TORTOISES AND TURTLES.
The Galapagos--The Elephantine Tortoise--The Marsh-Tortoises--
Mantega--River-Tortoises--Marine-Turtles--On the Brazilian Coast--
Their Numerous Enemies--The Island of Ascension--Turtle-Catching
at the Bahama and Keeling Islands--Turtle caught by means of
the Sucking-Fish--The Green Turtle--The Hawksbill Turtle--
Turtle Scaling in the Feejee Islands--Barbarous mode of selling
Turtle-flesh in Ceylon--The Coriaceous Turtle--Its awful Shrieks.
In the South Sea, exposed to the vertical beams of the equatorial sun,
lies a large group of uninhabited islands, on whose sterile shores you
would look in vain for the palms, bananas, or bread-fruit trees of more
favoured lands, as rain falls only upon the heights, and never descends
to call forth plenty on the arid coasts.
[Illustration: AMBLYRHYNE.]
And yet, this desolate group offers many points of interest to the
naturalist, for the Galapagos or Tortoise Islands represent, as it
were, a little world in themselves, a peculiar creation of animals and
plants, reminding us, more strongly than the productions of any other
land, of an earlier epoch of planetary life. Here are no less than
twenty-six different species of land-birds, which, with one single
exception, are found nowhere else. Their plumage is homely, like the
flora of their native country; their tameness so great that they may be
killed with a stick. A sea-mew, likewise peculiar to this group, mixes
its shriek with the hoarse-resounding surge; lizards, existing in no
other country, swarm about the shore, and the gigantic land-tortoise
(_Testudo indica, elephantina_), although now spread over many other
countries, is supposed by Mr. Darwin to have had its original seat in
the Galapagos, where it was formerly found in such vast numbers as to
have given the group its Spanish name. If the seafarer visits these
treeless shores, which as yet produce nothing else worth gathering, it
is chiefly for the purpose of catching a few of these huge animals,
which, in spite of frequent persecutions, still amply reward a short
sojourn with a rich supply of fresh meat. Their capture costs nothing
but the trouble, for man has not yet drawn the boundary marks of
property over the tenantless land.
The elephantine tortoise inhabits as well the low and sterile country,
where it feeds on the fleshy leaves of the cactus, as the mountainous
regions where the moist trade-wind calls forth a richer vegetation of
ferns, grasses, and various trees. On this meagre food, which seems
hardly sufficient for a goat, it thrives so well that three men are
often scarcely able to lift it, and it not seldom furnishes more than
200 pounds of excellent meat.
‘The tortoise,’ says Mr. Darwin, ‘is very fond of water, drinking
large quantities, and wallowing in the mud. The larger islands alone
possess springs, and these are always situated towards the central
parts, and at a considerable elevation. The tortoises, therefore,
which frequent the lower districts, when thirsty, are obliged to
travel from a long distance. Their broad and well-beaten paths
radiate off in every direction, from the wells even down to the sea
coast, and the Spaniards, by following them up, first discovered
the watering places. When I landed at Chatham Island, I could not
imagine what animal travelled so methodically along the well-chosen
tracks. Near the springs it was a curious spectacle to behold many
of these great monsters, one set eagerly travelling onward with
outstretched necks, and another set returning after having drank
their fill. When the tortoise arrives at the spring, quite regardless
of any spectator, it buries its head in the water above the eyes,
and greedily swallows great mouthfuls, at the rate of about ten in
a minute. The inhabitants[27] say each animal stays three or four
days in the neighbourhood of the water, and then returns to the lower
country; but they differed in their accounts respecting the frequency
of these visits. The animal probably regulates them according to the
nature of the food which it has consumed. It is, however, certain that
tortoises can subsist even on those islands where there is no other
water than what falls during a few rainy days in the year. I believe it
is well ascertained that the bladder of the frog acts as a reservoir
for the moisture necessary to its existence--such seems to be the
case with the tortoise. For some time after a visit to the springs,
the urinary bladder of these animals is distended with fluid, which
is said gradually to decrease in volume, and to become less pure.
The inhabitants, when walking in the lower districts and overcome
with thirst, often take advantage of this circumstance by killing a
tortoise, and if the bladder is full, drinking its contents. In one I
saw killed, the fluid was quite limpid, and had only a very slightly
bitter taste.
‘The tortoises, when moving towards any definite point, travel by night
and day, and arrive at their journey’s end much sooner than would be
expected. The inhabitants, from observations on marked individuals,
consider that they can move a distance of about eight miles in two or
three days. One large tortoise, which I watched, I found walked at the
rate of sixty yards in ten minutes, that is, three hundred and sixty
in the hour, or four miles a day, allowing also a little time for it
to eat on the road. The flesh of this animal is largely employed, both
fresh and salted, and a beautifully clear oil is prepared from the fat.
