable influence over his
contemporaries; it is to him that Portugal owes her colonial power
and wealth and the expeditions so repeatedly made, which were
vividly described, and their results spoken of as so wonderful, that
they may have aided in awakening Columbus' love of adventure. Don
Henry had an observatory built in the southern part of the province
of Algarve, at Sagres, commanding a most splendid view over the sea,
and seeming as though it must have been placed there to seek for
some unknown land; he also established a naval college, where
learned geographers traced correct maps and taught the use of the
mariner's compass. The young prince surrounded himself with learned
men, and especially gathered all the information he could as to the
possibility of circumnavigating Africa, and thus reaching India.
Though he had never taken part in any maritime expedition, his
encouragement and care for seamen gave him the soubriquet of "the
Navigator," by which name he is known in history. Two gentlemen
belonging to Don Henry's court, Juan Gonzales Zarco, and Tristram
Vaz Teixeira had passed Cape Nun, the terror of ancient navigators,
when they were carried out to sea and passed near an island to which
they gave the name of Porto-Santo. Sometime afterwards, as they were
sailing towards a black point that remained on the horizon, they
came to a large island covered with splendid forests; this was
Madeira.
[Illustration: Prince Henry of Portugal--"The Navigator."]
In 1433, Cape Bojador, which had for long been such a difficulty to
navigators, was first doubled by the two Portuguese sailors,
Gillianes and Gonzales Baldaya, who passed more than forty leagues
beyond it.
Encouraged by their example, Antonio Gonzales, and Nuno Tristram, in
1441, sailed as far as Cape Blanco, "a feat," says Faria y Souza
"that is generally looked upon as being little short of the labours
of Hercules," and they brought back with them to Lisbon some
gold-dust taken from the Rio del Ouro. In a second voyage Tristram
noticed some of the Cape de Verd Islands, and went as far south as
Sierra Leone. In the course of this expedition, he bought from some
Moors off the coast of Guinea, ten negroes, whom he took back with
him to Lisbon and parted with for a very high price, they having
excited great curiosity. This was the origin of the slave-trade in
Europe, which for the next 400 years robbed Africa of so many of her
people, and was a disgrace to humanity.
In 1441, Cada Mosto doubled Cape Verd, and explored a part of the
coast below it. About 1446, the Portuguese, advancing further into
the open sea than their predecessors, came upon the group of the
Azores. From this time all fear vanished, for the formidable line
had been passed, beyond which the air was said to scorch like fire;
expeditions succeeded each other without intermission, and each
brought home accounts of newly-discovered regions. It seemed as if
the African continent was really endless, for the further they
advanced towards the south, the further the cape they sought
appeared to recede. Some little time before this King John II. had
added the title of Seigneur of Guinea to his other titles, and to
the discovery of Congo had been added that of some stars in the
southern hemisphere hitherto unknown, when Diogo Cam, in three
successive voyages, went further south than any preceding navigator,
and bore away from Diaz the honour of being the discoverer of the
southern point of the African continent. This cape is called Cape
Cross, and here he raised a monument called a padrao or padron in
memory of his discovery, which is still standing. On his way back,
he visited the King of Congo in his capital, and took back with him
an ambassador and numerous suite of natives, who were all baptized,
and taught the elements of the Christian religion, which they were
to propagate on their return to Congo.
A short time after Diogo Cam's return in the month of August, 1487,
three caravels left the Tagus under the command of Bartholomew Diaz,
a gentleman attached to the king's household, and an old sailor on
the Guinea seas. He had an experienced mariner under him, and the
smallest of the three vessels freighted with provisions, was
commanded by his brother Pedro Diaz. We have no record of the
earlier part of this expedition; we only know, from Joao de Barros,
to whom we owe nearly all we learn of Portuguese navigation, that
beyond Congo he followed the coast for some distance, and came to an
anchorage that he named "Das Voltas" on account of the manner in
which he had to tack to reach it, and there he left the smallest of
the caravels under the care of nine sailors. After having been
detained here five days by stress of weather, Diaz stood out to sea,
and took a southerly course, but for thirteen days his vessels were
tossed hither and thither by the tempest.
As he went further south the temperature fell and the air became
very cold; at last the fury of the elements abated, and Diaz took an
easterly course hoping to sight the land, but after several days had
passed, and being in about 42 degrees south latitude, he anchored in
the bay "dos Vaquieros," so named from the numbers of horned animals
and shepherds, who fled inland at the sight of the two vessels.
At this time Diaz was about 120 miles east of the Cape of Good Hope,
which he had doubled without seeing it. They then went to Sam Braz
(now Mossel) bay, and coasted as far as Algoa bay and to an island
called Da Cruz where they set up a padrao. But here the crews being
much discouraged by the dangers they had passed through, and feeling
much the scarcity and bad quality of the provisions, refused to go
any farther. "Besides," they said, "as the land is now on our left,
let us go back and see the Cape, which we have doubled without
knowing it."
Diaz called a council, and decided that they should go forwards in a
north-easterly direction for two or three days longer. We owe it to
his firmness of purpose that he was able to reach a river, 75 miles
from Da Cruz that he called Rio Infante, but then the crew refusing
to go farther, Diaz was obliged to return to Europe. Barros says,
"When Diaz left the pillar that he had erected, it was with such
sorrow and so much bitterness, that it seemed almost as though he
were leaving an exiled son, and especially when he thought of all
the dangers that he and his companions had passed through, and the
long distance which they had come with only this memorial as a
remembrance: it was indeed painful to break off when the task was
but half completed." At last they saw the Cape of Good Hope, or as
Diaz and his followers called it then, the "Cape of Torments," in
remembrance of all the storms and tempests they had passed through
before they could double it. With the foresight which so often
accompanies genius, John II. substituted for the "Cape of Torments,"
the name of the "Cape of Good Hope," for he saw that now the route
to India was open at last, and his vast plans for the extension of
the commerce and influence of his country were about to be realized.
On the 24th of August, 1488, Diaz returned to Angra das Voltas,
where he had left his smallest caravel. He found six of his nine men
dead, and the seventh was so overcome with joy at seeing his
companions again that he died also. No particular incident marked
the voyage home; they reached Lisbon in December, 1488, after
staying at Benin, where they traded, and at La Mina to receive the
money gained by the commerce of the colony.
It is strange but true, that Diaz not only received no reward of any
kind for this voyage which had been so successful, but he seemed to
be treated rather as though he had disgraced himself, for he was not
employed again for ten years. More than this the command of the
expedition that was sent to double the cape which Diaz had
discovered, was given to Vasco da Gama, and Diaz was only to
accompany it to La Mina holding a subordinate position. He was to
hear of the marvellous campaign of his successful rival in India,
and to see what an effect such an event would have upon the destiny
of his country.
He took part in Cabral's expedition which discovered Brazil, but he
had not the pleasure of seeing the shores to which he had been the
pioneer, for the fleet had only just left the American shore, when a
fearful storm arose; four vessels sank, and among them the one that
Diaz commanded. It is in allusion to his sad fate that Camoens puts
the following prediction into the mouth of Adamastor, the spirit of
the Cape of Tempests. "I will make a terrible example of the first
fleet that shall pass near these rocks, and I will wreak my
vengeance on him who first comes to brave me in my dwelling."
