Here the omitted relative would be in the nominative case. Also in
literary English we find the same omission. It is rare in prose, and
comparatively so in poetry. Examples are,--
The silent truth that it was she was superior.--THACKERAY
I have a mind presages me such thrift.--SHAKESPEARE.
There is a nun in Dryburgh bower,
Ne'er looks upon the sun.
--SCOTT.
And you may gather garlands there
Would grace a summer queen.
_Id._
'Tis distance lends enchantment to the view.--CAMPBELL.
Exercises on the Relative Pronoun.
(_a_) Bring up sentences containing ten instances of the relatives
_who_, _which_, _that_, and _what_.
(_b_) Bring up sentences having five indefinite relatives.
(_c_) Bring up five sentences having indirect questions introduced by
pronouns.
(_d_) Tell whether the pronouns in the following are interrogatives,
simple relatives, or indefinite relatives:--
1. He ushered him into one of the wherries which lay ready to attend
the Queen's barge, which was already proceeding.
2. The nobles looked at each other, but more with the purpose to see
what each thought of the news, than to exchange any remarks on what
had happened.
3. Gracious Heaven! who was this that knew the word?
4. It needed to be ascertained which was the strongest kind of men;
who were to be rulers over whom.
5. He went on speaking to who would listen to him.
6. What kept me silent was the thought of my mother.
ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.
[Sidenote: _Function of adjective pronouns._]
131. Most of the words how to be considered are capable of a double
use,--they may be pure modifiers of nouns, or they may stand for
nouns. In the first use they are adjectives; in the second they retain
an adjective _meaning_, but have lost their adjective _use_. Primarily
they are adjectives, but in this function, or use, they are properly
classed as adjective pronouns.
The following are some examples of these:--
_Some_ say that the place was bewitched.--IRVING.
That mysterious realm where _each_ shall take
His chamber in the silent halls of death.
--BRYANT.
How happy is he born or taught
That serveth not _another's_ will.
--WOTTON
_That_ is more than any martyr can stand.--EMERSON.
[Sidenote: _Caution._]
[Sidenote: _Adjectives, not pronouns._]
Hence these words are like adjectives used as nouns, which we have
seen in such expressions as, "_The dead_ are there;" that is, a word,
in order to be an adjective pronoun, _must not modify any word,
expressed or understood_. It must come under the requirement of
pronouns, and _stand for a noun_. For instance, in the following
sentences--"The cubes are of stainless ivory, and on _each_ is
written, in letters of gold, '_Truth_;'" "You needs must play such
pranks as _these_;" "They will always have one bank to sun themselves
upon, and _another_ to get cool under;" "Where two men ride on a
horse, _one_ must ride behind"--the words italicized modify nouns
understood, necessarily thought of: thus, in the first, "each _cube_;"
in the second, "these _pranks_," in the others, "another _bank_," "one
_man_."
[Sidenote: _Classes of adjective pronouns._]
132. Adjective pronouns are divided into three classes:--
(1) DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS, such as _this_, _that_, _the former_, etc.
(2) DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS, such as _each_, _either_, _neither_, etc.
(3) NUMERAL PRONOUNS, as _some_, _any_, _few_, _many_, _none_, _all_,
etc.
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
[Sidenote: _Definition and examples._]
133. A DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN is one that definitely points out what
persons or things are alluded to in the sentence.
The person or thing alluded to by the demonstrative may be in another
sentence, or may be the whole of a sentence. For example, "Be _that_
as it may" could refer to a sentiment in a sentence, or an argument in
a paragraph; but the demonstrative clearly points to that thing.
The following are examples of demonstratives:--
I did not say _this_ in so many words.
All _these_ he saw; but what he fain had seen He could not see.
Beyond _that_ I seek not to penetrate the veil.
How much we forgive in _those_ who yield us the rare spectacle of
heroic manners!
The correspondence of Bonaparte with his brother Joseph, when
_the latter_ was the King of Spain.
_Such_ are a few isolated instances, accidentally preserved.
Even as I have seen, they that plow iniquity, and sow wickedness,
reap _the same_.
They know that patriotism has its glorious opportunities and its
sacred duties. They have not shunned _the one_, and they have
well performed _the other_.
NOTE.--It will be noticed in the first four sentences that _this_ and
_that_ are inflected for number.
Exercises.
(_a_) Find six sentences using demonstrative adjective pronouns.
(_b_) In which of the following is _these_ a pronoun?--
1. Formerly the duty of a librarian was to keep people as much as
possible from the books, and to hand _these_ over to his
successor as little worn as he could.--LOWELL.
2. They had fewer books, but _these_ were of the best.--_Id._
3. A man inspires affection and honor, because he was not lying
in wait for _these_.--EMERSON
4. Souls such as _these_ treat you as gods would.--_Id._
5. _These_ are the first mountains that broke the uniform level
of the earth's surface.--AGASSIZ
DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS.
[Sidenote: _Definition and examples._]
134. The DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS are those which stand for the names
of persons or things considered singly.
[Sidenote: _Simple._]
Some of these are _simple_ pronouns; for example,--
They stood, or sat, or reclined, as seemed good to _each_.
As two yoke devils sworn to _other's_ purpose.
Their minds accorded into one strain, and made delightful music
which _neither_ could have claimed as all his own.
[Sidenote: _Compound_.]
Two are compound pronouns,--_each other_, _one another_. They may be
separated into two adjective pronouns; as,
We violated our reverence _each_ for _the other's_ soul.
--HAWTHORNE.
More frequently they are considered as one pronoun.
They led one another, as it were, into a high pavilion of their
thoughts.--HAWTHORNE.
Men take each other's measure when they react.--EMERSON.
Exercise.--Find sentences containing three distributive pronouns.
NUMERAL PRONOUNS.
[Sidenote: _Definition and examples_.]
135. The NUMERAL PRONOUNS are those which stand for an uncertain
number or quantity of persons or things.
The following sentences contain numeral pronouns:--
Trusting too much to _others'_ care is the ruin of _many_.
'Tis of no importance how large his house, you quickly come to
the end of _all_.
_Another_ opposes him with sound argument.
It is as if _one_ should be so enthusiastic a lover of poetry as
to care nothing for Homer or Milton.
There were plenty _more_ for him to fall in company with, as
_some_ of the rangers had gone astray.
The Soldan, imbued, as _most_ were, with the superstitions of his
time, paused over a horoscope.
If those [taxes] were the only _ones_ we had to pay, we might the
more easily discharge them.
_Much_ might be said on both sides.
If hand of mine _another's_ task has lightened.
It felt the guidance that it does not claim.
So perish _all_ whose breast ne'er learned to glow
For _others_' good, or melt for _others_' woe.
_None_ shall rule but the humble.
[Sidenote: _Some inflected._]
It will be noticed that some of these are inflected for case and
number; such as _one other_, _another_.
The word _one_ has a reflexive form; for example,--
[Sidenote: One _reflexive_.]
The best way to punish _oneself_ for doing ill seems to me to go
and do good.--KINGSLEY.
The lines sound so prettily to _one's self_. HOLMES.
Exercise.--Find sentences containing ten numeral pronouns.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
[Sidenote: _Definition and examples._]
136. Indefinite pronouns are words which stand for an indefinite
number or quantity of persons or things; but, unlike adjective
pronouns, they are never used as adjectives.
Most of them are compounds of two or more words:--
[Sidenote: _List._]
_Somebody_, _some one_, _something_; _anybody_, _any one_ (or
_anyone_), _anything_; _everybody_, _every one_ (or _everyone_),
_everything_; _nobody_, _no one_, _nothing_; _somebody else_, _anyone
else_, _everybody else_, _every one else_, etc.; also _aught_,
_naught_; and _somewhat_, _what_, and _they_.
The following sentences contain indefinite pronouns:--
As he had them of all hues, he hoped to fit _everybody's_ fancy.
_Every one_ knows how laborious the usual method is of attaining
to arts and sciences.
_Nothing_ sheds more honor on our early history than the
impression which these measures everywhere produced in America.
Let us also perform _something_ worthy to be remembered.
William of Orange was more than _anything else_ a religious man.
Frederick was discerned to be a purchaser of _everything_ that
_nobody else_ would buy.
These other souls draw me as _nothing else_ can.
The genius that created it now creates _somewhat else_.
_Every one else_ stood still at his post.
That is perfectly true: I did not want _anybody else's_ authority
to write as I did.
_They_ indefinite means people in general; as,--
At lovers' perjuries, _they_ say, Jove laughs.--SHAKESPEARE.
_What_ indefinite is used in the expression "I tell you _what_." It
means _something_, and was indefinite in Old English.
Now, in building of chaises, I tell you _what_,
There is always somewhere a weakest spot.
Exercise.--Find sentences with six indefinite pronouns.
137. Some indefinite pronouns are inflected for case, as shown in
the words _everybody's_, _anybody else's_, etc.
See also "Syntax" (Sec. 426) as to the possessive case of the forms
with _else_.
HOW TO PARSE PRONOUNS.
[Sidenote: _A reminder._]
138. In parsing pronouns the student will need particularly to
guard against the mistake of parsing words according to _form_ instead
of according to function or use.
Exercise.
Parse in full the pronouns in the following sentences:--
1. She could not help laughing at the vile English into which
they were translated.
2. Our readers probably remember what Mrs. Hutchinson tells us of
herself.
3. Whoever deals with M. de Witt must go the plain way that he
pretends to, in his negotiations.
4. Some of them from whom nothing was to be got, were suffered to
depart; but those from whom it was thought that anything could be
extorted were treated with execrable cruelty.
5. All was now ready for action.
6. Scarcely had the mutiny broken up when he was himself again.
7. He came back determined to put everything to the hazard.
8. Nothing is more clear than that a general ought to be the
servant of his government, and of no other.
9. Others did the same thing, but not to quite so enormous an
extent.
10. On reaching the approach to this about sunset of a beautiful
evening in June, I first found myself among the mountains,--a
feature of natural scenery for which, from my earliest days, it
was not extravagant to say that I hungered and thirsted.
11. I speak of that part which chiefly it is that I know.
12. A smaller sum I had given to my friend the attorney (who was
connected with the money lenders as their lawyer), to which,
indeed, he was entitled for his unfurnished lodgings.
13. Whatever power the law gave them would be enforced against
me to the utmost.
14. O thou that rollest above, round as the shield of my fathers!
15. But there are more than you ever heard of who die of grief in
this island of ours.
16. But amongst themselves is no voice nor sound.
17. For this did God send her a great reward.
18. The table was good; but that was exactly what Kate cared
little about.
19. Who and what was Milton? That is to say, what is the place
which he fills in his own vernacular literature?
20. These hopes are mine as much as theirs.
21. What else am I who laughed or wept yesterday, who slept last
night like a corpse?
22. I who alone am, I who see nothing in nature whose existence I
can affirm with equal evidence to my own, behold now the
semblance of my being, in all its height, variety, and curiosity
reiterated in a foreign form.
23. What hand but would a garland cull
For thee who art so beautiful?
24. And I had done a hellish thing,
And it would work 'em woe.
25. Whatever he knows and thinks, whatever in his apprehension is
worth doing, that let him communicate.
26. Rip Van Winkle was one of those foolish, well-oiled
dispositions, who take the world easy, eat white bread or brown,
whichever can be got with least thought or trouble.
27. And will your mother pity me,
Who am a maiden most forlorn?
28. They know not I knew thee,
Who knew thee too well.
29. I did remind thee of our own dear Lake,
By the old Hall which may be mine no more.
30. He sate him down, and seized a pen, and traced
Words which I could not guess of.
31. Time writes no wrinkle on thine azure brow:
Such as creation's dawn beheld, thou rollest now.
32. Wild Spirit which art moving everywhere;
Destroyer and preserver; hear, oh, hear!
33. A smile of hers was like an act of grace.
34. No man can learn what he has not preparation for learning.
35. What can we see or acquire but what we are?
36. He teaches who gives, and he learns who receives.
37. We are by nature observers; that is our permanent state.
38. He knew not what to do, and so he read.
39. Who hears me, who understands me, becomes mine.
40. The men who carry their points do not need to inquire of
their constituents what they should say.
41. Higher natures overpower lower ones by affecting them with a
certain sleep.
42. Those who live to the future must always appear selfish to
those who live to the present.
43. I am sorry when my independence is invaded or when a gift
comes from such as do not know my spirit.
