THE QUESTION OF FOREIGN INFLUENCE UPON THE RELIGIONS OF AMERICA
The space at my disposal for dealing with this most difficult of all
questions is such as will enable me only to outline its salient points.
As I pointed out at the beginning of the first chapter, the question of
the origins of the American religions was almost identical with that of
the origins of the American race itself.
That the Red Man was not the aboriginal inhabitant of the American
continent, but supplanted a race with Eskimo affinities, is extremely
probable. At all events, the 'Skraelings,' with whom the early Norse
discoverers of America had dealings, were not described by them as in
any way resembling the North American Indian of later times. If this be
granted--and Indian folklore would seem to strengthen the hypothesis--we
must then find some other home for the Red Man than the prairies of
North-east America for the five centuries between the Norse and
Columbian discoveries. He may, of course, have dwelt in the north-west
of the continent, a solution of the problem which appears to me highly
feasible. That his affinities are Mongolian it would be absurd to
dispute; but--and this is of supreme importance--these affinities are of
so archaic an origin as to preclude all likelihood of any important or
numerous Asiatic immigration occurring for many centuries before either
the Norse or Columbian discovery.
Coming to a period within the ken of history, there is just the
possibility that Mexico, or some adjacent country of Central America,
was visited by Asiatic Buddhist priests in the fifth century. The story
is told in the Chinese annals of the wanderings of five Buddhist
priests, natives of Cabul, who journeyed to America (which they
designate Fusang) _via_ the Aleutian Islands and Kamchatka, a region
then well known to the Chinese. Their description of the country,
however, is no more convincing than are the arguments of their
protagonist, Professor Fryer of San Francisco, who sees Asiatic
influence in various elephant-headed gods and Buddha-esque statuary in
the National Mexican Museum. It cannot be too strongly insisted upon
that any foreign influence arriving in the American continent in
pre-Columbian times was not sufficiently powerful to have more than a
merely transitory influence upon the customs or religious beliefs of the
inhabitants.
This leads us to the conclusion that the religions of Mexico and Peru
were of indigenous origin. Any attempt to prove them offshoots of
Chinese or other Asiatic religion on the basis of a similarity of art or
custom is doomed to failure.
But however satisfactory it may be to brush aside unsubstantial theories
which aspire to the honour of facthood, it would be a thousand pities to
ignore the numerous intensely interesting myths which have grown up
round the idea of foreign contact with the American races in
pre-Columbian times. Let us briefly examine these, and attempt to
discover any point of contact between them and similar American myths.
I have previously alluded to the myth of Quetzalcoatl. Quetzalcoatl was
a Mexican deity, but in reality he was one of the older pre-Aztecan gods
of Anahuac. He is sometimes represented as a being of white complexion
and fair-bearded, with blue eyes, and altogether of European appearance.
It will be remembered that on the entrance into Anahuac of Tezcatlipoca
he waged a war with that god in which he was worsted, and eventually
forced to depart for 'Tlapallan' in a canoe, promising to return at some
future date. It will also be recollected how the legend of
Quetzalcoatl's return influenced the whole of Montezuma's policy towards
the Spanish conquistadores, and how the fear of his vengeance was ever
before the Aztec priesthood. Quetzalcoatl, strangely enough, was reputed
to have sailed for 'Tlapallan' from almost the identical spot first set
foot upon by Cortes on his arrival on the Mexican coast.
The Max Mueller school of mythologists see nothing in Quetzalcoatl but a
god of the wind. With them Minos was a myth. So was his palace with its
labyrinth until its recent discovery at Knossos. I am fain to see in
Quetzalcoatl a real personality--a culture-hero; but I will suggest
nothing concerning his non-American nationality. At the same time it
will be interesting to examine, firstly, those European myths which
speak of men who set out for America; and, secondly, those American
myths which speak of the existence of 'white men,' or 'white tribes,'
dwelling upon the American continent.