In fact it was only in 1497, maybe five years after the discovery of
America, that the southern point of Africa was passed by Vasco da
Gama, and it may be affirmed that if this latter had preceded
Columbus, the discovery of the new continent might have been delayed
for several centuries. The navigators of this period were very
timorous, and did not dare to sail out into mid-ocean; not liking to
venture upon seas that were but little known, they always followed
the coast-line of Africa, rather than go further from land. If the
Cape of Tempests had been doubled, the sailors would have gone by
this route to India, and none would have thought of going to the
"Land of Spices," that is to say Asia, by venturing across the
Atlantic. Who, in fact, would have thought of seeking for the east
by the route to the west? But in truth this _was_ the great idea of
that day, for Cooley says, "The principal object of Portuguese
maritime enterprise in the fifteenth century was to search for a
passage to India by the Ocean." The most learned men had not gone so
far as to imagine the existence of another continent to complete the
equilibrium and balance of the terrestrial globe. Some parts of the
American continent had been already discovered, for an Italian
navigator Sebastian Cabot had landed on Labrador in 1487, and the
Scandinavians had certainly disembarked on this unknown land. The
colonists of Greenland, too had explored Winland, but so little
disposition was there at this time to believe in the existence of a
new world, that Greenland, Winland, and Labrador were all thought to
be a continuation of the European continent.
The main question before the navigators of the fifteenth century was
the opening up of an easier communication with the shores of Asia.
The route to India, China, and Japan (countries already known
through the wonderful narrative of Marco Polo), via, Asia Minor,
Persia, and Tartary, was long and dangerous. The transport of goods
was too difficult and costly for these "ways terrestrial" ever to
become roads for commerce. A more practicable means of communication
must be found. Thus all the dwellers on the coasts, from England to
Spain, as well as the people living on the shores of the
Mediterranean, seeing the great Atlantic ocean open to their vessels,
began to inquire, whether indeed this new route might not conduct
them to the shores of Asia.
The sphericity of the Globe being established, this reasoning was
correct, for going always westward, the traveller must necessarily
at last reach the east, and as to the route across the ocean, it
would certainly be open. Who could, indeed, have suspected the
existence of an obstacle 9750 miles in length, lying between Europe
and Asia, and called America?
We must observe also that the scientific men of the Middle Ages
believed that the shores of Asia were not more than 6000 miles
distant from those of Europe. Aristotle supposed the terrestrial
globe to be smaller than it really is. Seneca said "How far is it
from the shores of Spain to India? _A very few days' sail_, should
the wind be favourable." This was also the opinion of Strabo. So it
seemed that the route between Europe and Asia _must_ be short, and
there being such places for ships to touch at as the Azores and
Antilles, of which the existence was known in the fifteenth century,
the transoceanic communication promised not to be difficult. This
popular error as to distance had the happy effect of inducing
navigators to try to cross the Atlantic, a feat which, had they been
aware of the 15,000 miles of ocean separating Europe from Asia, they
would scarcely have dared to attempt.
We must in justice allow that certain facts gave, or seemed to give,
reason to the partisans of Aristotle and Strabo for their belief in
the proximity of the eastern shores. Thus, a pilot in the service of
the King of Portugal, while sailing at 1350 miles' distance from
Cape St. Vincent, the south-western point of the Portuguese province
of Algarve, met with a piece of wood ornamented with ancient
sculptures, which he considered must have come from a continent not
far off. Again, some fishermen had found near the island of Madeira,
a sculptured post and some bamboos, which in shape resembled those
found in India. The inhabitants of the Azores also, often picked up
gigantic pine-trees, of an unknown species, and one day two human
bodies were cast upon their shores, "corpses with broad faces," says
the chronicler Herrera, "and not resembling Christians."
These various facts tended to inflame imagination. As in the
fifteenth century men had no knowledge of that great Gulf-stream,
which, in nearing the European coasts, brings with it waifs and
strays from America, so they could only imagine that these various
debris must come from Asia. Therefore, they argued, Asia could not
be far off, and the communication between these two extremes of the
old continent must be easy. One point must be clearly borne in mind,
no geographer of this period had any notion of the existence of a
new world; it was not even a desire of adding to geographical
knowledge which led to the exploration of the western route. It was
the men of commerce who were the leaders in this movement, and who
first undertook to cross the Atlantic. Their only thought was of
traffic, and of carrying it on by the shortest road.
The mariner's compass, invented, according to the generally received
opinion, about 1302, by one Flavio Gioja of Amalfi, enabled vessels
to sail at a distance from the coasts, and to guide themselves when
out of sight of land. Martin Behaim, with two physicians in the
service of Prince Henry of Portugal, had also added to nautical
science by discovering the way of directing the voyager's course
according to the position of the sun in the heavens, and by applying
the astrolabe to the purposes of navigation. These improvements
being adopted, the commercial question of the western route
increased daily in importance in Spain, Portugal, and Italy,
countries in which three-quarters of the science is made up of
imagination. There was discussion, there were writings. The excited
world of commerce disputed with the world of science. Facts, systems,
doctrines, were grouped together. The time was come when there was
needed one single intelligence to collect together and assimilate
the various floating ideas. This intelligence was found. At length
all the scattered notions were gathered together in the mind of one
man, who possessed in a remarkable degree genius, perseverance, and
boldness.
[Illustration: Christopher Columbus.]
This man was no other than Christopher Columbus, born, probably near
Genoa, about the year 1436. We say "probably," for the towns of
Cogoreo and Nervi dispute with Savona and Genoa, the honour of
having given him birth. The date of his birth varies, with different
biographers, from 1430 to 1445, but the year 1436 would appear to be
the correct one, according to the most reliable documents. The
family of Columbus was of humble origin; his father, Domenic
Columbus, a manufacturer of woollen stuffs, seems, however, to have
been in sufficiently easy circumstances to enable him to give his
children a more than ordinarily good education. The young
Christopher, the eldest of the family, was sent to the University of
Pavia, there to study Grammar, Latin, Geography, Astronomy, and
Navigation.
At fourteen years of age Christopher left school and went to sea;
from this time until 1487, very little is known of his career. It is
interesting to give the remark of Humboldt on this subject, as
reported by M. Charton; he said, "that he regretted the more this
uncertainty about the early life of Columbus when he remembered all
that the chroniclers have so minutely preserved for us upon the life
of the dog Becerillo, or the elephant Aboulababat, which
Haroun-al-Raschid sent to Charlemagne!" The most probable account to
be gathered from contemporary documents and from the writings of
Columbus himself, is that the young sailor visited the Levant, the
west, the north, England several times, Portugal, the coast of
Guinea, and the islands of Africa, perhaps even Greenland, for, by
the age of forty "he had sailed to every part that had ever been
sailed to before." He was looked upon as a thoroughly competent
mariner, and his reputation led to his being chosen for the command
of the Genoese galleys, in the war which that Republic was waging
against Venice. He afterwards made an expedition, in the service of
Rene, king of Anjou, to the coasts of Barbary, and in 1477, he went
to explore the countries beyond Iceland.
This voyage being successfully terminated, Christopher Columbus
returned to his home at Lisbon. He there married the daughter of an
Italian gentleman, Bartolomeo Munez Perestrello, a sailor like
himself and deeply interested in the geographical ideas of the day.