44. Here I began to howl and scream abominably, which was no bad
step towards my liberation.
45. The only aim of the war is to see which is the stronger of
the two--which is the master.
ADJECTIVES.
[Sidenote: _Office of Adjectives._]
139. Nouns are seldom used as names of objects without additional
words joined to them to add to their meaning. For example, if we wish
to speak of a friend's house, we cannot guide one to it by merely
calling it _a house_. We need to add some words to tell its color,
size, position, etc., if we are at a distance; and if we are near, we
need some word to point out the house we speak of, so that no other
will be mistaken for it. So with any object, or with persons.
As to the kind of words used, we may begin with the common adjectives
telling the _characteristics_ of an object. If a chemist discovers a
new substance, he cannot describe it to others without telling its
qualities: he will say it is _solid_, or _liquid_, or _gaseous_;
_heavy_ or _light_; _brittle_ or _tough_; _white_ or _red_; etc.
Again, in _pointing out_ an object, adjectives are used; such as in
the expressions "_this_ man," "_that_ house," "_yonder_ hill," etc.
Instead of using nouns indefinitely, the _number_ is limited by
adjectives; as, "_one_ hat," "_some_ cities," "_a hundred_ men."
The office of an adjective, then, is to narrow down or limit the
application of a noun. It may have this office alone, or it may at the
same time add to the meaning of the noun.
[Sidenote: _Substantives._]
140. Nouns are not, however, the only words limited by adjectives:
pronouns and other words and expressions also have adjectives joined
to them. Any word or word group that performs the same office as a
noun may be modified by adjectives.
To make this clear, notice the following sentences:--
[Sidenote: _Pronoun._]
If _he_ be _thankful_ for small benefits, it shows that he weighs
men's minds, and their trash.--BACON.
[Sidenote: _Infinitives._]
_To err_ is _human_; _to forgive, divine_.--POPE.
With exception of the "and then," the "and there," and the still
less _significant_ "_and so_," they constitute all his
connections.--COLERIDGE.
[Sidenote: _Definition._]
141. An adjective is a word joined to a noun or other substantive
word or expression, to describe it or to limit its application.
[Sidenote: _Classes of adjectives._]
142. Adjectives are divided into four classes:--
(1) Descriptive adjectives, which describe by expressing qualities
or attributes of a substantive.
(2) Adjectives of quantity, used to tell how many things are spoken
of, or how much of a thing.
(3) Demonstrative adjectives, pointing out particular things.
(4) Pronominal adjectives, words primarily pronouns, but used
adjectively sometimes in modifying nouns instead of standing for them.
They include relative and interrogative words.
DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES.
143. This large class includes several kinds of words:--
(1) SIMPLE ADJECTIVES expressing quality; such as _safe_, _happy_,
_deep_, _fair_, _rash_, _beautiful_, _remotest_, _terrible_, etc.
(2) COMPOUND ADJECTIVES, made up of various words thrown together to
make descriptive epithets. Examples are, "_Heaven-derived_ power,"
"this _life-giving_ book," "his spirit wrapt and _wonder-struck_,"
"_ice-cold_ water," "_half-dead_ traveler," "_unlooked-for_ burden,"
"_next-door_ neighbor," "_ivory-handled_ pistols," "the
_cold-shudder-inspiring_ Woman in White."
(3) PROPER ADJECTIVES, derived from proper nouns; such as, "an old
_English_ manuscript," "the _Christian_ pearl of charity," "the
well-curb had a _Chinese_ roof," "the _Roman_ writer Palladius."
(4) PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES, which are either pure participles used to
describe, or participles which have lost all verbal force and have no
function except to express quality. Examples are,--
_Pure participial adjectives_: "The _healing_ power of the Messiah,"
"The _shattering_ sway of one strong arm," "_trailing_ clouds," "The
_shattered_ squares have opened into line," "It came on like the
_rolling_ simoom," "God tempers the wind to the _shorn_ lamb."
_Faded participial adjectives_: "Sleep is a _blessed_ thing;" "One is
hungry, and another is _drunken_;" "under the _fitting_ drapery of the
jagged and trailing clouds;" "The clearness and quickness are
_amazing_;" "an _aged_ man;" "a _charming_ sight."
[Sidenote: _Caution._]
144. Care is needed, in studying these last-named words, to
distinguish between a participle that forms part of a verb, and a
participle or participial adjective that belongs to a noun.
For instance: in the sentence, "The work was well and rapidly
accomplished," _was accomplished_ is a verb; in this, "No man of his
day was more brilliant or more accomplished," _was_ is the verb, and
_accomplished_ is an adjective.
Exercises.
1. Bring up sentences with twenty descriptive adjectives, having some
of each subclass named in Sec. 143.
2. Is the italicized word an adjective in this?--
The old sources of intellectual excitement seem to be well-nigh
_exhausted_.
ADJECTIVES OF QUANTITY.
145. Adjectives of quantity tell _how much_ or _how many_. They have
these three subdivisions:--
[Sidenote: _How much._]
(1) QUANTITY IN BULK: such words as _little_, _much_, _some_, _no_,
_any_, _considerable_, sometimes _small_, joined usually to singular
nouns to express an indefinite measure of the thing spoken of.
The following examples are from Kingsley:--
So he parted with _much_ weeping of the lady.
Which we began to do with _great_ labor and _little_ profit.
Because I had _some_ knowledge of surgery and blood-letting.
But ever she looked on Mr. Oxenham, and seemed to take _no_
care as long as he was by.
Examples of _small_ an adjective of quantity:--
"The deil's in it but I bude to anger him!" said the woman, and
walked away with a laugh of _small_ satisfaction.--MACDONALD.
'Tis midnight, but _small_ thoughts have I of sleep.--COLERIDGE.
It gives _small_ idea of Coleridge's way of talking.--CARLYLE.
When _some_, _any_, _no_, are used with plural nouns, they come under
the next division of adjectives.
[Sidenote: _How many._]
(2) QUANTITY IN NUMBER, which may be expressed exactly by numbers or
remotely designated by words expressing indefinite amounts. Hence the
natural division into--
(_a_) _Definite numerals_; as, "_one_ blaze of musketry;" "He found in
the pathway _fourteen_ Spaniards;" "I have lost _one_ brother, but I
have gained _fourscore_;" "_a dozen_ volunteers."
(_b_) _Indefinite numerals_, as the following from Kingsley: "We gave
_several_ thousand pounds for it;" "In came some five and twenty more,
and with them _a few_ negroes;" "Then we wandered for _many_ days;"
"Amyas had evidently _more_ schemes in his head;" "He had lived by
hunting for _some_ months;" "That light is far too red to be the
reflection of _any_ beams of hers."
[Sidenote: _Single ones of any number of changes._]
(3) DISTRIBUTIVE NUMERALS, which occupy a place midway between the
last two subdivisions of numeral adjectives; for they are indefinite
in telling how many objects are spoken of, but definite in referring
to the objects one at a time. Thus,--
_Every_ town had its fair; _every_ village, its wake.--THACKERAY.
An arrow was quivering in _each_ body.--KINGSLEY.
Few on _either_ side but had their shrewd scratch to show.--_Id._
Before I taught my tongue to wound
My conscience with a sinful sound,
Or had the black art to dispense
A _several_ sin to _every_ sense.--VAUGHAN.
Exercise.--Bring up sentences with ten adjectives of quantity.
DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES.
[Sidenote: _Not primarily pronouns._]
146. The words of this list are placed here instead of among
pronominal adjectives, for the reason that they are felt to be
primarily adjectives; their pronominal use being evidently a
shortening, by which the words point out but stand for words omitted,
instead of modifying them. Their natural and original use is to be
joined to a noun following or in close connection.
[Sidenote: _The list._]
The demonstrative adjectives are _this_, _that_, (plural _these_,
_those_), _yonder_ (or _yon_), _former_, _latter_; also the pairs
_one_ (or _the one_)--_the other_, _the former_--_the latter_, used to
refer to two things which have been already named in a sentence.
[Sidenote: _Examples._]
The following sentences present some examples:--
The bashful virgin's sidelong looks of love, The matron's glance
that would _those_ looks reprove.--GOLDSMITH.
These were thy charms...but all _these_ charms are fled.--_Id._
About _this_ time I met with an odd volume of the
"Spectator."--B. FRANKLIN.
_Yonder_ proud ships are not means of annoyance to you.--D.
WEBSTER.
_Yon_ cloud with _that_ long purple cleft.--WORDSWORTH.
I chose for the students of Kensington two characteristic
examples of early art, of equal skill; but in _the one_ case,
skill which was progressive--in _the other_, skill which was at
pause.--RUSKIN.
Exercise.--Find sentences with five demonstrative adjectives.
[Sidenote: _Ordinal numerals classed under demonstratives._]
147. The class of numerals known as ordinals must be placed here,
as having the same function as demonstrative adjectives. They point
out which thing is meant among a series of things mentioned. The
following are examples:--
The _first_ regular provincial newspapers appear to have been
created in the last decade of the _seventeenth_ century, and by
the middle of the _eighteenth_ century almost every important
provincial town had its local organ.--BANCROFT.
These do not, like the other numerals, tell _how many_ things are
meant. When we speak of the seventeenth century, we imply nothing as
to how many centuries there may be.
PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES.
[Sidenote: _Definition._]
148. As has been said, pronominal adjectives are primarily
pronouns; but, when they _modify_ words instead of referring to them
as antecedents, they are changed to adjectives. They are of two
kinds,--RELATIVE and INTERROGATIVE,--and are used to join sentences or
to ask questions, just as the corresponding pronouns do.
[Sidenote: _Modify names of persons or things._]
149. The RELATIVE ADJECTIVES are _which_ and _what_; for example,--
It matters not _what_ rank he has, _what_ revenues or garnitures.
--CARLYLE.
The silver and laughing Xenil, careless _what_ lord should
possess the banks that bloomed by its everlasting
course.--BULWER.
The taking of _which_ bark. I verily believe, was the ruin of
every mother's son of us.--KINGSLEY.
In _which_ evil strait Mr. Oxenham fought desperately.--_Id._
[Sidenote: _Indefinite relative adjectives._]
150. The INDEFINITE RELATIVE adjectives are _what_, _whatever_,
_whatsoever_, _whichever_, _whichsoever_. Examples of their use are,--
He in his turn tasted some of its flavor, which, make _what_ sour
mouths he would for pretense, proved not altogether displeasing
to him.--LAMB.
_Whatever_ correction of our popular views from insight, nature
will be sure to bear us out in.--EMERSON.
_Whatsoever_ kind of man he is, you at least give him full
authority over your son.--RUSKIN.
Was there, as it rather seemed, a circle of ominous shadow moving
along with his deformity, _whichever_ way he turned
himself?--HAWTHORNE.
New torments I behold, and new tormented
Around me, _whichsoever_ way I move,
And _whichsoever_ way I turn, and gaze.
--LONGFELLOW (FROM DANTE).
151. The INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES are _which_ and _what_. They may
be used in direct and indirect questions. As in the pronouns, _which_
is selective among what is known; _what_ inquires about things or
persons not known.
[Sidenote: _In direct questions._]
Sentences with _which_ and _what_ in direct questions:--
_Which_ debt must I pay first, the debt to the rich, or the debt
to the poor?--EMERSON.
But when the Trojan war comes, _which_ side will you take?
--THACKERAY.
But _what_ books in the circulating library circulate?--LOWELL.
_What_ beckoning ghost along the moonlight shade
Invites my steps, and points to yonder glade?--POPE.
[Sidenote: _In indirect questions._]
Sentences with _which_ and _what_ in indirect questions:--
His head...looked like a weathercock perched upon his spindle
neck to tell _which_ way the wind blew.--IRVING.
A lady once remarked, he [Coleridge] could never fix _which_ side
of the garden walk would suit him best.--CARLYLE.
He was turned before long into all the universe, where it was
uncertain _what_ game you would catch, or whether any.--_Id._
At _what_ rate these materials would be distributed and
precipitated in regular strata, it is impossible to
determine.--AGASSIZ.
[Sidenote: _Adjective_ what _in exclamations_.]
152. In exclamatory expressions, _what_ (or _what a_) has a force
somewhat like a descriptive adjective. It is neither relative nor
interrogative, but might be called an EXCLAMATORY ADJECTIVE; as,--
Oh, _what a_ revolution! and _what a_ heart must I have, to
contemplate without emotion that elevation and that fall!--BURKE.