Passing over the sagas of the Norse discovery of America, which are by
no means mythical, we come to the Celtic story of the finding of the
great continent. When the Norsemen drove the Irish Celts from Iceland,
these fugitives sought refuge in 'Great Ireland,' by which, it is
supposed, is intended America. The Irish _Book of Lismore_ tells of the
voyage of St. Brendan, abbot of Cluainfert in Ireland, to an island in
the ocean destined for the abode of saints, and of his numerous
discoveries during a seven years' cruise. The Norse sagas which tell of
this 'Great Ireland' speak of the language of its inhabitants as
'resembling Irish,' but as the Irish were the nation with which the
Norsemen were best acquainted, this 'resemblance' appears to smack of
the linguistic classification of the British sailorman who applies the
term 'Portugee' to all languages not his own. The people of this country
were attired in white dresses, 'and had poles borne before them on which
were fastened lappets, and who shouted with a loud voice.'
But another Celtic people claimed the honour of first setting foot upon
American soil. The Welsh Prince Madoc in the year 1170 sailed westwards
with a fleet of several ships, and coming to a large and fertile
country, landed one hundred and twenty men. Returning to Wales he once
more set out with ten vessels, but concerning his further adventures
Powell and Hakluyt are silent. Nor does the authority of the bard
Meredith ap Rees concerning him rest upon any more substantial basis.[8]
Stories of Welsh-speaking Indians, too, are not uncommon. Two slaves
whom the Norsemen of 1007 sent on a foraging expedition into the
interior of Massachusetts were Scots, although their names--Haki and
Hakia--hardly sound Celtic.[9]
Innumerable are the legends of 'white Indians'--the 'white Panis,'[10]
dwelling south of the Missouri, the 'Blanco Barbus, or white Indians
with beards,' the Boroanes, the Guatosos of Costa Rica, the Malapoques
in Brazil, the Guaranies in Paraguay, the Guiacas of Guiana, the
Scheries of La Plata--but modern anthropology scarcely bears out the
stories of the 'whiteness' of these tribes. On a similar footing are the
travellers' tales concerning the existence of Indian Jews--to prove
which Lord Kingsborough squandered a fortune and compiled a work on
Mexican antiquities the parallel of which has not been known in the
entire history of bibliography.[11]
More convincing are the Mexican and Peruvian legends concerning the
appearance of white and bearded culture-bringers. These legends are, it
must be admitted, shadowy enough, but are so persistent and resemble
each other so closely as to give some grounds for the supposition that
at some period in the history of Mexico or Peru a member or members of
the 'Caucasian' race may have stumbled into these civilisations through
the accidents of shipwreck. But it is exceedingly dangerous to premise
anything of the sort; and, as has been said before, the influence of
such wanderers could only have been infinitesimal.
Enough, then, has been said to show that the origins of the religions of
Mexico and Peru could not have been of any other than an indigenous
nature. Their evolution took place wholly upon American soil, and if
resemblances appear in their systems to the mythologies or religions of
Asia, they are explicable by that law now so well known to
anthropologists and students of comparative religion, that, given
similar circumstances, and similar environments, the evolution of the
religious beliefs of widely separated peoples will proceed upon similar
lines.
SHORT BIBLIOGRAPHY
MEXICAN MYTHOLOGY
(_Those authorities marked with an asterisk are also applicable to the
subject of Peruvian Mythology_).
SAHAGUN, _Historia General de las Cosas de Nueva Espana_. (English
translation edited for the Hakluyt Society by Clements R. Markham
in 1880.)
TORQUEMADA, _Los veynte y un libros Rituales y Monarchia Yndiana_.
IXTLILXOCHITL, _'Historia Chichimeca' and 'Relaciones' in_ Lord
Kingsborough's _Mexican Antiquities_, vol. ix.
PRESCOTT, _Conquest of Mexico_.
*HUMBOLDT, _Vues des Cordilleres et Monuments des Peuples de
l'Amerique_.
CLAVIGERO, _Storia antica del Messico_. (English translation by
Charles Cullen. London, 1787.)
BRASSEUR DE BOURBOURG, _Histoires des Nations civilisees du
Mexique et de l'Amerique-centrale_, and _Quatre Lettres sur le
Mexique_.
BANCROFT, _Native Races of the Pacific States of North America_.