The wife of Columbus, Dona Filippa, was without fortune, and
Columbus, having none himself, felt he must work for the support of
himself and his family. The future discoverer, therefore, set to
work to make picture-books, terrestrial globes, maps, and nautical
charts, and continued in this employment until 1481, but without at
the same time abandoning his scientific and literary pursuits. It
seems probable even, that during this period he studied deeply, and
attained to knowledge far beyond that possessed by most of the
sailors of his time. Can it have been that at this time "the Great
Idea" first arose in his mind? It may well have been so. He was
following assiduously the discussions relative to the western routes,
and the facility of communication by the west, between Europe and
Asia. His correspondence proves that he shared the opinion of
Aristotle as to the relatively short distance separating the extreme
shores of the old Continent. He wrote frequently to the most
distinguished savants of his time. Martin Behaim, of whom we have
already spoken, was amongst his correspondents, and also the
celebrated Florentine astronomer, Toscanelli, whose opinions in some
degree influenced those of Columbus.
[Illustration: A Spanish Port.]
At this time Columbus, according to the portrait of him given by his
biographer Washington Irving, was a tall man, of robust and noble
presence. His face was long, he had an aquiline nose, high cheek
bones, eyes clear and full of fire; he had a bright complexion, and
his face was much covered with freckles. He was a truly Christian
man, and it was with the liveliest faith that he fulfilled all the
duties of the Catholic religion.
At the time when Christopher Columbus was in correspondence with the
astronomer Toscanelli, he learnt that the latter, at the request of
Alphonso V., King of Portugal, had sent to the king a learned Memoir
upon the possibility of reaching the Indies by the western route.
Columbus was consulted, and supported the ideas of Toscanelli with
all his influence; but without result, for the King of Portugal, who
was engaged at the time in war with Spain, died, without having been
able to give any attention to maritime discoveries. His successor,
John II., adopted the plans of Columbus and Toscanelli with
enthusiasm. At the same time, with most reprehensible cunning, he
tried to deprive these two savants of the benefit of their
proposition; without telling them, he sent out a caravel to attempt
this great enterprise, and to reach China by crossing the Atlantic.
But he had not reckoned upon the inexperience of his pilots, nor
upon the violence of the storms which they might encounter; the
result was, that some days after their departure, a hurricane
brought back to Lisbon the sailors of the Portuguese king. Columbus
was justly wounded by this unworthy action, and felt that he could
not reckon upon a king who had so deceived him. His wife being dead,
he left Spain with his son Diego, towards the end of the year 1484.
It is thought that he went to Genoa and to Venice, where his
projects of transoceanic navigation were but badly received.
[Illustration: Columbus knocks at a convent door.]
However it may have been, in 1485 we find him again in Spain. This
great man was poor, without resources. He travelled on foot,
carrying Diego his little son of ten years old, in his arms. From
this period of his life, history follows him step by step; she no
more loses sight of him, and she has preserved to posterity the
smallest incidents of this grand existence. We find Columbus arrived
in Andalusia, only half a league from the port of Palos. Destitute,
and dying of hunger, he knocked at the door of a Franciscan convent,
dedicated to Santa Maria de Rabida, and asked for a little bread and
water for his poor child and for himself. The superior of the
convent, Juan Perez de Marchena, gave hospitality to the unfortunate
traveller. He questioned him, and was surprised by the nobleness of
his language, but still more astonished was he, by the boldness of
the ideas of Columbus, who made the good Father the confidant of his
aspirations. For several months the wandering sailor remained in
this hospitable convent; some of the monks were learned men, and
interested themselves about him and his projects; they studied his
plans; they mentioned him to some of the well-known navigators of
the time; and we must give them the credit of having been the first
to believe in the genius of Christopher Columbus. Juan Perez showed
still greater kindness; he offered to take upon himself the charge
of the education of Diego, and he gave to Columbus a letter of
recommendation addressed to the confessor of the Queen of Castille.
This confessor, prior of the monastery of Prado, was deep in the
confidence of Ferdinand and Isabella; but he did not approve of the
projects of the Genoese navigator, and he rendered him no service
whatever with his royal penitent. Columbus must still resign himself
to wait. He went to live at Cordova, where the court was soon to
come, and for livelihood he resumed his trade of picture-seller. Is
it possible to quote from the lives of illustrious men an instance
of a more trying existence than this of the great navigator? Could
ill-fortune have assailed any man with more cruel blows? But this
indomitable, indefatigable man of genius, rising up again after each
trial, did not despair. He felt within him the sacred fire of genius,
he worked on unceasingly, he visited influential persons, spreading
his ideas and defending them, and combating all objections with the
most heroic energy. At length he obtained the protection of the
great cardinal-archbishop of Toledo, Pedro Gonzalez de Mendoza, and
thanks to him, was admitted into the presence of the King and Queen
of Spain.
Christopher Columbus must have imagined himself now at the end of
all his troubles. Ferdinand and Isabella received his project
favourably, and caused it to be submitted for examination to a
council of learned men, consisting of bishops and monks who were
gathered together _ad hoc_ in a Dominican convent at Salamanca. But
the unfortunate pleader was not yet at the end of his vicissitudes.
In this meeting at Salamanca all his judges were against him. The
truth was, that his ideas interfered with the intolerant religious
notions of the fifteenth century. The Fathers of the Church had
denied the sphericity of the earth, and since the earth was not
round they declared that a voyage of circumnavigation was absolutely
contrary to the Bible, and could not therefore, on any logical
theory, be undertaken. "Besides," said these theologians, "if any
one should ever succeed in descending into the other hemisphere, how
could he ever mount up again into this one?" This manner of arguing
was a very formidable one at this period; for Christopher Columbus
saw himself, in consequence, almost accused of heresy, the most
unpardonable crime which could be committed in these intolerant
countries. He escaped any evil consequences from the hostile
disposition of the Council, but the execution of his project was
again adjourned.
[Illustration: Building a caravel.]
Long years passed away. The unfortunate man of genius, despairing of
success in Spain, sent his brother to England to make an offer of
his services to the king, Henry VII. But it is probable that the
king gave no answer. Then Christopher Columbus turned again with
unabated perseverance to Ferdinand, but Ferdinand was at this time
engaged in a war of extermination against the Moors, and it was not
until 1492, when he had chased the Moors from Spain, that he was
able again to listen to the solicitations of the Genoese sailor.
This time the affair was thoroughly considered, and the king
consented to the enterprise. But Columbus, as is the manner of proud
natures, wished to impose his own conditions. They bargained over
that which should enrich Spain! Columbus, in disgust, was without
doubt ready to quit, and for ever, this ungrateful country, but
Isabella, touched by the thought of the unbelievers of Asia, whom
she hoped to convert to the Catholic faith, ordered Columbus to be
recalled, and then acceded to all his demands.
Columbus was in the fifty-sixth year of his age when he signed a
treaty with the King of Spain at Santa-Feta on the 17th of April,
1492, being eighteen years after he had first conceived his project,
and seven years from the time of his quitting the monastery of Palos.
By this solemn convention, the dignity of high admiral was to belong
to Columbus in all the lands which he might discover, and this
dignity was to descend in perpetuity to his heirs and successors. He
was named viceroy and governor of the new possessions which he hoped
to conquer in the rich countries of Asia, and one-tenth part of the
pearls, precious stones, gold, silver, spices, provisions, and
merchandise of whatever kind, which might be acquired in any manner
whatsoever, within the limits of his jurisdiction, was of right to
belong to him.