_What a_ piece of work is man!--SHAKESPEARE.
And yet, alas, the making of it right, _what a_ business for long
time to come!--CARLYLE
Through _what_ hardships it may attain to bear a sweet
fruit!--THOREAU.
Exercise.--Find ten sentences containing pronominal adjectives.
INFLECTIONS OF ADJECTIVES.
153 .Adjectives have two inflections,--number and comparison.
NUMBER.--_This_, _That_.
[Sidenote: _History of_ this--these _and_ that--those.]
154. The only adjectives having a plural form are _this_ and _that_
(plural _these_, _those_).
_This_ is the old demonstrative; _that_ being borrowed from the forms
of the definite article, which was fully inflected in Old English. The
article _that_ was used with neuter nouns.
In Middle English the plural of _this_ was _this_ or _thise_, which
changed its spelling to the modern form _these_.
[Sidenote: Those _borrowed from_ this.]
But _this_ had also another plural, _thās_ (modern _those_). The old
plural of _that_ was _tha_ (Middle English _tho_ or _thow_):
consequently _tho_ (plural of _that_) and _those_ (plural of _this_)
became confused, and it was forgotten that _those_ was really the
plural of _this_; and in Modern English we speak of _these_ as the
plural of _this_, and _those_ as the plural of _that_.
COMPARISON.
155. Comparison is an inflection not possessed by nouns and
pronouns: it belongs to adjectives and adverbs.
[Sidenote: _Meaning of comparison._]
When we place two objects side by side, we notice some differences
between them as to size, weight, color, etc. Thus, it is said that a
cow is _larger_ than a sheep, gold is _heavier_ than iron, a sapphire
is _bluer_ than the sky. All these have certain qualities; and when we
compare the objects, we do so by means of their qualities,--cow and
sheep by the quality of largeness, or size; gold and iron by the
quality of heaviness, or weight, etc.,--but not the same degree, or
amount, of the quality.
The degrees belong to any beings or ideas that may be known or
conceived of as possessing quality; as, "untamed thought, great,
giant-like, enormous;" "the commonest speech;" "It is a nobler valor;"
"the largest soul."
Also words of quantity may be compared: for example, "more matter,
with less wit;" "no fewer than a hundred."
[Sidenote: _Words that cannot be compared._]
156. There are some descriptive words whose meaning is such as not
to admit of comparison; for example,--
His company became very agreeable to the brave old professor of
arms, whose _favorite_ pupil he was.--THACKERAY.
A _main_ difference betwixt men is, whether they attend their own
affair or not.--EMERSON
It was his business to administer the law in its _final_ and
closest application to the offender--HAWTHORNE.
Freedom is a _perpetual, organic, universal_ institution, in
harmony with the Constitution of the United States.--SEWARD.
So with the words _sole_, _sufficient_, _infinite_, _immemorial_,
_indefatigable_, _indomitable_, _supreme_, and many others.
It is true that words of comparison are sometimes prefixed to them,
but, strictly considered, they are not compared.
[Sidenote: _Definition._]
157. Comparison means the changes that words undergo to express
degrees in quality, or amounts in quantity.
[Sidenote: _The two forms._]
158. There are two forms for this inflection: the comparative,
expressing a greater degree of quality; and the superlative,
expressing the greatest degree of quality.
These are called degrees of comparison.
These are properly the only degrees, though the simple, uninflected
form is usually called the positive degree.
159. The comparative is formed by adding _-er_, and the superlative
by adding _-est_, to the simple form; as, _red_, _redder_, _reddest_;
_blue_, _bluer_, _bluest_; _easy_, _easier_, _easiest_.
[Sidenote: _Substitute for inflection in comparison._]
160. Side by side with these inflected forms are found comparative
and superlative expressions making use of the adverbs more and
most. These are often useful as alternative with the inflected
forms, but in most cases are used before adjectives that are never
inflected.
They came into use about the thirteenth century, but were not common
until a century later.
[Sidenote: _Which rule_,-- -er _and_ -est _or_ more _and_ most?]
161. The English is somewhat capricious in choosing between the
inflected forms and those with _more_ and _most_, so that no
inflexible rule can be given as to the formation of the comparative
and the superlative.
The general rule is, that monosyllables and easily pronounced words of
two syllables add _-er_ and _-est_; and other words are preceded by
_more_ and _most_.
But room must be left in such a rule for pleasantness of sound and for
variety of expression.
To see how literary English overrides any rule that could be given,
examine the following taken at random:--
From Thackeray: "The _handsomest_ wives;" "the _immensest_ quantity of
thrashing;" "the _wonderfulest_ little shoes;" "_more odd, strange_,
and yet familiar;" "_more austere_ and _holy_."
From Ruskin: "The sharpest, finest chiseling, and _patientest_
fusing;" "_distantest_ relationships;" "_sorrowfulest_ spectacles."
Carlyle uses _beautifulest_, _mournfulest_, _honestest_,
_admirablest_, _indisputablest_, _peaceablest_, _most small_, etc.
These long, harsh forms are usually avoided, but _more_ and _most_ are
frequently used with monosyllables.
162. Expressions are often met with in which a superlative form does
not carry the superlative meaning. These are equivalent usually to
_very_ with the positive degree; as,--
To this the Count offers a _most wordy_ declaration of the
benefits conferred by Spain.--_The Nation_, No 1507
In all formulas that Johnson could stand by, there needed to be a
_most genuine_ substance.--CARLYLE
A gentleman, who, though born in no very high degree, was _most
finished_, _polished_, _witty_, _easy_, _quiet_.--THACKERAY
He had actually nothing else save a rope around his neck, which
hung behind in the _queerest_ way.--_Id._
"So help me God, madam, I will," said Henry Esmond, falling on
his knees, and kissing the hand of his _dearest_ mistress.--_Id._
[Sidenote: _Adjectives irregularly compared._]
163. Among the variously derived adjectives now in our language
there are some which may always be recognized as native English. These
are adjectives irregularly compared.
Most of them have worn down or become confused with similar words, but
they are essentially the same forms that have lived for so many
centuries.
The following lists include the majority of them:--
LIST I.
1. Good or well Better Best
2. Evil, bad, ill Worse Worst
3. Little Less, lesser Least
4. Much or many More Most
5. Old Elder, older Eldest, oldest
6. Nigh Nigher Nighest, next
7. Near Nearer Nearest
8. Far Farther, further Farthest, furthest
9. Late Later, latter Latest, last
10. Hind Hinder Hindmost, hindermost
LIST II.
These have no adjective positive:--
1. [In] Inner Inmost, innermost
2. [Out] Outer, utter {Outmost, outermost
{Utmost, uttermost
3. [Up] Upper Upmost, uppermost
LIST III.
A few of comparative form but not comparative meaning:--
After Over Under Nether
Remarks on Irregular Adjectives.
[Sidenote: _List I._]
164. (1) The word good has no comparative or superlative, but takes
the place of a positive to _better_ and _best_. There was an old
comparative _bet_, which has gone out of use; as in the sentence (14th
century), "Ich singe _bet_ than thu dest" (I sing better than thou
dost). The superlative I form was _betst_, which has softened to the
modern _best_.
(2) In Old English, evil was the positive to _worse_, _worst_; but
later _bad_ and _ill_ were borrowed from the Norse, and used as
positives to the same comparative and superlative. _Worser_ was once
used, a double comparative; as in Shakespeare,--
O, throw away the _worser_ part of it.--HAMLET.
(3) Little is used as positive to _less_, _least_, though from a
different root. A double comparative, _lesser_, is often used; as,--
We have it in a much _lesser_ degree.--MATTHEW ARNOLD.
Thrust the _lesser_ half by main force into the fists of Ho-ti.
--LAMB.
(4) The words much and many now express quantity; but in former
times _much_ was used in the sense of _large_, _great_, and was the
same word that is found in the proverb, "Many a little makes _a
mickle_." Its spelling has been _micel_, _muchel_, _moche_, _much_,
the parallel form _mickle_ being rarely used.
The meanings _greater_, _greatest_, are shown in such phrases as,--
The _more_ part being of one mind, to England we
sailed.--KINGSLEY.
The _most_ part kept a stolid indifference.--_Id._
The latter, meaning _the largest part_, is quite common.
(5) The forms elder, eldest, are earlier than _older_, _oldest_. A
few other words with the vowel _o_ had similar change in the
comparative and superlative, as _long_, _strong_, etc.; but these have
followed _old_ by keeping the same vowel _o_ in all the forms, instead
of _lenger_, _strenger_, etc., the old forms.
(6) and (7) Both nigh and near seem regular in Modern English,
except the form _next_; but originally the comparison was _nigh_,
_near_, _next_. In the same way the word high had in Middle English
the superlative _hexte_.
By and by the comparative _near_ was regarded as a positive form, and
on it were built a double comparative _nearer_, and the superlative
_nearest_, which adds _-est_ to what is really a comparative instead
of a simple adjective.
(8) These words also show confusion and consequent modification,
coming about as follows: further really belongs to another
series,--_forth_, _further_, _first_. First became entirely
detached from the series, and _furthest_ began to be used to follow
the comparative _further_; then these were used as comparative and
superlative of _far_.
The word far had formerly the comparative and superlative _farrer_,
_farrest_. In imitation of _further_, _furthest_, _th_ came into the
others, making the modern _farther_, _farthest_. Between the two sets
as they now stand, there is scarcely any distinction, except perhaps
_further_ is more used than _farther_ in the sense of _additional_;
as, for example,--
When that evil principle was left with no _further_ material to
support it.--HAWTHORNE.
(9) Latter and last are the older forms. Since _later_, _latest_,
came into use, a distinction has grown up between the two series.
_Later_ and _latest_ have the true comparative and superlative force,
and refer to time; _latter_ and _last_ are used in speaking of
succession, or series, and are hardly thought of as connected in
meaning with the word _late_.
(10) Hinder is comparative in form, but not in meaning. The form
_hindmost_ is really a double superlative, since the _m_ is for _-ma_,
an old superlative ending, to which is added _-ost_, doubling the
inflection. _Hind-er-m-ost_ presents the combination comparative +
superlative + superlative.
[Sidenote: _List II._]
165. In List II. (Sec. 163) the comparatives and superlatives are
adjectives, but they have no adjective positives.
The comparatives are so in form, but not in their meaning.
The superlatives show examples again of double inflection, and of
comparative added to double-superlative inflection.
Examples (from Carlyle) of the use of these adjectives: "revealing the
_inner_ splendor to him;" "a mind that has penetrated into the
_inmost_ heart of a thing;" "This of painting is one of the
_outermost_ developments of a man;" "The _outer_ is of the day;"
"far-seeing as the sun, the _upper_ light of the world;" "the
_innermost_ moral soul;" "their _utmost_ exertion."
[Sidenote: -Most _added to other words_.]
166. The ending _-most_ is added to some words that are not usually
adjectives, or have no comparative forms.
There, on the very _topmost_ twig, sits that ridiculous but
sweet-singing bobolink.--H.W. BEECHER.
Decidedly handsome, having such a skin as became a young woman of
family in _northernmost_ Spain.--DE QUINCEY.
Highest and _midmost_, was descried The royal banner floating
wide.--SCOTT.
[Sidenote: _List III._]
167. The adjectives in List III. are like the comparative forms in
List II. in having no adjective positives. They have no superlatives,
and have no comparative force, being merely descriptive.
Her bows were deep in the water, but her _after_ deck was still
dry.--KINGSLEY.
Her, by the by, in _after_ years I vainly endeavored to
trace.--DE QUINCEY.
The upper and the _under_ side of the medal of Jove.--EMERSON.
Have you ever considered what a deep _under_ meaning there lies
in our custom of strewing flowers?--RUSKIN.
Perhaps he rose out of some _nether_ region.--HAWTHORNE.
_Over_ is rarely used separately as an adjective.
CAUTION FOR ANALYZING OR PARSING.
[Sidenote: _Think what each adjective belongs to._]
168. Some care must be taken to decide what word is modified by an
adjective. In a series of adjectives in the same sentence, all may
belong to the same noun, or each may modify a different word or group
of words.
For example, in this sentence, "The young pastor's voice was
tremulously sweet, rich, deep, and broken," it is clear that all four
adjectives after _was_ modify the noun _voice_. But in this sentence,
"She showed her usual prudence and her usual incomparable decision,"
_decision_ is modified by the adjective _incomparable_; _usual_
modifies _incomparable decision_, not _decision_ alone; and the
pronoun _her_ limits _usual incomparable decision_.