KINGSBOROUGH, _Antiquities of Mexico_.
*REVILLE, _The Hibbert Lectures_, 1884.
*PAYNE, _History of the New World_, vols. i. and ii.
TYLOR, _Anahuac_.
BRINTON, _The Myths of the New World_.
WINSOR, _Narrative and Critical History of America_.
PERUVIAN MYTHOLOGY
MONTESINOS, _Memoires historiques sur l'Ancien Perou_. (Translated
from the Spanish MS. in Ternaux-Compans, vol. xvii.)
GARCILASSO DE LA VEGA, _Comentarios reales_. (English translation
for the Hakluyt Society by Clements R. Markham. London, 1869, 1871.)
LACROIX, '_Perou_,' in vol. iv. of _L'Amerique_ in _L'Univers
Pittoresque_.
HUTCHINSON, _Two Years in Peru, with Explorations of its
Antiquities_. London, 1873.
PRESCOTT, _Conquest of Peru_, 1848 (or better, Sonnenschein's new
edition, or that in Everyman's Library).
MARKHAM, _A History of Peru_, 1892; and _Rites and Laws of the Incas_.
LORENTE, _Historia Antigua del Peru_, 1860-3.
The works of Prescott upon Mexico and Peru (which are perhaps the
most popular and accessible upon the antiquities of these
countries) are nevertheless sadly meagre in their accounts of the
respective mythologies of the Nahuatlaca and the Incas. Indeed in
each of them but a few pages is given to the faith of the
aborigines. In some later editions, however (notably in the recent
popular editions of Mr. Sonnenschein), excellent variorum notes
have been added by the editors. A great deal of Prescott's work is
now quite obsolete and misleading. The works of Mr. Brinton have
superseded them; but it is doubtful if Prescott will ever be
surpassed in narrative charm. The best English work on the subject
is Mr. Payne's _History of the New World called America_, cited
above, a work which is a veritable storehouse of knowledge upon
aboriginal America. These works are, however, rather too erudite
in tone for the general reader, and by no means easy to come by. A
most excellent catalogue of American historical and mythological
literature is published by Mr. Karl Hiersemann of Leipsic.
Printed by T. and A. CONSTABLE, Printers to His Majesty at the Edinburgh
University Press
FOOTNOTES:
[1] The fact of the rapid approximation of the European colonists to the
American type might, however, be quoted against this view.
[2] It must be borne in mind that the science and arts of the Aztecs
were almost immediately lost in consequence of the intolerance of the
Spanish Conquistadores.
[3] An absolutely erroneous one.
[4] The temple, with all its purlieus and courts, was named _teopan_;
the central pyramid, _teocalli_.
[5] There is reason to believe, however, that the sacrifices of the
Aztecs were made not so much for the purpose of placating the gods as
for the imagined necessity of rejuvenating them and keeping them alive.
Of some of the sacrifices, at least, this is certain.
[6] The veneration of an animal or plant _which does not identify a
tribe_ is not 'totemism' but 'naturalism,' or nature-worship.
[7] The evidence of Garcilasso would seem to show that the early
Peruvians possessed a totem-system; this, however, would appear to have
been by some process totally eliminated. It will be seen that I
differentiate between 'naturalism' and 'totemism.' 'Totemism' is the
adoption of an animal or plant symbol by a _tribe_ originally for the
purpose of identification. It later grows into the belief in
blood-kinship with the symbol. 'Naturalism' is the worship of the wind,
the sun, or other natural phenomena.
[8] The legend is the basis of some hundred of lines of bookish fustian
by Southey, who follows Hakluyt in making Mexico the theatre of the
prince's adventures.
[9] _Antiquitates Americanae._ Were they Picts?
[10] Pawnees.
[11] This monumental work, which, apart from its letterpress, is
exceedingly valuable in respect of numerous splendid plates representing
Aztec MSS., is in nine huge volumes, and was published in London in
1831. Its original price was L175 coloured, and L120 uncoloured. Its
noble author sought to prove that the Mexicans were the Lost Ten Tribes
of Israel.
Transcriber's Notes:
Passages in italics are indicated by _italics_.