All was arranged, and at length Columbus was to put his cherished
projects in execution. But let us repeat, he had no thought of
meeting with the New World, of the existence of which he had not the
faintest suspicion. His aim was "to explore the East by the West,
and to pass by the way of the West to the Land whence come the
spices." One may even aver that Columbus died in the belief that he
had arrived at the shores of Asia, and never knew himself that he
had made the discovery of America. But this in no way lessens his
glory; the meeting with the new Continent was but an accident. The
real cause of the immortal renown of Columbus was that audacity of
genius which induced him to brave the dangers of an unknown ocean,
to separate himself afar from those familiar shores, which, until
now, navigators had never ventured to quit, to adventure himself
upon the waves of the Atlantic Ocean in the frail ships of the
period, which the first tempest might engulf, to launch himself, in
a word, upon the deep darkness of an unknown sea.
The preparations began, Columbus entering into an arrangement with
some rich navigators of Palos, the three brothers Pinzon, who made
the necessary advances for defraying the expenses of fitting out the
ships. Three caravels, named the _Gallega_, the _Nina_, and the
_Pinta_, were equipped in the port of Palos. The _Gallega_ was
destined to carry the admiral, who changed her name to the
_Santa-Maria_. The _Pinta_ was commanded by Martin Alonzo Pinzon,
and the _Nina_ by his two brothers, Francis Martin, and Vincent
Yanez Pinzon. It was difficult to man the ships, sailors generally
being frightened at the enterprise, but at last the captains
succeeded in getting together one hundred and twenty men, and on
Friday, August 3rd, 1492, the admiral crossing at eight o'clock in
the morning the bar of Saltez, off the town of Huelva, in Andalusia,
adventured himself with his three half-decked caravels upon the
Atlantic waves.
II.
CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS.
First voyage: The Great Canary--Gomera--Magnetic variation--Symptoms
of revolt--Land, land--San Salvador--Taking possession--Conception--
Fernandina or Great Exuma--Isabella, or Long Island--The Mucaras--
Cuba--Description of the island--Archipelago of Notre-Dame--
Hispaniola or San Domingo--Tortuga Island--The cacique on board the
_Santa-Maria_--The caravel of Columbus goes aground and cannot be
floated off--Island of Monte-Christi--Return--Tempest--Arrival in
Spain--Homage rendered to Christopher Columbus.
During the first day's voyage, the admiral--the title by which he is
usually known in the various accounts of his exploits--bearing
directly southwards, sailed forty-five miles before sunset; turning
then to the south-east, he steered for the Canaries, in order to
repair the _Pinta_, which had unshipped her rudder, an accident
caused perhaps by the ill-will of the steersman, who dreaded the
voyage. Ten days later Columbus cast anchor before the Great Canary
Island, where the rudder of the caravel was repaired. Nineteen days
afterwards he arrived before Gomera, where the inhabitants assured
him of the existence of an unknown land in the west of the
Archipelago. He did not leave Gomera until the 6th of September. He
had received warning that three Portuguese ships awaited him in the
open sea, with the intention of barring his passage; however,
without taking any heed of this news, he put to sea, cleverly
avoided meeting his enemies, and steering directly westward, he lost
all sight of land. During the voyage the admiral took care to
conceal from his companions the true distance traversed each day; he
made it appear less than it really was in the daily abstracts of his
observations, that he might not add to the fear already felt by the
sailors, by letting them know the real distance which separated them
from Europe. Each day he watched the compasses with attention, and
it is to him we owe the discovery of the magnetic variation, of
which he took account in his calculations. The pilots, however, were
much disturbed on seeing the compasses all "north-westers," as they
expressed it.
[Illustration: Christopher Columbus on board his caravel.]
On the 14th of September the sailors saw a swallow and some
tropic-birds. The sight of these birds was an evidence of land being
near, for they do not usually fly more than about seventy miles out
to sea. The temperature was very mild, the weather magnificent; the
wind blew from the east and wafted the caravels in the desired
direction. But it was exactly this continuance of east wind which
frightened the greater part of the sailors, who saw in this
persistence, so favourable for the outward voyage, the promise of a
formidable obstacle to their return home. On the 16th of September
some tufts of seaweed, still fresh, were seen floating on the waves.
But no land was to be seen, and this seaweed might possibly indicate
the presence of submarine rocks, and not of the shores of a
continent. On the 17th, thirty-five days after the departure of the
expedition, floating weeds were frequently seen, and upon one mass
of weed was found a live cray-fish, a sure sign this of the
proximity of land.
During the following days a large number of birds, such as gannets,
sea-swallows, and tropic-birds, flew around the caravels. Columbus
turned their presence to account as a means of reassuring his
companions, who were beginning to be terribly frightened at not
meeting with land after six weeks of sailing. His own confidence
never abated, but putting firm trust in God, he often addressed
energetic words of comfort to those around him, and made them each
evening chant the _Salve Regina_, or some other hymn to the Virgin.
At the words of this heroic man, so noble, so sure of himself, so
superior to all human weaknesses, the courage of the sailors revived,
and they again went onwards.
We can well imagine how anxiously both officers and men scanned the
western horizon towards which they were steering. Each one had a
pecuniary motive for wishing to be the first to descry the New
Continent, King Ferdinand having promised a reward of 10,000
maravedis, or 400 pounds sterling, to the first discoverer. The
latter days of the month of September were enlivened by the presence
of numerous large birds, petrels, man-of-war birds, and damiers,
flying in couples, a sign that they were not far away from home. So
Columbus retained his unshaken conviction that land could not be far
off.
On the 1st of October, the admiral announced to his companions that
they had made 1272 miles to the west since leaving Ferro; in reality,
the distance traversed exceeded 2100 miles, and of this Columbus was
quite aware, but persisted in his policy of disguising the truth in
this particular. On the 7th of October, the crews were excited by
hearing discharges of musketry from the _Nina_, the commanders of
which, the two brothers Pinzon, thought they had descried the land;
they soon found, however, that they had been mistaken. Still, on
their representing that they had seen some parroquets flying in a
south-westerly direction, the admiral consented to change his route
so far as to steer some points to the south, a change which had
happy consequences in the future, for had they continued to run
directly westward, the caravels would have been aground upon the
great Bahama Bank, and would probably have been altogether destroyed.
Still the ardently desired land did not appear. Each evening the sun
as it went down dipped behind an interminable horizon of water. The
crews who had several times been the victims of an optical illusion,
now began to murmur against Columbus, "the Genoese, the foreigner,"
who had enticed them so far away from their country. Some symptoms
of mutiny had already shown themselves on board the vessels, when,
on the 10th of October, the sailors openly declared that they would
go no further. In treating of this part of the voyage, the
historians would seem to have drawn somewhat upon their imagination;
they narrate scenes of serious import which took place upon the
admiral's caravel, the sailors going so far as even to threaten his
life. They say also, that the recriminations ended by a kind of
arrangement, granting a respite of three days to Columbus, at the
end of which time, should land not have been then discovered, the
fleet was to set out on its return to Europe. All these statements
we may look upon as pure fiction; there is nothing in the accounts
given by Columbus himself which lends them the smallest credibility.
But it has been needful to touch upon them, for nothing must be
omitted relating to the great Genoese Navigator, and some amount of
legend mixed up with history does not ill beseem the grand figure of
Christopher Columbus. Still, it is an undoubted fact that there was
much murmuring on board the caravels, but it would seem that the
crews, cheered by the words of the admiral, and by his brave
attitude in the midst of uncertainty, did not refuse to do their
duty in working the ships.