Adjectives modifying the same noun are said to be of the _same rank_;
those modifying different words or word groups are said to be
adjectives of _different rank_. This distinction is valuable in a
study of punctuation.
Exercise.
In the following quotations, tell what each adjective modifies:--
1. Whenever that look appeared in her wild, bright, deeply black
eyes, it invested them with a strange remoteness and
intangibility.--HAWTHORNE.
2. It may still be argued, that in the present divided state of
Christendom a college which is positively Christian must be
controlled by some religious denomination.--NOAH PORTER.
3. Every quaking leaf and fluttering shadow sent the blood
backward to her heart.--MRS. STOWE.
4. This, our new government, is the first in the history of the
world based upon this great physical, philosophical, and moral
truth.--A.H. STEPHENS
5. May we not, therefore, look with confidence to the ultimate
universal acknowledgment of the truths upon which our system
rests?--_Id._
6. A few improper jests and a volley of good, round, solid,
satisfactory, and heaven-defying oaths.--HAWTHORNE.
7. It is well known that the announcement at any private rural
entertainment that there is to be ice cream produces an immediate
and profound impression.--HOLMES.
ADVERBS USED AS ADJECTIVES.
169. By a convenient brevity, adverbs are sometimes used as
adjectives; as, instead of saying, "the one who was then king," in
which _then_ is an adverb, we may say "the _then_ king," making _then_
an adjective. Other instances are,--
My _then_ favorite, in prose, Richard Hooker.--RUSKIN.
Our _sometime_ sister, now our queen.--SHAKESPEARE
Messrs. Bradbury and Evans, the _then_ and _still_ owners.
--TROLLOPE.
The _seldom_ use of it.--TRENCH.
For thy stomach's sake, and thine _often_ infirmities.--_Bible._
HOW TO PARSE ADJECTIVES.
[Sidenote: _What to tell in parsing._]
170. Since adjectives have no gender, person, or case, and very few
have number, the method of parsing is simple.
In parsing an adjective, tell--
(1) The class and subclass to which it belongs.
(2) Its number, if it has number.
(3) Its degree of comparison, if it can be compared.
(4) What word or words it modifies.
MODEL FOR PARSING.
These truths are not unfamiliar to your thoughts.
_These_ points out _what_ truths, therefore demonstrative; plural
number, having a singular, _this_; cannot be compared; modifies the
word _truths_.
_Unfamiliar_ describes _truths_, therefore descriptive; not inflected
for number; compared by prefixing _more_ and _most_; positive degree;
modifies _truths_.
Exercise.
Parse in full each adjective in these sentences:--
1. A thousand lives seemed concentrated in that one moment to
Eliza.
2. The huge green fragment of ice on which she alighted pitched
and creaked.
3. I ask nothing of you, then, but that you proceed to your end
by a direct, frank, manly way.
4. She made no reply, and I waited for none.
5. A herd of thirty or forty tall ungainly figures took their
way, with awkward but rapid pace, across the plain.
6. Gallantly did the lion struggle in the folds of his terrible
enemy, whose grasp each moment grew more fierce and secure, and
most astounding were those frightful yells.
7. This gave the young people entire freedom, and they enjoyed it
to the fullest extent.
8. I will be as harsh as truth and as uncompromising as justice.
9. To every Roman citizen he gives, To every several man,
seventy-five drachmas.
10. Each member was permitted to entertain all the rest on his or
her birthday, on which occasion the elders of the family were
bound to be absent.
11. Instantly the mind inquires whether these fishes under the
bridge, yonder oxen in the pasture, those dogs in the yard, are
immutably fishes, oxen, and dogs.
12. I know not what course others may take.
13. With every third step, the tomahawk fell.
14. What a ruthless business this war of extermination is!
15. I was just emerging from that many-formed crystal country.
16. On what shore has not the prow of your ships dashed?
17. The laws and institutions of his country ought to have been
more to him than all the men in his country.
18. Like most gifted men, he won affections with ease.
19. His letters aim to elicit the inmost experience and outward
fortunes of those he loves, yet are remarkably self-forgetful.
20. Their name was the last word upon his lips.
21. The captain said it was the last stick he had seen.
22. Before sunrise the next morning they let us out again.
23. He was curious to know to what sect we belonged.
24. Two hours elapsed, during which time I waited.
25. In music especially, you will soon find what personal benefit
there is in being serviceable.
26. To say what good of fashion we can, it rests on reality, and
hates nothing so much as pretenders.
27. Here lay two great roads, not so much for travelers that were
few, as for armies that were too many by half.
28. On whichever side of the border chance had thrown Joanna, the
same love to France would have been nurtured.
29. What advantage was open to him above the English boy?
30. Nearer to our own times, and therefore more interesting to
us, is the settlement of our own country.
31. Even the topmost branches spread out and drooped in all
directions, and many poles supported the lower ones.
32. Most fruits depend entirely on our care.
33. Even the sourest and crabbedest apple, growing in the most
unfavorable position, suggests such thoughts as these, it is so
noble a fruit.
34. Let him live in what pomps and prosperities he like, he is no
literary man.
35. Through what hardships it may bear a sweet fruit!
36. Whatsoever power exists will have itself organized.
37. A hard-struggling, weary-hearted man was he.
ARTICLES.
171. There is a class of words having always an adjectival use in
general, but with such subtle functions and various meanings that they
deserve separate treatment. In the sentence, "He passes an ordinary
brick house on the road, with an ordinary little garden," the words
_the_ and _an_ belong to nouns, just as adjectives do; but they cannot
be accurately placed under any class of adjectives. They are nearest
to demonstrative and numeral adjectives.
[Sidenote: _Their origin._]
172. The article the comes from an old demonstrative adjective
(_sē_, _sēo_, _ðat_, later _thē_, _thēo_, _that_) which was also an
article in Old English. In Middle English _the_ became an article, and
_that_ remained a demonstrative adjective.
An or a came from the old numeral _ān_, meaning _one_.
[Sidenote: _Two relics._]
Our expressions _the one_, _the other_, were formerly _that one_,
_that other_; the latter is still preserved in the expression, in
vulgar English, _the tother_. Not only this is kept in the Scotch
dialect, but the former is used, these occurring as _the tane, the
tother_, or _the tane, the tither_; for example,--
We ca' her sometimes _the tane_, sometimes _the tother_.--SCOTT.
[Sidenote: An _before vowel sounds_, a _before consonant sounds_.]
173. Ordinarily _an_ is used before vowel sounds, and _a_ before
consonant sounds. Remember that a _vowel sound_ does not necessarily
mean beginning with a vowel, nor does _consonant sound_ mean
beginning with a consonant, because English spelling does not
coincide closely with the sound of words. Examples: "_a_ house," "_an_
orange," "_a_ European," "_an_ honor," "_a_ yelling crowd."
[Sidenote: An _with consonant sounds_.]
174. Many writers use _an_ before _h_, even when not silent, when
the word is not accented on the first syllable.
_An_ historian, such as we have been attempting to describe,
would indeed be an intellectual prodigy.--MACAULAY.
The Persians were _an_ heroic people like the Greeks.--BREWER.
He [Rip] evinced _an_ hereditary disposition to attend to
anything else but his business.--IRVING.
_An_ habitual submission of the understanding to mere events and
images.--COLERIDGE.
_An_ hereditary tenure of these offices.--THOMAS JEFFERSON.
[Sidenote: _Definition._]
175. An article is a limiting word, not descriptive, which cannot
be used alone, but always joins to a substantive word to denote a
particular thing, or a group or class of things, or any individual of
a group or class.
[Sidenote: _Kinds._]
176. Articles are either definite or indefinite.
The is the definite article, since it points out a particular
individual, or group, or class.
An or a is the indefinite article, because it refers to any one of
a group or class of things.
An and a are different forms of the same word, the older _ān_.
USES OF THE DEFINITE ARTICLE.
[Sidenote: _Reference to a known object._]
177. The most common use of the definite article is to refer to an
object that the listener or reader is already acquainted with; as in
the sentence,--
Don't you remember how, when _the_ dragon was infesting _the_
neighborhood of Babylon, _the_ citizens used to walk dismally out
of evenings, and look at _the_ valleys round about strewed with
_the_ bones?--THACKERAY.
NOTE.--This use is noticed when, on opening a story, a person is
introduced by _a_, and afterwards referred to by _the_:--
By and by _a_ giant came out of the dark north, and lay down on
the ice near Audhumla.... _The_ giant frowned when he saw the
glitter of the golden hair.--_Heroes of Asgard._
[Sidenote: _With names of rivers._]
178. _The_ is often prefixed to the names of rivers; and when the
word _river_ is omitted, as "_the_ Mississippi," "_the_ Ohio," the
article indicates clearly that a river, and not a state or other
geographical division, is referred to.
No wonder I could face _the_ Mississippi with so much courage
supplied to me.--THACKERAY.
The Dakota tribes, doubtless, then occupied the country southwest
of _the_ Missouri.--G. BANCROFT.
[Sidenote: _To call attention to attributes._]
179. When _the_ is prefixed to a proper name, it alters the force of
the noun by directing attention to _certain qualities_ possessed by
the person or thing spoken of; thus,--
_The_ Bacon, _the_ Spinoza, _the_ Hume, Schelling, Kant, or
whosoever propounds to you a philosophy of the mind, is only a
more or less awkward translator of things in your
consciousness.--EMERSON.
[Sidenote: _With plural of abstract nouns._]
180. _The_, when placed before the pluralized abstract noun, marks
it as half abstract or a common noun.
[Sidenote: _Common._]
His messages to _the_ provincial _authorities_.--MOTLEY.
[Sidenote: _Half abstract._]
He was probably skilled in _the subtleties_ of Italian
statesmanship.--_Id._
[Sidenote: _With adjectives used as nouns._]
181. When _the_ precedes adjectives of the positive degree used
substantively, it marks their use as common and plural nouns when they
refer to persons, and as singular and abstract when they refer to
qualities.
1. _The simple_ rise as by specific levity, not into a particular
virtue, but into the region of all the virtues.--EMERSON.
2. If _the good_ is there, so is _the evil_.--_Id._
[Sidenote: _Caution._]
NOTE.--This is not to be confused with words that have shifted from
adjectives and become pure nouns; as,--
As she hesitated to pass on, _the gallant_, throwing his cloak
from his shoulders, laid it on the miry spot.--SCOTT.
But De Soto was no longer able to abate the confidence or punish
the temerity of _the natives_.--G. BANCROFT.
[Sidenote: _One thing for its class._]
182. _The_ before class nouns may mark one thing as a representative
of the class to which it belongs; for example,--
The faint, silvery warblings heard over the partially bare and
moist fields from _the bluebird_, _the song sparrow_, and _the
redwing_, as if the last flakes of winter tinkled as they
fell!--THOREAU.
In the sands of Africa and Arabia _the camel_ is a sacred and
precious gift.--GIBBON.
[Sidenote: _For possessive person pronouns._]
183. _The_ is frequently used instead of the possessive case of the
personal pronouns _his_, _her_, etc.
More than one hinted that a cord twined around _the head_, or a
match put between _the fingers_, would speedily extract the
required information.--KINGSLEY.
_The_ mouth, and the region of the mouth, were about the
strongest features in Wordsworth's face.--DE QUINCEY.
[Sidenote: The _for_ a.]
184. In England and Scotland _the_ is often used where we use _a_,
in speaking of measure and price; as,--
Wheat, the price of which necessarily varied, averaged in the
middle of the fourteenth century tenpence _the bushel_, barley
averaging at the same time three shillings _the
quarter_.--FROUDE.
[Sidenote: _A very strong restrictive._]
185. Sometimes _the_ has a strong force, almost equivalent to a
descriptive adjective in emphasizing a word,--
No doubt but ye are _the_ people, and wisdom shall die with
you.--_Bible._
As for New Orleans, it seemed to me _the_ city of the world where
you can eat and drink the most and suffer the least.--THACKERAY.
He was _the_ man in all Europe that could (if any could) have
driven six-in-hand full gallop over Al Sirat.--DE QUINCEY.
[Sidenote: _Mark of a substantive._]
186. _The_, since it belongs distinctively to substantives, is a
sure indication that a word of verbal form is not used participially,
but substantively.