On the 11th of October, the admiral noticed alongside of his vessel,
a reed still green, floating upon the top of a large wave: at the
same time the crew of the _Pinta_ hoisted on board another reed, a
small board, and a little stick, which appeared to have been cut
with an instrument of iron; it was evident that human hands had been
employed upon these things. Almost at the same moment, the men of
the _Nina_ perceived a branch of some thorny tree covered with
blossoms. At all this every one rejoiced exceedingly; there could be
no doubt now of the proximity of the coast. Night fell over the sea.
The _Pinta_, the best sailor of the three vessels, was leading.
Already, Columbus himself, and one Rodrigo Sanchez, comptroller of
the expedition, had thought they had seen a light moving amidst the
shadows of the horizon, when a sailor named Rodrigo, on board the
_Pinta_, cried out, "Land, land."
[Illustration: What must have been the feelings in the breast of
Columbus at that moment?]
What must have been the feelings in the breast of Columbus at that
moment? Never had any man, since the first creation of the human
race experienced a similar emotion to that now felt by the great
navigator. Perhaps even it is allowable to think that the eye which
first saw this New Continent, was indeed that of the admiral himself.
But what matters it? The glory of Columbus consisted not in the
having arrived, his glory was in the having set out. It was at two
o'clock in the morning that the land was first seen, when the
caravels were not two hours' sail away from it. At once all the
crews deeply moved, joined in singing together the _Salve Regina_.
With the first rays of the sun they saw a little island, six miles
to windward of them. It was one of the Bahama group; Columbus named
it San Salvador, and immediately falling on his knees, he began to
repeat the hymn of Saint Ambrose and Saint Augustine: "Te Deum
laudamus, Te Deum confitemur."
At this moment, some naked savages appeared upon the newly
discovered coast. Columbus had his long boat lowered, and got into
it with Alonzo and Yanez Pinzon, the comptroller Rodrigo, the
secretary Descovedo, and some others. He landed upon the shore,
carrying in his hand the royal banner, whilst the two captains bore
between them the green banner of the Cross, upon which were
interlaced, the initials of Ferdinand and Isabella. Then the admiral
solemnly took possession of the island in the name of the King and
Queen of Spain, and caused a record of the act to be drawn up.
During this ceremony the natives came round Columbus and his
companions. M. Charton gives the account of the scene in the very
words of Columbus: "Desiring to inspire them (the natives) with
friendship for us, and being persuaded, on seeing them, that they
would confide the more readily in us, and be the better disposed
towards embracing our Holy Faith, if we used mildness in persuading
them, rather than if we had recourse to force, I caused to be given
to several amongst them, coloured caps, and also glass beads, which
they put around their necks. I added various other articles of small
value; they testified great joy, and showed so much gratitude that
we marvelled greatly at it. When we were re-embarking, they swam
towards us, to offer us parroquets, balls of cotton thread, zagayes
(or long darts), and many other things; in exchange we gave them
some small glass beads, little bells, and other objects. They gave
us all they had, but they appeared to me to be very poor. The men
and women both were as naked as when they were born. Amongst those
whom we saw, one woman was rather young, and none of the men
appeared to be more than thirty years of age. They were well made,
their figures handsome, and their faces agreeable. Their hair,
coarse as that of a horse's tail, hung down in front as low as their
eyebrows, behind it formed a long mass, which they never cut. There
are some who paint themselves with a blackish pigment; their natural
colour being neither black nor white, but similar to that of the
inhabitants of the Canary islands; some paint themselves with white,
some with red, or any other colour, either covering the whole body
with it, or the whole face, or perhaps only the eyes, or the nose.
They do not carry arms like our people, and do not even know what
they are. When I showed them some swords, they laid hold of them by
the blades, and cut their fingers. They have no iron; their zagayes
are sticks, the tip is not of iron, but sometimes made of a fish
tooth, or of some other hard substance. They have much grace in
their movements. I remarked that several had scars upon their bodies,
and I asked them by means of signs, how they had been wounded. They
answered in the same manner, that the inhabitants of the
neighbouring islands had come to attack them, and make them
prisoners, and that they had defended themselves. I thought then and
I still think that they must have come from the mainland to make
them prisoners for slaves; they would be faithful and gentle
servants. They seem to have the power of repeating quickly what they
hear. I am persuaded that they might be converted to Christianity
without difficulty, for I believe that they belong to no sect."
When Columbus returned on board, several of the savages swam after
his boat; the next day, the 13th, they came in crowds around the
ships, on board of enormous canoes shaped out of the trunks of
trees; they were guided by means of a kind of baker's shovel, and
some of the canoes were capable of holding forty men. Several
natives wore little plates of gold hanging from their nostrils; they
appeared much surprised at the arrival of the strangers, and quite
believed that these white men must have fallen from the skies. It
was with a mixture of respect and curiosity that they touched the
garments of the Spaniards, considering them doubtless, a kind of
natural plumage. The scarlet coat of the admiral excited their
admiration above everything, and it was evident they looked upon
Columbus as a parroquet of a superior species; at once they seemed
to recognize him as the chief amongst the strangers.
So Columbus and his followers visited this new island of San
Salvador. They were never tired of admiring the beauty of its
situation, its magnificent groves, its running streams, and verdant
meadows. The fauna of the island offered little variety; parroquets
of radiant plumage abounded amongst the trees, but they appeared to
be the only species of birds upon the island. San Salvador presented
an almost flat plateau of which no mountain broke the uniformity; a
small lake occupied the centre of the island. The explorers imagined
that San Salvador must contain great mineral riches, since the
inhabitants were adorned with ornaments of gold. But was this
precious metal derived from the island itself? Upon this point the
admiral questioned one of the natives, and succeeded in learning
from him by means of signs, that in turning the island and sailing
towards the south, the admiral would find a country of which the
king possessed great vessels of gold and immense riches. The next
morning, at daybreak, Columbus gave orders to have the ships
prepared for sea; he set sail, and steered towards the continent of
which the natives had spoken, which, as he imagined, could be none
other than Cipango.
Here an important observation must be made, showing the state of
geographical knowledge at this period: viz. that Columbus now
believed himself to have arrived at Asia, Cipango being the name
given by Marco Polo to Japan. This error of the admiral, shared in
by all his companions, was not rectified for many years afterwards,
and thus, as we have already remarked, the great navigator after
four successive voyages to the islands, died, without knowing that
he had discovered a new world. It is beyond doubt that the sailors
of Columbus, and Columbus himself, imagined that they had arrived,
during that night of the 12th October, 1492, either at Japan, or
China, or the Indies. This is the reason why America so long bore
the name of the "Western Indies," and why the aborigines of this
continent, in Brazil and in Mexico, as well as in the United States,
are still classed under the general appellation of "Indians."
So Columbus dreamt only of reaching the shores of Japan. He coasted
along San Salvador, exploring its western side. The natives, running
down to the shore, offered him water and cassava bread, made from
the root of a plant called the "Yucca." Several times the admiral
landed upon the coast at different points, and with a sad want of
humanity, he carried away some of the natives, that he might take
them with him to Spain. Poor men! already the strangers began to
tear them from their country; it would not be long before they began
to sell them! At last the caravels lost sight of San Salvador, and
were again upon the wide ocean.
Fortune had favoured Columbus in thus guiding him into the centre of
one of the most beautiful archipelagos which the world contains.