In the hills of Sacramento there is gold for _the
gathering_.--EMERSON.
I thought _the writing_ excellent, and wished, if possible, to
imitate it.--FRANKLIN.
[Sidenote: _Caution._]
187. There is one use of _the_ which is different from all the
above. It is an adverbial use, and is spoken of more fully in Sec.
283. Compare this sentence with those above:--
There was something ugly and evil in his face, which they had not
previously noticed, and which grew still _the more obvious_ to
the sight _the oftener_ they looked upon him.--HAWTHORNE.
Exercise.--Find sentences with five uses of the definite article.
USES OF THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE.
[Sidenote: _Denotes any one of a class._]
188. The most frequent use of the indefinite article is to denote
any one of a class or group of objects: consequently it belongs to
singular words; as in the sentence,--
Near the churchyard gate stands _a_ poor-box, fastened to _a_
post by iron bands and secured by _a_ padlock, with _a_ sloping
wooden roof to keep off the rain.--LONGFELLOW
[Sidenote: _Widens the scope of proper nouns._]
189. When the indefinite article precedes proper names, it alters
them to class names. The qualities or attributes of the object are
made prominent, and transferred to any one possessing them; as,--
The vulgar riot and debauchery, which scarcely disgraced _an
Alcibiades_ or _a Cæsar_, have been exchanged for the higher
ideals of _a Bayard_ or _a Sydney_.--PEARSON
[Sidenote: _With abstract nouns._]
190. _An_ or _a_ before abstract nouns often changes them to half
abstract: the idea of quality remains, but the word now denotes only
one instance or example of things possessing the quality.
[Sidenote: _Become half abstract._]
The simple perception of natural forms is _a delight_.--EMERSON
If thou hadst _a sorrow_ of thine own, the brook might tell thee
of it.--HAWTHORNE
In the first sentence, instead of the general abstract notion of
delight, which cannot be singular or plural, _a delight_ means one
thing delightful, and implies others having the same quality.
So _a sorrow_ means one cause of sorrow, implying that there are
other things that bring sorrow.
[Sidenote: _Become pure class nouns._]
NOTE.--Some abstract nouns become common class nouns with the
indefinite article, referring simply to persons; thus,--
If the poet of the "Rape of the Lock" be not _a wit_, who
deserves to be called so?--THACKERAY.
He had a little brother in London with him at this time,--as
great _a beauty_, as great a dandy, as great a villain.--_Id._
_A youth_ to fortune and to fame unknown.--GRAY.
[Sidenote: _Changes material to class nouns._]
191. _An_ or _a_ before a material noun indicates the change to a
class noun, meaning one kind or a detached portion; as,--
They that dwell up in the steeple,...
Feel a glory in so rolling
On the human heart _a stone_.
--POE.
When God at first made man,
Having _a glass_ of blessings standing by.
--HERBERT.
The roofs were turned into arches of massy stone, joined by _a
cement_ that grew harder by time.--JOHNSON.
[Sidenote: _Like the numeral adjective_ one.]
192. In some cases _an_ or _a_ has the full force of the numeral
adjective _one_. It is shown in the following:--
To every room there was _an_ open and _a_ secret
passage.--JOHNSON.
In a short time these become a small tree, _an_ inverted pyramid
resting on the apex of the other.--THOREAU.
All men are at last of _a_ size.--EMERSON.
At the approach of spring the red squirrels got under my house,
two at _a_ time.--THOREAU.
[Sidenote: _Equivalent to the word_ each _or_ every.]
193. Often, also, the indefinite article has the force of _each_ or
_every_, particularly to express measure or frequency.
It would be so much more pleasant to live at his ease than to
work eight or ten hours _a day_.--BULWER
[Sidenote: _Compare to Sec. 184._]
Strong beer, such as we now buy for eighteenpence _a gallon_, was
then a penny _a gallon_.--FROUDE
[Sidenote: _With_ such, many, what.]
194. _An_ or _a_ is added to the adjectives _such_, _many_, and
_what_, and may be considered a part of these in modifying
substantives.
How was I to pay _such a_ debt?--THACKERAY.
_Many a_ one you and I have had here below.--THACKERAY.
_What a_ world of merriment then melody foretells!--POE.
[Sidenote: _With_ not _and_ many.]
195 LIST III.
A few of comparative form but not comparative meaning:--
After Over Under Nether.
_Not_ and _never_ with _a_ or _an_ are numeral adjectives,
instead of adverbs, which they are in general.
_Not a_ drum was heard, _not a_ funeral note.--WOLFE
My Lord Duke was as hot as a flame at this salute, but said
_never a_ word.--THACKERAY.
NOTE.--All these have the function of adjectives; but in the last
analysis of the expressions, _such_, _many_, _not_, etc., might be
considered as adverbs modifying the article.
[Sidenote: _With_ few _or_ little.]
196. The adjectives _few_ and _little_ have the negative meaning of
_not much_, _not many_, without the article; but when _a_ is put
before them, they have the positive meaning of _some_. Notice the
contrast in the following sentences:--
Of the country beyond the Mississippi _little_ more was known
than of the heart of Africa.--MCMASTER
To both must I of necessity cling, supported always by the hope
that when _a little_ time, _a few_ years, shall have tried me
more fully in their esteem, I may be able to bring them
together.--_Keats's Letters_.
_Few_ of the great characters of history have been so differently
judged as Alexander.--SMITH, _History of Greece_
[Sidenote: _With adjectives, changed to nouns_.]
197. When _the_ is used before adjectives with no substantive
following (Sec. 181 and note), these words are adjectives used as
nouns, or pure nouns; but when _an_ or _a_ precedes such words, they
are always nouns, having the regular use and inflections of nouns; for
example,--
Such are the words _a brave_ should use.--COOPER.
In the great society of wits, John Gay deserves to be _a
favorite_, and to have a good place.--THACKERAY
Only the name of one obscure epigrammatist has been embalmed for
use in the verses of _a rival_.--PEARSON.
Exercise.--Bring up sentences with five uses of the indefinite
article.
HOW TO PARSE ARTICLES.
198. In parsing the article, tell--
(1) What word it limits.
(2) Which of the above uses it has.
Exercise.
Parse the articles in the following:--
1. It is like gathering a few pebbles off the ground, or bottling
a little air in a phial, when the whole earth and the whole
atmosphere are ours.
2. Aristeides landed on the island with a body of Hoplites,
defeated the Persians and cut them to pieces to a man.
3. The wild fire that lit the eye of an Achilles can gleam no
more.
4. But it is not merely the neighborhood of the cathedral that is
mediæval; the whole city is of a piece.
5. To the herdsman among his cattle in remote woods, to the
craftsman in his rude workshop, to the great and to the little, a
new light has arisen.
6. When the manners of Loo are heard of, the stupid become
intelligent, and the wavering, determined.
7. The student is to read history actively, and not passively.
8. This resistance was the labor of his life.
9. There was always a hope, even in the darkest hour.
10. The child had a native grace that does not invariably coexist
with faultless beauty.
11. I think a mere gent (which I take to be the lowest form of
civilization) better than a howling, whistling, clucking,
stamping, jumping, tearing savage.
12. Every fowl whom Nature has taught to dip the wing in water.
13. They seem to be lines pretty much of a length.
14. Only yesterday, but what a gulf between now and then!
15. Not a brick was made but some man had to think of the making
of that brick.
16. The class of power, the working heroes, the Cortes, the
Nelson, the Napoleon, see that this is the festivity and
permanent celebration of such as they; that fashion is funded
talent.
VERBS AND VERBALS..
VERBS.
[Sidenote: _Verb,--the word of the sentence._]
199. The term _verb_ is from the Latin _verbum_ meaning _word_:
hence it is _the_ word of a sentence. A thought cannot be expressed
without a verb. When the child cries, "Apple!" it means, _See_ the
apple! or I _have_ an apple! In the mariner's shout, "A sail!" the
meaning is, "Yonder _is_ a sail!"
Sentences are in the form of declarations, questions, or commands; and
none of these can be put before the mind without the use of a verb.
[Sidenote: _One group or a group of words._]
200. The verb may not always be a single word. On account of the
lack of inflections, _verb phrases_ are very frequent. Hence the verb
may consist of:
(1) _One word_; as, "The young man _obeyed_."
(2) _Several words of verbal nature, making one expression_; as, (_a_)
"Some day it _may be considered_ reasonable," (_b_) "Fearing lest he
_might have been anticipated_."
(3) _One or more verbal words united with other words to compose one
verb phrase_: as in the sentences, (_a_) "They knew well that this
woman _ruled over_ thirty millions of subjects;" (_b_) "If all the
flummery and extravagance of an army _were done away with_, the money
could be made to go much further;" (_c_) "It is idle cant to pretend
anxiety for the better distribution of wealth until we can devise
means by which this preying upon people of small incomes _can be put a
stop to_."
In (_a_), a verb and a preposition are used as one verb; in (_b_), a
verb, an adverb, and a preposition unite as a verb; in (_c_), an
article, a noun, a preposition, are united with verbs as one verb
phrase.
[Sidenote: _Definition and caution._]
201. A verb is a word used as a predicate, to say something to or
about some person or thing. In giving a definition, we consider a verb
as one word.
Now, it is indispensable to the nature of a verb that it is "a word
used as a predicate." Examine the sentences in Sec. 200: In (1),
_obeyed_ is a predicate; in (2, _a_), _may be considered_ is a unit in
doing the work of one predicate; in (2, _b_), _might have been
anticipated_ is also one predicate, but _fearing_ is not a predicate,
hence is not a verb; in (3, _b_), _to go_ is no predicate, and not a
verb; in (3, _c_), _to pretend_ and _preying_ have something of
verbal nature in expressing action in a faint and general way, but
cannot be predicates.
In the sentence, "_Put_ money in thy purse," _put_ is the predicate,
with some word understood; as, "Put _thou_ money in thy purse."
VERBS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO MEANING AND USE.
TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS.
[Sidenote: _The nature of the transitive verb._]
202. By examining a few verbs, it may be seen that not all verbs are
used alike. All do not express action: some denote state or condition.
Of those expressing action, all do not express it in the same way; for
example, in this sentence from Bulwer,--"The proud lone _took_ care to
conceal the anguish she _endured_; and the pride of woman _has_ an
hypocrisy which _can deceive_ the most penetrating, and _shame_ the
most astute,"--every one of the verbs in Italics has one or more words
before or after it, representing something which it influences or
controls. In the first, lone _took_ what? answer, _care_; _endured_
what? _anguish_; etc. Each influences some object, which may be a
person, or a material thing, or an idea. _Has_ takes the object
_hypocrisy_; _can deceive_ has an object, _the most penetrating_;
(can) _shame_ also has an object, _the most astute_.
In each case, the word following, or the object, is necessary to the
completion of the action expressed in the verb.
All these are called transitive verbs, from the Latin _transire_,
which means _to go over_. Hence
[Sidenote: _Definition._]
203. A transitive verb is one which must have an object to complete
its meaning, and to receive the action expressed.
[Sidenote: _The nature of intransitive verbs._]
204. Examine the verbs in the following paragraph:--
She _sprang up_ at that thought, and, taking the staff which
always guided her steps, she _hastened_ to the neighboring shrine
of Isis. Till she _had been_ under the guardianship of the kindly
Greek, that staff _had sufficed_ to conduct the poor blind girl
from corner to corner of Pompeii.--BULWER
In this there are some verbs unlike those that have been examined.
_Sprang_, or _sprang up_, expresses action, but it is complete in
itself, does not affect an object; _hastened_ is similar in use; _had
been_ expresses condition, or state of being, and can have no object;
_had sufficed_ means _had been sufficient_, and from its meaning
cannot have an object.
Such verbs are called intransitive (not crossing over). Hence
[Sidenote: _Definition._]
205. An intransitive verb is one which is complete in itself, or
which is completed by other words without requiring an object.
[Sidenote: _Study_ use, _not_ form, _of verbs here._]
206. Many verbs can be either transitive or intransitive, according to
their use in the sentence, It can be said, "The boy _walked_ for two
hours," or "The boy _walked_ the horse;" "The rains _swelled_ the
river," or "The river _swelled_ because of the rain;" etc.
The important thing to observe is, many words must be distinguished as
transitive or intransitive by _use_, not by _form_.