These new lands which he discovered were as a casket of precious
stones, which needed only to be opened, and the hands of the
discoverer were full of treasures. On the 15th October, at sunset,
the flotilla came to anchor near the western point of a second
island, at a distance of only fifteen miles from San Salvador; this
island was named Conception; on the morrow the admiral landed upon
the shore, having his men well armed for fear of surprise; the
natives, however, proved to be of the same race as those of San
Salvador, and gave a kind welcome to the Spaniards. A south-easterly
wind having arisen, Columbus soon put to sea again, and twenty-seven
miles further westward, he discovered a third island, which he
called Fernandina, but which now goes by the name of the Great Exuma.
All night they lay-to, and next day, the 17th October, large native
canoes came off to the vessels. The relations with the natives were
excellent, the savages peacefully exchanging fruit, and small balls
of cotton for glass beads, tambourines, needles, which took their
fancy greatly, and some molasses, of which they appeared very fond.
These natives of Fernandina wore some clothing, and appeared
altogether more civilized than those of San Salvador; they inhabited
houses made in the shape of tents and having high chimneys; the
interiors of these dwellings were remarkably clean and well kept.
The western side of the island, with its deeply indented shore,
formed a grand natural harbour, capable of containing a hundred
vessels.
But Fernandina did not afford the riches so much coveted by the
Spaniards as spoils to take back to Europe; there were no gold-mines
here; the natives who were on board the flotilla always spoke,
however, of a larger island, situated to the south and called
Saometo, in which the precious metal was found. Columbus steered in
the direction indicated, and during the night of Friday, the 19th of
October, he cast anchor near this Saometo, calling it Isabella; in
modern maps it goes by the name of Long Island. According to the
natives of San Salvador, there was a powerful king in this island,
but the admiral for several days awaited in vain the advent of this
great personage; he did not show himself. The island of Isabella was
beautiful of aspect, with its clear lakes, and thick forests; the
Spaniards were never tired of admiring the new type of nature
presented to their view, and of which the intense verdure was
wonderful to European eyes. Parroquets in innumerable flocks were
flying amongst the thick trees, and great lizards, doubtless iguanas,
glided with rapid movements in the high grass. The inhabitants of
the island fled at first at the sight of the foreigners, but soon
becoming bolder, they trafficked with the Spaniards in the
productions of their country.
Still Columbus held firmly to the notion of reaching the shores of
Japan. The natives had mentioned to him a large island a little to
the west which they called Cuba, and this the admiral supposed must
form part of the kingdom of Cipango; he felt little doubt but that
he would soon arrive at the town of Quinsay, or Hang-tchoo-foo,
formerly the capital of China. With this object, as soon as the
winds permitted, the fleet weighed anchor. On Thursday, the 25th of
October, seven or eight islands lying in a straight line were
sighted, these were probably the Mucaras. Columbus did not stop to
visit them, and on the Sunday he came in sight of Cuba. The caravels
were moored in a river, to which the Spaniards gave the name of San
Salvador; after a short stay, they sailed again towards the west,
and entered a harbour situated at the mouth of a large river which
was afterwards called the harbour of Las Nuevitas del Principe.
Numerous palm-trees were growing upon the shores of the island,
having leaves so broad that only one was required for roofing a
native hut. The natives had fled at the approach of the Spaniards,
who found upon the shore idols of female form, tame birds, bones of
animals, also dumb dogs, and some fishing instruments. The Cuban
savages, however, were ready to be enticed like the others, and they
consented to barter their goods with the Spaniards. Columbus
believed himself to be now on the mainland, and only a few leagues
from Hang-tchoo-foo; this idea being so rooted in his mind, that he
even busied himself in despatching some presents to the great Khan
of China. On the 2nd of November he desired one of the officers of
his ship, and a Jew who could speak Hebrew, Chaldee, and Arabic, to
set out to seek this native monarch. The ambassadors, carrying with
them strings of beads, and having six days given to them for the
fulfilment of their mission, started, taking a route leading towards
the interior of this so-called continent.
In the meantime, Columbus explored for nearly six miles a splendid
river which flowed beneath the shade of woods of odoriferous trees.
The inhabitants freely bartered their goods with the Spaniards, and
frequently mentioned to them a place named Bohio, where gold and
pearls might be obtained in abundance. They added that men lived
there who had dogs' heads, and who fed upon human flesh.
The admiral's envoys returned to the port on the 6th of November,
after a four days' absence. Two days had sufficed to bring them to a
village composed of about fifty huts, where they were received with
every mark of respect; the natives kissing their feet and hands, and
taking them for deities descended from the skies. Among other
details of native customs, they reported that both men and women
smoked tobacco by means of a forked pipe, drawing up the smoke
through their nostrils. These savages were acquainted with the
secret of obtaining fire by rubbing briskly two pieces of wood
against each other. Cotton was found in large quantities in the
houses, made up into the form of tents, one of these containing as
much as 11,000 pounds of the material. As to the grand khan they saw
no vestige of him.
Another consequence of the error of Columbus must be noticed here,
one which, according to Irving, changed the whole series of his
discoveries. He believed himself to be on the coast of Asia, and
therefore looked upon Cuba as a portion of that continent. In
consequence, he never thought of making the tour of Cuba, but
decided on returning towards the east. Now, had he not been deceived
on this occasion, and had he continued to follow the same direction
as at first, the results of his enterprise would have been greatly
modified. He might then have drifted towards Florida at the
south-eastern point of North America, or he might have run direct to
Mexico. In this latter case, instead of ignorant and savage natives,
what would he have found? The inhabitants of the great Aztec Empire,
of the half-civilized kingdom of Montezuma. There he would have seen
towns, armies, enormous wealth, and his role would no doubt have
been the same as that afterwards played by Fernando Cortes. But it
was not to be thus, and the admiral, persevering in his mistake,
directed his flotilla towards the east, weighing anchor on the 12th
of November, 1492.
Columbus tacked in and out along the Cuban coast; he saw the two
mountains--Cristal and Moa; he explored a harbour to which he gave
the name of Puerto del Principe, and an archipelago which he called
the Sea of Nuestra Senora. Each night the fishermen's fires were
seen upon the numerous islands, the inhabitants of which lived upon
spiders and huge worms. Several times the Spaniards landed upon
different points of the coast, and there planted the cross as a sign
of taking possession of the country. The natives often spoke to the
admiral about a certain island of Babeque, where gold abounded, and
thither Columbus resolved to go, but Martin-Alonzo Pinzon, the
captain of the _Pinta_, the best sailer of the three ships, was
beforehand with him, and at day-break on the 21st of November, he
had completely disappeared from sight. The admiral was very angry at
this separation, his feelings on the subject appearing plainly in
his narrative, where he says, "Pinzon has said and done to me many
like things." Continuing his exploration of the coast of Cuba,
Columbus discovered the Bay of Moa, the Point of Mangle, Point Vaez,
and the harbour of Barracoa, but nowhere did he meet with cannibals,
although the huts of the natives were often to be seen adorned with
human skulls, a sight which appeared to give great satisfaction to
the islanders on board the fleet. On the following days, they saw
the Boma River, and the caravels, doubling the point of Los Azules,
found themselves upon the eastern part of the island, whose coast
they had now reconnoitred for a distance of 375 miles. But Columbus
instead of continuing his route to the south turned off to the east,
and on the 5th of December perceived a large island, called by the
natives Bohio. This was Hayti, or San Domingo.
In the evening, the _Nina_ by the admiral's orders, entered a
harbour which was named Port Mary; it is situated at the
north-western extremity of the island, and, with the cape near which
it lies, is now called St. Nicholas. The next day the Spaniards
discovered a number of headlands, and an islet, called Tortuga
Island. Everywhere on the appearance of the ships, the Indian canoes
took to flight. The island, along which they were now coasting,
appeared very large and very high, from which latter peculiarity it
gained, later on, its name of Hayti, which signifies High Land. The
coast was explored by the Spaniards as far as Mosquito Bay; its
natural features, its plains and hills, its plants and the birds
which fluttered amongst the beautiful trees of the island, all
recalled to the memory the landscapes of Castille, and for this
reason Columbus named it Hispaniola, or Spanish Island. The
inhabitants were extremely timid and distrustful; they fled away
into the interior and no communication could be held with them. Some
sailors, however, succeeded in capturing a young woman, whom they
carried on board with them. She was young and rather pretty. The
admiral gave her, besides rings and beads, some clothing, of which
she had great need, and after most generous treatment, he sent her
back to shore.
This good conduct had the result of taming the natives, and the next
day, when nine of the sailors, well armed, ventured as far as
sixteen miles inland, they were received with respect, the savages
running to them in crowds, and offering them everything which their
country produced. The sailors returned to the ships enchanted with
their excursion. The interior of the island they had found rich in
cotton plants, mastic-trees and aloes, while a fine river, named
afterwards the Three Rivers, flowed gently along its limpid course.
On December 15th, Columbus again set sail, and was carried by the
wind towards Tortuga Island, upon which he saw a navigable stream of
water, and a valley so beautiful that he called it the Vale of
Paradise. The day following, having tacked into a deep gulf, an
Indian was seen who, notwithstanding the violence of the wind, was
skilfully manoeuvring a light canoe. This Indian was invited to come
on board, was loaded with presents by the admiral, and then put on
shore again, at one of the harbours of Hispaniola, now called the
Puerto de Paz. This kindness tended to attach the natives to the
admiral, and from that day they came in numbers round the caravels;
their king came with them, a strong, vigorous, and somewhat stout
young man of twenty years of age; he was naked, like his subjects of
both sexes, who showed him much respect, but with no appearance of
servility. Columbus ordered royal honours to be rendered to him, and
in return, the king, or rather cacique, informed the admiral that
the provinces to the east abounded in gold.
[Illustration: Columbus named it the Vale of Paradise.]
Next day another cacique arrived, offering to place all the
treasures of his country at the service of the Spaniards. He was
present at a fete in honour of the Virgin Mary, that Columbus caused
to be celebrated with great pomp on board his vessel, which was
gaily dressed with flags on the occasion. The cacique dined at the
admiral's table, apparently enjoying the repast; after he had
himself tasted of the different viands and beverages, he sent the
dishes and goblets to the members of his suite; he had good manners,
spoke little, but showed great politeness. After the feast, he gave
the admiral some thin leaves of gold, while Columbus, on his side,
presented him with some coins, upon which were engraved the
portraits of Ferdinand and Isabella, and after explaining to him by
signs that these were the representations of the most powerful
sovereigns in the world, he caused the royal banners of Castille to
be displayed before the savage prince. When night fell, the cacique
retired, highly delighted with his visit; and on his departure he
was saluted with a salvo of artillery. On the day following, the
crews before quitting this hospitable coast, set up a large cross in
the middle of the little town. In issuing from the gulf formed by
Tortuga Island and Hispaniola, they discovered several harbours,
capes, bays, and rivers; at the point of Limbe, a small island which
Columbus named St. Thomas, and finally, an enormous harbour safe and
sheltered, hidden between the island and the Bay of Acul, and to
which access was given by a canal surrounded by high mountains
covered with trees.
The admiral often disembarked upon this coast, the natives receiving
him as an ambassador from heaven, and imploring him to remain among
them. Columbus gave them quantities of little bells, brass rings,
glass beads, and other toys, which they eagerly accepted. A cacique
named Guacanagari, reigning over the province of Marien, sent to the
admiral a belt adorned with the figure of an animal with large ears,
of which the nose and tongue were made of beaten gold. Gold appeared
to be abundant in the island, and the natives soon brought a
considerable quantity of it to the strangers. The inhabitants of
this part of Hispaniola seemed to be superior in intelligence and
appearance to those of that portion of the island which had been
first visited; in the opinion of Columbus, the paint, red, black, or
white, with which the natives covered their bodies, served to
protect them from sunstroke. The huts of these savages were pretty
and well built. Upon Columbus questioning them as to the country
which produced gold, they always indicated one towards the east, a
country which they called Cibao, and which the admiral continued to
identify with Cipango or Japan.
On Christmas Day a serious accident occurred to the admiral's
caravel, the first damage sustained in this hitherto prosperous
voyage. An inexperienced steersman was at the helm of the
_Santa-Maria_ during an excursion outside the Gulf of St. Thomas;
night came on, and he allowed the vessel to be caught in some
currents which threw her upon the rocks; the caravel grounded and
her rudder stuck fast. The admiral, awakened by the shock, ran upon
deck; he ordered an anchor to be fastened forward, by which the ship
might warp herself off and so float again. The master and some of
the sailors charged with the execution of this order, jumped into
the long boat, but seized with a sudden panic, they rowed away in
haste to the _Nina_. Meantime the tide fell, and the _Santa-Maria_
ran further aground; it became necessary to cut away the masts to
lighten her, and soon it was evident that everything on board must
be removed to the other ship. The cacique Guacanagari, quite
understanding the dangerous situation of the caravel, came with his
brothers and other relations, accompanied by a great number of the
Indians, and helped in unlading the ship. Thanks to this prince, not
a single article of the cargo was stolen, and during the whole night
armed natives kept watch around the stores of provisions.
The next day Guacanagari went on board the _Nina_, to console the
admiral, and to place all his own possessions at his disposal, at
the same time offering him a repast of bread, doe's flesh, fish,
roots, and fruit. Columbus, much moved by these tokens of friendship,
formed the design of founding an establishment on this island. With
this purpose in view, he addressed himself to gain the hearts of the
Indians by presents and kindness, and wishing also to give them an
adequate notion of his power, he ordered the discharge of an
arquebuse and a small cannon, of which the reports frightened the
poor savages terribly. On December 26th, the Spaniards commenced the
construction of a fort upon this part of the coast, the intention of
the admiral being to leave there a certain number of men, with a
year's provision of bread, wine, and seed, and to give them the long
boat belonging to the _Santa-Maria_. The works at the fort were
pushed forward with rapidity. It was also on the 26th that they
received news of the _Pinta_, which had been separated from the
flotilla since November 21st. The natives announced that she was at
anchor in a river at the extreme point of the island, but a canoe
despatched by Guacanagari returned without having found her. Then
Columbus, not wishing to continue his explorations under the present
conditions, since the loss of the _Santa-Maria_, which could not be
floated again, left him but one caravel, decided to return to Spain,
and preparations for the departure began.
On the 2nd of January Columbus caused his soldiers to act a mimic
battle, greatly to the admiration of the cacique and his subjects.
Afterwards the admiral chose out thirty-nine men to form the
garrison of the fortress during his absence, naming Rodrigo de
Escovedo as their commander. The greater part of the cargo of the
_Santa-Maria_ was to be left behind with them, for their year's
provision. Amongst these first colonists of the New World were
included a writer, an alguazil, a cooper, a doctor, and a tailor.