207. Also verbs are sometimes made transitive by prepositions.
These may be (1) compounded with the verb; or (2) may follow the verb,
and be used as an integral part of it: for example,--
Asking her pardon for having _withstood_ her.--SCOTT.
I can wish myself no worse than to have it all to _undergo_ a
second time.--KINGSLEY.
A weary gloom in the deep caverns of his eyes, as of a child that
has _outgrown_ its playthings.--HAWTHORNE.
It is amusing to walk up and down the pier and _look at_ the
countenances passing by.--B. TAYLOR.
He was at once so out of the way, and yet so sensible, that I
loved, _laughed at_, and pitied him.--GOLDSMITH.
My little nurse told me the whole matter, which she had cunningly
_picked out_ from her mother.--SWIFT.
Exercises.
(_a_) Pick out the transitive and the intransitive verbs in the
following:--
1. The women and children collected together at a distance.
2. The path to the fountain led through a grassy savanna.
3. As soon as I recovered my senses and strength from so sudden a
surprise, I started back out of his reach where I stood to view him;
he lay quiet whilst I surveyed him.
4. At first they lay a floor of this kind of tempered mortar on the
ground, upon which they deposit a layer of eggs.
5. I ran my bark on shore at one of their landing places, which was a
sort of neck or little dock, from which ascended a sloping path or
road up to the edge of the meadow, where their nests were; most of
them were deserted, and the great thick whitish eggshells lay broken
and scattered upon the ground.
6. Accordingly I got everything on board, charged my gun, set sail
cautiously, along shore. As I passed by Battle Lagoon, I began to
tremble.
7. I seized my gun, and went cautiously from my camp: when I had
advanced about thirty yards, I halted behind a coppice of orange
trees, and soon perceived two very large bears, which had made their
way through the water and had landed in the grove, and were advancing
toward me.
(_b_) Bring up sentences with five transitive and five intransitive
verbs.
VOICE, ACTIVE AND PASSIVE.
[Sidenote: _Meaning of active voice._]
208. As has been seen, transitive verbs are the only kind that can
express action so as to go over to an object. This implies three
things,--the agent, or person or thing acting; the verb representing
the action; the person or object receiving the act.
In the sentence, "We reached the village of Sorgues by dusk, and
accepted the invitation of an old dame to lodge at her inn," these
three things are found: the actor, or agent, is expressed by _we_; the
action is asserted by _reached_ and _accepted_; the things acted upon
are _village_ and _invitation_. Here the subject is represented as
doing something. The same word is the subject and the agent. This use
of a transitive verb is called the active voice.
[Sidenote: _Definition._]
209. The active voice is that form of a verb which represents the
subject as acting; or
The active voice is that form of a transitive verb which makes the
_subject_ and the _agent_ the same word.
[Sidenote: _A question._]
210. Intransitive verbs are _always active voice_. Let the student
explain why.
[Sidenote: _Meaning of passive voice._]
211. In the assertion of an action, it would be natural to suppose,
that, instead of always representing the subject as acting upon some
person or thing, it must often happen that the subject is spoken of as
_acted upon_; and the person or thing acting may or may not be
expressed in the sentence: for example,--
All infractions of love and equity in our social relations are
speedily punished. They are punished by fear.--EMERSON.
Here the subject _infractions_ does nothing: it represents the object
toward which the action of _are punished_ is directed, yet it is the
subject of the same verb. In the first sentence the agent is not
expressed; in the second, _fear_ is the agent of the same action.
So that in this case, instead of having the agent and subject the same
word, we have the _object_ and _subject_ the same word, and the agent
may be omitted from the statement of the action.
_Passive_ is from the Latin word _patior_, meaning _to endure_ or
_suffer_; but in ordinary grammatical use _passive_ means _receiving
an action_.
[Sidenote: _Definition._]
212. The passive voice is that form of the verb which represents the
subject as being acted upon; or--
The passive voice is that form of the verb which represents the
_subject_ and the _object_ by the same word.
Exercises.
(_a_) Pick out the verbs in the active and the passive voice:--
1. In the large room some forty or fifty students were walking about
while the parties were preparing.
2. This was done by taking off the coat and vest and binding a great
thick leather garment on, which reached to the knees.
3. They then put on a leather glove reaching nearly to the shoulder,
tied a thick cravat around the throat, and drew on a cap with a large
visor.
4. This done, they were walked about the room a short time; their
faces all this time betrayed considerable anxiety.
5. We joined the crowd, and used our lungs as well as any.
6. The lakes were soon covered with merry skaters, and every afternoon
the banks were crowded with spectators.
7. People were setting up torches and lengthening the rafts which had
been already formed.
8. The water was first brought in barrels drawn by horses, till some
officer came and opened the fire plug.
9. The exclusive in fashionable life does not see that he excludes
himself from enjoyment, in the attempt to appropriate it.
(_b_) Find sentences with five verbs in the active and five in the
passive voice.
MOOD.
[Sidenote: _Definition._]
213. The word _mood_ is from the Latin _modus_, meaning _manner_,
_way_, _method_. Hence, when applied to verbs,--
Mood means the manner of conceiving and expressing action or being
of some subject.
[Sidenote: _The three ways._]
214. There are three chief ways of expressing action or being:--
(1) As a fact; this may be a question, statement, or assumption.
(2) As doubtful, or merely conceived of in the mind.
(3) As urged or commanded.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
[Sidenote: _Deals with facts._]
215. The term _indicative_ is from the Latin _indicare_ (to declare,
or assert). The indicative represents something as a fact,--
[Sidenote: _Affirms or denies._]
(1) _By declaring a thing to be true or not to be true_; thus,--
Distinction _is_ the consequence, never the object, of a great
mind.--ALLSTON.
I _do not remember_ when or by whom I _was taught_ to read;
because I _cannot_ and never _could recollect_ a time when I
_could not read_ my Bible.--D. WEBSTER.
[Sidenote: _Assumed as a fact._]
[Sidenote: _Caution._]
(2) _By assuming a thing to be true_ without declaring it to be so.
This kind of indicative clause is usually introduced by _if_ (meaning
_admitting that, granting that_, etc.), _though, although_, etc.
Notice that the action is not merely conceived as possible; it is
assumed to be a fact: for example,--
If the penalties of rebellion hung over an unsuccessful contest;
if America was yet in the cradle of her political existence; if
her population little exceeded two millions; if she was without
government, without fleets or armies, arsenals or magazines,
without military knowledge,--still her citizens had a just and
elevated sense of her rights.--A. HAMILTON.
(3) _By asking a question to find out some fact_; as,--
Is private credit the friend and patron of industry?--HAMILTON.
With respect to novels what shall I say?--N. WEBSTER.
[Sidenote: _Definition._]
216 .The indicative mood is that form of a verb which represents a
thing as a fact, or inquires about some fact.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
[Sidenote: _Meaning of the word._]
217. _Subjunctive_ means _subjoined_, or joined as dependent or
subordinate to something else.
[Sidenote: _This meaning is misleading._]
If its original meaning be closely adhered to, we must expect every
dependent clause to have its verb in the subjunctive mood, and every
clause _not_ dependent to have its verb in some other mood.
But this is not the case. In the quotation from Hamilton (Sec. 215, 2)
several subjoined clauses introduced by _if_ have the indicative mood,
and also independent clauses are often found having the verb in the
subjunctive mood.
[Sidenote: _Cautions._]
Three cautions will be laid down which must be observed by a student
who wishes to understand and use the English subjunctive:--
(1) You cannot tell it always by the form of the word. The main
difference is, that the subjunctive has no _-s_ as the ending of the
present tense, third person singular; as, "If he _come_."
(2) The fact that its clause is dependent or is introduced by certain
words will not be a safe rule to guide you.
(3) The _meaning_ of the verb itself must be keenly studied.
[Sidenote: _Definition._]
218. The subjunctive mood is that form or use of the verb which
expresses action or being, not as a fact, but as merely conceived of
in the mind.
Subjunctive in Independent Clauses.
I. Expressing a Wish.
219. The following are examples of this use:--
Heaven _rest_ her soul!--MOORE.
God _grant_ you find one face there You loved when all was
young.--KINGSLEY.
Now _tremble_ dimples on your cheek, Sweet _be_ your lips to
taste and speak.--BEDDOES.
Long _die_ thy happy days before thy death.--SHAKESPEARE.
II. A Contingent Declaration or Question.
220. This really amounts to the conclusion, or principal clause, in
a sentence, of which the condition is omitted.
Our chosen specimen of the hero as literary man [if we were to
choose one] _would be_ this Goethe.--CARLYLE.
I _could lie_ down like a tired child,
And _weep_ away the life of care
Which I have borne and yet must bear.--SHELLEY.
Most excellent stranger, as you come to the lakes simply to see
their loveliness, _might_ it not _be_ as well to ask after the
most beautiful road, rather than the shortest?--DE QUINCEY.
Subjunctive in Dependent Clauses.
I. Condition or Supposition.
221. The most common way of representing the action or being as
merely thought of, is by putting it into the form of a _supposition_
or _condition_; as,--
Now, if the fire of electricity and that of lightning _be_ the
same, this pasteboard and these scales may represent electrified
clouds.--FRANKLIN.
Here no assertion is made that the two things _are_ the same; but, if
the reader merely _conceives_ them for the moment to be the same, the
writer can make the statement following. Again,--
If it _be_ Sunday [supposing it to be Sunday], the peasants sit
on the church steps and con their psalm books.--LONGFELLOW.
STUDY OF CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.
222. There are three kinds of conditional sentences:--
[Sidenote: _Real or true._]
(1) Those in which an assumed or admitted fact is placed before the
mind in the form of a condition (see Sec. 215, 2); for example,--
If they _were_ unacquainted with the works of philosophers and
poets, they were deeply read in the oracles of God. If their
names _were not found_ in the registers of heralds, they were
recorded in the Book of Life.--MACAULAY.
[Sidenote: _Ideal,--may or may not be true._]
(2) Those in which the condition depends on something uncertain, and
_may or may not be regarded true, or be fulfilled_; as,--
If, in our case, the representative system ultimately _fail_,
popular government must be pronounced impossible.--D. WEBSTER.
If this _be_ the glory of Julius, the first great founder of the
Empire, so it is also the glory of Charlemagne, the second
founder.--BRYCE.
If any man _consider_ the present aspects of what is called by
distinction society, he will see the need of these ethics.
--EMERSON.
[Sidenote: _Unreal--cannot be true._]
(3) Suppositions _contrary to fact_, which cannot be true, or
conditions that cannot be fulfilled, but are presented only in order
to suggest what _might be_ or _might have been_ true; thus,--
If these things _were_ true, society could not hold together.
--LOWELL.
_Did not_ my writings _produce_ me some solid pudding, the great
deficiency of praise would have quite discouraged me.--FRANKLIN.
_Had_ he for once _cast_ all such feelings aside, and _striven_
energetically to save Ney, it _would have cast_ such an enhancing
light over all his glories, that we cannot but regret its
absence.--BAYNE.
NOTE.--Conditional sentences are usually introduced by _if_,
_though_, _except_, _unless_, etc.; but when the verb precedes
the subject, the conjunction is often omitted: for example,
"_Were I bidden_ to say how the highest genius could be most
advantageously employed," etc.
Exercise.
In the following conditional clauses, tell whether each verb is
indicative or subjunctive, and what kind of condition:--
1. The voice, if he speak to you, is of similar physiognomy,
clear, melodious, and sonorous.--CARLYLE.
2. Were you so distinguished from your neighbors, would you, do
you think, be any the happier?--THACKERAY.
3. Epaminondas, if he was the man I take him for, would have sat
still with joy and peace, if his lot had been mine.--EMERSON.
4. If a damsel had the least smattering of literature, she was
regarded as a prodigy.--MACAULAY.
5. I told him, although it were the custom of our learned in
Europe to steal inventions from each other,... yet I would take
such caution that he should have the honor entire.--SWIFT.
6. If he had reason to dislike him, he had better not have
written, since he [Byron] was dead.--N.P. WILLIS.
7. If it were prostrated to the ground by a profane hand, what
native of the city would not mourn over its fall?--GAYARRE.
8. But in no case could it be justified, except it be for a
failure of the association or union to effect the object for
which it was created.--CALHOUN.
II. Subjunctive of Purpose.
223. The subjunctive, especially _be_, _may_, _might_, and _should_,
is used to express purpose, the clause being introduced by _that_ or
_lest_; as,--
It was necessary, he supposed, to drink strong beer, that he
_might be_ strong to labor.--FRANKLIN.
I have been the more particular...that you _may compare_ such
unlikely beginnings with the figure I have since made
there.--_Id._
He [Roderick] with sudden impulse that way rode, To tell of what
had passed, lest in the strife They _should engage_ with Julian's
men.--SOUTHEY.
III. Subjunctive of Result.
224. The subjunctive may represent the result toward which an action
tends:--
So many thoughts move to and fro,
That vain it _were_ her eyes to close.
--COLERIDGE.
So live, that when thy summons comes to join
The innumerable caravan...
Thou _go_ not, like the quarry-slave at night.
--BRYANT.
IV. In Temporal Clauses.
225. The English subjunctive, like the Latin, is sometimes used in a
clause to express the time when an action is to take place.
Let it rise, till it _meet_ the sun in his coming.--D. WEBSTER.
Rise up, before it _be_ too late!--HAWTHORNE.
But it will not be long
Ere this _be thrown_ aside.
--WORDSWORTH.
V. In Indirect Questions.
226. The subjunctive is often found in indirect questions, the
answer being regarded as doubtful.
Ask the great man if there _be_ none greater.--EMERSON
What the best arrangement _were_, none of us could say.--CARLYLE.
Whether it _were_ morning or whether it _were_ afternoon, in her
confusion she had not distinctly known.--DE QUINCEY.
VI. Expressing a Wish.
227. After a verb of wishing, the subjunctive is regularly used in
the dependent clause.
The transmigiation of souls is no fable. I would it _were_!
--EMERSON.
Bright star! Would I _were_ steadfast as thou art!--KEATS.
I've wished that little isle _had_ wings,
And we, within its fairy bowers,
_Were wafted_ off to seas unknown.
--MOORE.
VII. In a Noun Clause.
[Sidenote: _Subject._]
228. The noun clause, in its various uses as subject, object, in
apposition, etc., often contains a subjunctive.
The essence of originality is not that it _be_ new.--CARLYLE
[Sidenote: _Apposition or logical subject._]
To appreciate the wild and sharp flavors of those October fruits,
it is necessary that you _be breathing_ the sharp October or
November air.--THOREAU.
[Sidenote: _Complement._]
The first merit, that which admits neither substitute nor
equivalent, is, that everything _be_ in its place.--COLERIDGE.
[Sidenote: _Object._]
As sure as Heaven shall rescue me, I have no thought what men
they _be_.--COLERIDGE.
Some might lament that I _were_ cold.--SHELLEY.
[Sidenote: _After verbs of commanding._]
This subjunctive is very frequent after verbs of _commanding_.
See that there _be_ no traitors in your camp.--TENNYSON.
Come, tell me all that thou hast seen,
And look thou _tell_ me true.
--SCOTT.
See that thy scepter _be_ heavy on his head.--DE QUINCEY.
VIII. Concessive Clauses.
229. The concession may be expressed--
(1) In the nature of the verb; for example,--
_Be_ the matter how it may, Gabriel Grub was afflicted with
rheumatism to the end of his days.--DICKENS.
_Be_ the appeal _made_ to the understanding or the heart, the
sentence is the same--that rejects it.--BROUGHAM
(2) By an indefinite relative word, which may be
(_a_) _Pronoun._
Whatever _betide_, we'll turn aside,
And see the Braes of Yarrow.
--WORDSWORTH.
(_b_) _Adjective._
That hunger of applause, of cash, or whatsoever victual it _may
be_, is the ultimate fact of man's life.--CARLYLE.
(_c_) _Adverb._
Wherever he _dream_ under mountain or stream,
The spirit he loves remains.
--SHELLEY.
Prevalence of the Subjunctive Mood.
230. As shown by the wide range of literature from which these
examples are selected, the subjunctive is very much used in literary
English, especially by those who are artistic and exact in the
expression of their thought.
At the present day, however, the subjunctive is becoming less and
less used. Very many of the sentences illustrating the use of the
subjunctive mood could be replaced by numerous others using the
indicative to express the same thoughts.
The three uses of the subjunctive now most frequent are, to express a
wish, a concession, and condition contrary to fact.
In spoken English, the subjunctive _were_ is much used in a wish or a
condition contrary to fact, but hardly any other subjunctive forms
are.
It must be remembered, though, that many of the verbs in the
subjunctive have the same form as the indicative. Especially is this
true of unreal conditions in past time; for example,--
Were we of open sense as the Greeks were, we _had found_ [should
have found] a poem here.--CARLYLE.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
[Sidenote: _Definition._]
231. The imperative mood is the form of the verb used in direct
commands, entreaties, or requests.
[Sidenote: _Usually second person._]
232. The imperative is naturally used mostly with the second
person, since commands are directed to a person addressed.
(1) _Command._
_Call up_ the shades of Demosthenes and Cicero to vouch for your
words; _point_ to their immortal works.--J.Q. ADAMS.
_Honor_ all men; _love_ all men; _fear_ none.--CHANNING.
(2) _Entreaty._
Oh, from these sterner aspects of thy face
_Spare_ me and mine, nor _let_ us need the wrath
Of the mad unchained elements.
--BRYANT.
(3) _Request._
"_Hush_! mother," whispered Kit. "_Come_ along with me."--DICKENS
_Tell_ me, how was it you thought of coming here?--_Id._
[Sidenote: _Sometimes with_ first person _in the plural_.]
But the imperative may be used with the plural of the first person.
Since the first person plural person is not really I + I, but I + you,
or I + they, etc., we may use the imperative with _we_ in a command,
request, etc., to _you_ implied in it. This is scarcely ever found
outside of poetry.
_Part we_ in friendship from your land,
And, noble earl, receive my hand.
--SCOTT.
Then _seek we_ not their camp--for there
The silence dwells of my despair.
--CAMPBELL.
_Break we_ our watch up.--SHAKESPEARE.
Usually this is expressed by _let_ with the objective: "_Let_ us go."
And the same with the third person: "_Let_ him be accursed."
Exercises on the Moods.
(_a_) Tell the mood of each verb in these sentences, and what special
use it is of that mood:--
1. Wherever the standard of freedom and independence has been or
shall be unfurled, there will her heart and her prayers be.
2. Mark thou this difference, child of earth!
While each performs his part,
Not all the lip can speak is worth
The silence of the heart.
3. Oh, that I might be admitted to thy presence! that mine were
the supreme delight of knowing thy will!
4. 'Twere worth ten years of peaceful life,
One glance at their array!
5. Whatever inconvenience ensue, nothing is to be preferred
before justice.
6. The vigorous sun would catch it up at eve
And use it for an anvil till he had filled
The shelves of heaven with burning thunderbolts.
7. Meet is it changes should control
Our being, lest we rust in ease.
8. Quoth she, "The Devil take the goose,
And God forget the stranger!"
9. Think not that I speak for your sakes.
10. "Now tread we a measure!" said young Lochinvar.
11. Were that a just return? Were that Roman magnanimity?
12. Well; how he may do his work, whether he do it right or
wrong, or do it at all, is a point which no man in the world has
taken the pains to think of.
13. He is, let him live where else he like, in what pomps and
prosperities he like, no literary man.
14. Could we one day complete the immense figure which these
flagrant points compose!
15. "Oh, then, my dear madam," cried he, "tell me where I may
find my poor, ruined, but repentant child."
16. That sheaf of darts, will it not fall unbound,
Except, disrobed of thy vain earthly vaunt,
Thou bring it to be blessed where saints and angels haunt?
17. Forget thyself to marble, till
With a sad leaden downward cast
Thou fix them on the earth as fast.
18. He, as though an instrument,
Blew mimic hootings to the silent owls,
That they might answer him.
19. From the moss violets and jonquils peep,
And dart their arrowy odor through the brain,
Till you might faint with that delicious pain.
20. That a man parade his doubt, and get to imagine that debating
and logic is the triumph and true work of what intellect he has;
alas! this is as if you should overturn the tree.
21. The fat earth feed thy branchy root
That under deeply strikes!
The northern morning o'er thee shoot,
High up in silver spikes!
22. Though abyss open under abyss, and opinion displace opinion,
all are at last contained in the Eternal cause.
23. God send Rome one such other sight!
24. "Mr. Marshall," continued Old Morgan, "see that no one
mentions the United States to the prisoner."
25. If there is only one woman in the nation who claims the right
to vote, she ought to have it.
26. Though he were dumb, it would speak.
27. Meantime, whatever she did,--whether it were in display of
her own matchless talents, or whether it were as one member of a
general party,--nothing could exceed the amiable, kind, and
unassuming deportment of Mrs. Siddons.
28. It makes a great difference to the force of any sentence
whether there be a man behind it or no.
(_b_) Find sentences with five verbs in the indicative mood, five in
the subjunctive, five in the imperative.
TENSE.
[Sidenote: _Definition._]
233. _Tense_ means _time_. The tense of a verb is the form or use
indicating the time of an action or being.
[Sidenote: _Tenses in English._]
Old English had only two tenses,--the present tense, which represented
present and future time; and the past tense. We still use the present
for the future in such expressions as, "I _go_ away to-morrow;" "If he
_comes_, tell him to wait."
But English of the present day not only has a tense for each of the
natural time divisions,--present, past, and future,--but has other
tenses to correspond with those of highly inflected languages, such as
Latin and Greek.
The distinct inflections are found only in the present and past
tenses, however: the others are compounds of verbal forms with
various helping verbs, called auxiliaries; such as _be_, _have_,
_shall_, _will_.
[Sidenote: _The tenses in detail._]
234. Action or being may be represented as occurring in present,
past, or future time, by means of the present, the past, and the
future tense. It may also be represented as _finished_ in present or
past or future time by means of the present perfect, past perfect, and
future perfect tenses.
Not only is this so: there are what are called definite forms of
these tenses, showing more exactly the time of the action or being.
These make the English speech even more exact than other languages, as
will be shown later on, in the conjugations.
PERSON AND NUMBER.
235. The English verb has never had full inflections for number and
person, as the classical languages have.
When the older pronoun _thou_ was in use, there was a form of the verb
to correspond to it, or agree with it, as, "Thou walk_est_," present;
"Thou walked_st_," past; also, in the third person singular, a form
ending in -_eth_, as, "It is not in man that walk_eth_, to direct his
steps."
But in ordinary English of the present day there is practically only
one ending for person and number. This is the third person, singular
number; as, "He walk_s_;" and this only in the present tense
indicative. This is important in questions of agreement when we come
to syntax.
CONJUGATION.
[Sidenote: _Definition._]
236. Conjugation is the regular arrangement of the forms of the
verb in the various voices, moods, tenses, persons, and numbers.
In classical languages, conjugation means _joining together_ the
numerous endings to the stem of the verb; but in English, inflections
are so few that conjugation means merely the exhibition of the forms
and the different verb phrases that express the relations of voice,
mood, tense, etc.
[Sidenote: _Few forms._]
237. Verbs in modern English have only four or five forms; for
example, _walk_ has _walk_, _walks_, _walked_, _walking_, sometimes
adding the old forms _walkest_, _walkedst_, _walketh_. Such verbs as
_choose_ have five,--_choose_, _chooses_, _chose_, _choosing_,
_chosen_ (old, _choosest_, _chooseth_, _chosest_).
The verb _be_ has more forms, since it is composed of several
different roots,--_am_, _are_, _is_, _were_, _been_, etc.
238. INFLECTIONS OF THE VERB _BE_.
Indicative Mood.
PRESENT TENSE. | PAST TENSE.
|
_Singular_ _Plural_ | _Singular_ _Plural_
|
1. I am We are | 1. I was We were
2. You are You are | 2. You were You were
(thou art) | (thou wast, wert)
3. [He] is [They] are | 3. [He] was [They were]
Subjunctive Mood.
PRESENT TENSE. | PAST TENSE.
|
_Singular_ _Plural_ | _Singular_ _Plural_
|
1. I be We be | 1. I were We were
2. You (thou) be You be | 2. You were You were
| (thou wert)
3. [He] be [They] be | 3. [He] were [They] were
Imperative Mood.
PRESENT TENSE, _Singular and Plural_, Be.
[Sidenote: _Remarks on the verb_ be.]
239. This conjugation is pieced out with three different roots: (1)
_am_, _is_; (2) _was_, _were_; (3) _be_.