These Spaniards were charged with the mission of seeking for
gold-mines, and of choosing a suitable site for the building of a
town. On the 3rd of January, after solemn leave-takings of the
cacique and the new colonists, the _Nina_ weighed anchor and sailed
out of the harbour. An island was soon discovered, having upon it a
very high mountain; to this was given the name of Monte-Christi.
Columbus had already sailed for two days along the coast, when he
was aware of the approach of the _Pinta_, and very soon her captain,
Martin Alonzo Pinzon, came on board the _Nina_, endeavouring to
excuse his conduct. The real truth was that Pinzon had taken the
lead with the view of being the first to reach the pretended island
of Babeque, of which the riches had been described in glowing
colours by the natives. The admiral was very ready to accept the bad
reasons given him by Captain Pinzon, and learnt from him that the
_Pinta_ had done nothing but coast along the shores of Hispaniola,
without discovering any new island.
On the 7th of January the ships lay to, to stop a leak which had
sprung in the hold of the _Nina_. Columbus profited by this delay to
explore a wide river, situated about three miles from Monte-Christi,
and which carried so much gold-dust along with it, that he gave it
the name of the Golden River. The admiral would have desired to
visit this part of Hispaniola with greater care, but the crews were
in haste to return home, and under the influence of the brothers
Pinzon, began to murmur against his authority.
On the 9th of January the caravels set sail and steered towards the
east-south-east, skirting the coast, and distinguishing by names
even its smallest sinuosities; of such were point Isabella, the cape
of La Roca, French Cape, Cape Cabron, and the Bay of Samana,
situated at the eastern extremity of the island, where was a port,
in which the fleet, being becalmed, came to anchor. At first the
relations between the foreigners and the natives were excellent, but
a change was suddenly perceived, the savages ceasing to barter, and
making some hostile demonstrations, which left no doubt of the bad
intentions entertained by them. On the 13th of January the savages
made a sudden and unexpected attack upon the Spaniards, who, however,
put a bold face on the matter, and by the aid of their weapons, put
their enemies to flight after a few minutes' combat. Thus, for the
first time, the blood of the Indian flowed beneath the hand of the
European.
On the morrow Columbus again set sail, having on board four young
natives, whom, notwithstanding their objections, he persisted in
carrying off with him. His crews, embittered and fatigued, caused
him great uneasiness, and in his narrative of the voyage, this great
man, superior though he were to all human weaknesses, and a being
whom adverse fate could not humble, bemoans himself bitterly over
this trial. It was on the 16th of January that the homeward voyage
commenced in good earnest, and Cape Samana, the extreme point of
Hispaniola, disappeared below the horizon. The passage proved a
quick one, and no incident is recorded until the 12th of February,
when the vessels encountered a fearful storm lasting three days,
with furious wind, enormous waves, and much lightning from the
north-north-east. Three times did the terrified sailors make a vow
of pilgrimage to St. Mary of Guadalupe, to our Lady of Loretto, and
to St. Clara of Moguer, and at length, in extremity of fear, the
whole crew swore to go and pray in their shirts and with naked feet
in some church dedicated to the Virgin. But in spite of all, the
storm raged with redoubled fury, and even the admiral feared for the
result. In case of a catastrophe, he thought it well hastily to
write upon a parchment an abstract of his discoveries, with a
request that who ever should find the document would forward it to
the King of Spain; wrapping the parchment in oil-cloth, he enclosed
it in a wooden barrel, which was thrown into the sea.
At sunrise on the 15th of February the hurricane abated, the two
caravels which had been separated by the storm again joined company,
and after three days they cast anchor at the island of St. Mary, one
of the Azores; as soon as they arrived there, the admiral sought to
further the accomplishment of the vows made during the storm, and
with this object, sent half of his people on shore; but these were
unhappily made prisoners by the Portuguese, who did not restore them
to liberty for five days, notwithstanding the urgent remonstrances
made by Columbus. The admiral put to sea again on the 23rd of
February; again the winds were contrary, and again, amidst a violent
tempest, he took fresh vows in company with all his crew, promising
to fast on the first Saturday which should follow their arrival in
Spain. At last, on the 4th of March, the pilots sighted the mouth of
the Tagus, in which the _Nina_ took refuge, whilst the _Pinta_,
caught by the wind, was carried away into the Bay of Biscay.
The Portuguese welcomed the admiral kindly, the king even admitting
him to an audience. Columbus was in haste to return to Spain; as
soon as the weather permitted, the _Nina_ again set sail, and at
mid-day on the 15th of March, she cast anchor in the port of Palos,
after seven months and a half of navigation, during which Columbus
had discovered the islands of San Salvador, Conception, Great Exuma,
Long Island, the Mucaras, Cuba, and San Domingo.
The court of Ferdinand and Isabella was then at Barcelona, whither
the admiral was summoned. He set out immediately, taking with him
the Indians whom he had brought from the New World. The enthusiasm
he excited was extreme; from all parts the people ran to look at him
as he passed, rendering him royal honours. His entry into Barcelona
was magnificent. The king and queen, with the grandees of Spain,
received him with great pomp at the palace of the Deputation. He
there gave an account of his wonderful voyage, and presented the
specimens of gold which he had brought with him; then all the
assembly knelt down and chanted the Te Deum. Christopher Columbus
was afterwards ennobled by letters patent, and the king granted him
a coat of arms bearing this device: "To Castille and Leon, Columbus
gives a New World." The fame of the Genoese navigator rang through
the whole of Europe; the Indians whom he had brought with him were
baptized in presence of the whole court; and thus, the man of genius,
so long poor and unknown, had now risen to the highest point of
celebrity.
III.
CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS.
Second Voyage: Flotilla of seventeen vessels--Island of Ferro--
Dominica--Marie-Galante--Guadaloupe--The Cannibals--Montserrat--
Santa-Maria-la-Rodonda--St. Martin and Santa Cruz--Archipelago of
the Eleven Thousand Virgins--The island of St. John Baptist, or
Porto Rico--Hispaniola--The first Colonists massacred--Foundation of
the town of Isabella--Twelve ships laden with treasure sent to
Spain--Fort St. Thomas built in the Province of Cibao--Don Diego,
Columbus' brother, named Governor of the Island--Jamaica--The Coast
of Cuba--The Remora--Return to Isabella--The Cacique made prisoner--
Revolt of the Natives--Famine--Columbus traduced in Spain--Juan
Aguado sent as Commissary to Isabella--Gold-mines--Departure of
Columbus--His arrival at Cadiz.
The narrative of the adventures of the great Genoese navigator had
over-excited the minds of the hearers. Imagination already caught
glimpses of golden continents situated beyond the seas. All the
passions which are engendered by cupidity were seething in the
people's hearts. The admiral, under pressure of public opinion, must
set forth again with the most brief delay. He was himself also,
eager to return to the theatre of his conquests, and to yet enrich
the maps of the day with more new discoveries. He declared himself,
therefore, ready to start.
The king and queen placed at his disposal a flotilla composed of
three large ships and fourteen caravels. Twelve hundred men were to
sail in them. Several Castilian nobles, with firm faith in the lucky
star of Columbus, decided to try their fortune with him beyond seas.
In the holds of the vessels were horses, cattle, instruments of all
kinds for collecting and purifying gold, grain of various kinds; in
a word, everything that might be needful in the establishing an
important colony. Of the ten natives brought to Europe, five
returned to their country, three, who were ill, remained behind in
Europe, the other two were dead. Columbus was named captain-general
of the squadron, with unlimited powers.