Instead of the plural _are_, Old English had _beoth_ and _sind_ or
_sindon_, same as the German _sind_. _Are_ is supposed to have come
from the Norse language.
The old indicative third person plural _be_ is sometimes found in
literature, though it is usually a dialect form; for example,--
Where _be_ the sentries who used to salute as the Royal chariots
drove in and out?--THACKERAY
Where _be_ the gloomy shades, and desolate mountains?--WHITTIER
[Sidenote: _Uses of_ be.]
240. The forms of the verb _be_ have several uses:--
(1) _As principal verbs._
The light that never _was_ on sea and land.--WORDSWORTH.
(2) _As auxiliary verbs_, in four ways,--
(_a_) With verbal forms in _-ing_ (imperfect participle) to form the
definite tenses.
Broadswords _are maddening_ in the rear,--Each broadsword bright
_was brandishing_ like beam of light.--SCOTT.
(_b_) With the past participle in _-ed_, _-en_, etc., to form the
passive voice.
By solemn vision and bright silver dream,
His infancy _was nurtured_.
--SHELLEY.
(_c_) With past participle of intransitive verbs, being equivalent to
the present perfect and past perfect tenses active; as,
When we _are gone_
From every object dear to mortal sight.
--WORDSWORTH
We drank tea, which _was_ now _become_ an occasional
banquet.--GOLDSMITH.
(_d_) With the infinitive, to express intention, obligation,
condition, etc.; thus,
It _was to have been called_ the Order of Minerva.--THACKERAY.
Ingenuity and cleverness _are to be rewarded_ by State
prizes.--_Id._
If I _were to explain_ the motion of a body falling to the
ground.--BURKE
241. INFLECTIONS OF THE VERB _CHOOSE_.
Indicative Mood.
PRESENT TENSE.
_Singular._ _Plural._
1. I choose We choose
2. You choose You choose
3. [He] chooses [They] choose
PAST TENSE.
_Singular._ _Plural._
1. I chose We chose
2. You chose You chose
3. [He] chose [They] chose
Subjunctive Mood.
PRESENT TENSE.
_Singular._ _Plural._
1. I choose We choose
2. You choose You choose
3. [He] choose [They] choose
PAST TENSE.
_Singular._ _Plural._
1. I chose We chose
2. You chose You chose
3. [He] chose [They] chose
Imperative Mood.
PRESENT TENSE, _Singular and Plural_, Choose.
FULL CONJUGATION OF THE VERB _CHOOSE_.
[Sidenote: _Machinery of a verb in the voices, tenses, etc._]
242. In addition to the above _inflected_ forms, there are many
periphrastic or _compound_ forms, made up of auxiliaries with the
infinitives and participles. Some of these have been indicated in
Sec. 240, (2).
The ordinary tenses yet to be spoken of are made up as follows:--
(1) _Future tense_, by using _shall_ and _will_ with the simple or
root form of the verb; as, "I _shall be_," "He _will choose._"
(2) _Present perfect_, _past perfect_, _future perfect_, tenses, by
placing _have_, _had_, and _shall_ (or _will_) _have_ before the past
participle of any verb; as, "I _have gone_" (present perfect), "I _had
gone_" (past perfect), "I _shall have gone_" (future perfect).
(3) The _definite form_ of each tense, by using auxiliaries with the
imperfect participle active; as, "I _am running_," "They _had been
running_."
(4) The _passive forms_, by using the forms of the verb _be_ before
the past participle of verbs; as, "I _was chosen_," "You _are
chosen_."
243. The following scheme will show how rich our language is in verb
phrases to express every variety of meaning. Only the third person,
singular number, of each tense, will be given.
ACTIVE VOICE.
Indicative Mood.
_Present._ He chooses.
_Present definite._ He is choosing.
_Past._ He chose.
_Past definite._ He was choosing.
_Future._ He will choose.
_Future definite._ He will be choosing.
_Present perfect._ He has chosen.
_Present perfect definite._ He has been choosing.
_Past perfect._ He had chosen.
_Past perfect definite._ He had been choosing.
_Future perfect._ He will have chosen.
_Future perfect definite._ He will have been choosing.
Subjunctive Mood.
_Present._ [If, though, he choose.
_Present definite._ lest, etc.] he be choosing.
_Past._ " he chose (or were to choose).
_Past definite._ " he were choosing
(or were to be choosing).
_Present perfect._ " he have chosen.
_Present perfect definite._ " he have been choosing.
_Past perfect._ " Same as indicative.
_Past perfect definite._ " " "
Imperative Mood.
_Present._ (2d per.) Choose.
_Present definite._ " Be choosing.
NOTE.--Since participles and infinitives are not really verbs, but
verbals, they will be discussed later (Sec. 262).
PASSIVE VOICE.
Indicative Mood.
_Present._ He is chosen.
_Present definite._ He is being chosen.
_Past._ He was chosen.
_Past definite._ He was being chosen.
_Future._ He will be chosen.
_Future definite._ None.
_Present perfect._ He has been chosen.
_Present perfect definite._ None.
_Past perfect._ He had been chosen.
_Past perfect definite._ None.
_Future perfect._ He will have been chosen.
_Future perfect definite._ None.
Subjunctive Mood.
_Present._. [If, though, he be chosen.
_Present definite._ lest, etc.] None.
_Past._ " he were chosen
(or were to be chosen).
_Past definite._ " he were being chosen.
_Present perfect._ " he have been chosen.
_Present perfect definite._ " None.
_Past Perfect._ " he had been chosen.
_Past perfect definite._ " None.
Imperative Mood.
_Present tense._ (2d per.) Be chosen.
Also, in _affirmative sentences_, the indicative present and past
tenses have emphatic forms made up of _do_ and _did_ with the
infinitive or simple form; as, "He _does strike_," "He _did strike_."
[_Note to Teacher_.--This table is not to be learned now; if learned
at all, it should be as practice work on strong and weak verb forms.
Exercises should be given, however, to bring up sentences containing
such of these conjugation forms as the pupil will find readily in
literature.]
VERBS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO FORM.
[Sidenote: _Kinds._]
244. According to form, verbs are strong or weak.
[Sidenote: _Definition._]
A strong verb forms its past tense by changing the vowel of the
present tense form, but adds no ending; as, _run_, _ran_; _drive_,
_drove_.
A weak verb always adds an ending to the present to form the past
tense, and _may_ or _may not_ change the vowel: as, _beg_, _begged_;
_lay_, _laid_; _sleep_, _slept_; _catch_, _caught_.
245. TABLE OF STRONG VERBS.
NOTE. Some of these also have weak forms, which are in parentheses
_Present Tense._ _Past Tense._ _Past Participle._
abide abode abode
arise arose arisen
awake awoke (awaked) awoke (awaked)
bear bore {borne (active)
{born (passive)
begin began begun
behold beheld beheld
bid bade, bid bidden, bid
bind bound {bound,
{[_adj._ bounden]
bite bit bitten, bit
blow blew blown
break broke broken
chide chid chidden, chid
choose chose chosen
cleave clove, clave (cleft) cloven (cleft)
climb [clomb] climbed climbed
cling clung clung
come came come
crow crew (crowed) (crowed)
dig dug dug
do did done
draw drew drawn
drink drank {drunk, drank
{[_adj._ drunken]
drive drove driven
eat ate, eat eaten, eat
fall fell fallen
fight fought fought
find found found
fling flung flung
fly flew flown
forbear forbore forborne
forget forgot forgotten
forsake forsook forsaken
freeze froze frozen
get got got [gotten]
give gave given
go went gone
grind ground ground
grow grew grown
hang hung (hanged) hung (hanged)
hold held held
know knew known
lie lay lain
ride rode ridden
ring rang rung
run ran run
see saw seen
shake shook shaken
shear shore (sheared) shorn (sheared)
shine shone shone
shoot shot shot
shrink shrank or shrunk shrunk
shrive shrove shriven
sing sang or sung sung
sink sank or sunk sunk _[adj._ sunken]
sit sat [sate] sat
slay slew slain
slide slid slidden, slid
sling slung slung
slink slunk slunk
smite smote smitten
speak spoke spoken
spin spun spun
spring sprang, sprung sprung
stand stood stood
stave stove (staved) (staved)
steal stole stolen
stick stuck stuck
sting stung stung
stink stunk, stank stunk
stride strode stridden
strike struck struck, stricken
string strung strung
strive strove striven
swear swore sworn
swim swam or swum swum
swing swung swung
take took taken
tear tore torn
thrive throve (thrived) thriven (thrived)
throw threw thrown
tread trod trodden, trod
wear wore worn
weave wove woven
win won won
wind wound wound
wring wrung wrung
write wrote written
Remarks on Certain Verb Forms.
246. Several of the perfect participles are seldom used except as
adjectives: as, "his _bounden_ duty," "the _cloven_ hoof," "a
_drunken_ wretch," "a _sunken_ snag." _Stricken_ is used mostly of
diseases; as, "_stricken_ with paralysis."
The verb bear (to bring forth) is peculiar in having one participle
(_borne_) for the active, and another (_born_) for the passive. When
it means _to carry_ or to _endure_, _borne_ is also a passive.
The form clomb is not used in prose, but is much used in vulgar
English, and sometimes occurs in poetry; as,--
Thou hast _clomb_ aloft.--WORDSWORTH
Or pine grove whither woodman never _clomb_.--COLERIDGE
The forms of cleave are really a mixture of two verbs,--one meaning
_to adhere_ or _cling_; the other, _to split_. The former used to be
_cleave_, _cleaved_, _cleaved_; and the latter, _cleave_, _clave_ or
_clove_, _cloven_. But the latter took on the weak form _cleft_ in the
past tense and past participle,--as (from Shakespeare), "O Hamlet!
thou hast _cleft_ my heart in twain,"--while _cleave_ (to cling)
sometimes has _clove_, as (from Holmes), "The old Latin tutor _clove_
to Virgilius Maro." In this confusion of usage, only one set remains
certain,--_cleave_, _cleft_, _cleft_ (to split).
Crew is seldom found in present-day English.
Not a cock _crew_, nor a dog barked.--IRVING.
Our cock, which always _crew_ at eleven, now told us it was time
for repose.--GOLDSMITH.
Historically, drunk is the one correct past participle of the verb
_drink_. But _drunk_ is very much used as an adjective, instead of
_drunken_ (meaning intoxicated); and, probably to avoid confusion with
this, drank is a good deal used as a past participle: thus,--
We had each _drank_ three times at the well.--B. TAYLOR.
This liquor _was_ generally _drank_ by Wood and Billings.
--THACKERAY.
Sometimes in literary English, especially in that of an earlier
period, it is found that the verb eat has the past tense and past
participle _eat_ (ĕt), instead of _ate_ and _eaten_; as, for
example,--
It ate the food it ne'er had _eat_.--COLERIDGE.
How fairy Mab the junkets _eat_.--MILTON.
The island princes overbold
Have _eat_ our substance.--TENNYSON.
This is also very much used in spoken and vulgar English.
The form gotten is little used, _got_ being the preferred form of
past participle as well as past tense. One example out of many is,--
We _had_ all _got_ safe on shore.--DE FOE.
Hung and hanged both are used as the past tense and past
participle of _hang_; but _hanged_ is the preferred form when we speak
of execution by hanging; as,
The butler _was hanged_.--_Bible._
The verb sat is sometimes spelled _sate_; for example,--
Might we have _sate_ and talked where gowans blow.--WORDSWORTH.
He _sate_ him down, and seized a pen.--BYRON.
"But I _sate_ still and finished my plaiting."--KINGSLEY.
Usually shear is a weak verb. _Shorn_ and _shore_ are not commonly
used: indeed, _shore_ is rare, even in poetry.
This heard Geraint, and grasping at his sword,
_Shore_ thro' the swarthy neck.--TENNYSON.
_Shorn_ is used sometimes as a participial adjective, as "a _shorn_
lamb," but not much as a participle. We usually say, "The sheep were
_sheared_" instead of "The sheep were _shorn_."
Went is borrowed as the past tense of _go_ from the old verb _wend_,
which is seldom used except in poetry; for example,--
If, maiden, thou would'st _wend_ with me
To leave both tower and town.--SCOTT.
Exercises.
(_a_) From the table (Sec. 245), make out lists of verbs having the
same vowel changes as each of the following:--
1. Fall, fell, fallen.
2. Begin, began, begun.
3. Find, found, found.
4. Give, gave, given.