‘When a tortoise is caught, the man makes a slit in the skin near its
tail, so as to see inside its body, whether the fat under the dorsal
plate is thick. If it is not, the animal is liberated, and it is said
to recover soon from this strange operation. In order to secure the
tortoises, it is not sufficient to turn them like turtle (their upper
buckler being highly arched, while it is more flattened in the aquatic
families, for the better adaptation of their forms to motion in a
liquid), for they are often able to regain their upright position.’
They are said to be completely deaf; so much is certain, that they do
not perceive a person even when walking close behind them. Mr. Darwin
often amused himself by overtaking the slow and monstrous creatures,
who, as soon as he had passed them, instantly withdrew their head
and legs, and fell flat down with a loud hiss and heavy noise as if
touched by lightning. He then mounted upon their back, and on giving
them a smart slap or two on the hind part of their carapace, they
rose and leisurely proceeded with their learned freight, the author
of ‘Origin of Species’ finding it very difficult to maintain his
equilibrium on this strange beast of burthen.
It is a remarkable fact, that though the land-tortoises are scattered
in many places over the warmer regions of the globe, and even extend
as far as Patagonia and the south of Europe, yet not a single one has
hitherto been found in Australia, where, equally strange to say, no
indigenous monkey exists.
[Illustration: MARSH TORTOISE. (EMYS PICTA.)]
The marsh tortoises, or _Emydæ_, have their chief seat in tropical
America and the Indian Archipelago, where an abundance of swamps,
lagoons, lakes, pools, and gently-flowing rivers favours the increase
of their numbers. In the month of September, as soon as the sand-banks
begin to be uncovered, the females deposit their eggs, scraping hollows
of a considerable depth, covering them over carefully, smoothing and
beating down the sand, and then walking across and across the place
in various directions, for the purpose of concealment. There are such
numbers of them, that some beaches are almost one mass of eggs beneath
the surface, and here the Indians come to make oil. A canoe is filled
with the eggs, which are all broken and mashed up together. The oil
rises to the top, and is skimmed off and boiled, when it will keep,
and is used both for light and for cooking. During this operation, the
neighbouring strand swarms with carrion vultures, and the smell of the
offal attracts also a number of alligators, eager to come in for their
share of the feast. Millions of eggs are thus annually destroyed, and
of those that remain a very small portion only arrives at maturity.
When the young tortoises issue from the egg and run to the water,
many enemies are awaiting them. Great alligators open their jaws, and
swallow them by hundreds; the jaguars and the smaller felidæ from the
forest come to feed upon them; eagles and buzzards and the great wood
ibises attend the feast, and when they have escaped all these, there
are many ravenous fishes which seize them in the stream.
The marsh-tortoises may be said to form the connecting link between the
eminently aquatic marine and river chelonians and the land-tortoises,
as the formation of their feet, armed with sharp claws or crooked
nails, and furnished with a kind of flexible web, connecting their
distinct and movable toes, allows them both to advance much quicker on
the dry land than the latter, and to swim rapidly either on the surface
or in the depth of the waters.
Endowed with more rapid powers of locomotion, they are not vegetarians,
like the land-tortoises, but chiefly live on mollusks, fishes, frogs,
toads, and annelides.
The river-tortoises differ in many respects from the sea-turtles,
although formed like them for a purely aquatic life. In both families
the extremities are complete fins, serving as oars, but the fore feet
of the river-tortoises are not double the length of the hind feet,
as we find in the marine chelonians; and while the latter have a
short apoplectic neck, that of the river-tortoise is generally very
long, and surmounted by a small and narrow head. The river-tortoises
are exclusively confined to the warmer countries of the globe, and
sometimes weigh as much as seventy pounds. It seems that during the
night, and when they fancy themselves secure from danger, they repose
upon the small river islands, or on rocks and trunks of trees that
have fallen on the banks, or are drifted along by the current, and
instantly plunge again into the water at the sight of man or at the
least alarming noise. They are extremely voracious, and being very
active swimmers, kill numbers of fish and reptiles. When they wish to
seize their food or to defend themselves, they dart forwards their head
and long neck with the velocity of lightning, and are said in this
manner to surprise and seize even small birds that incautiously fly too
near the surface of the water. They bite lustily with their sharp beak,
never quitting their hold till they have fairly scooped out the morsel,
so that the fishermen stand in great awe of their powerful mandibles,
and generally cut off their head as soon as they are caught, rightly
judging this to be the most radical means to prevent any further
mischief. The Indians of the Amazons catch them either with the hook,
net, or arrow. The last is the most ingenious method, and requires
the most skill. The tortoise never shows its back above water, only
rising to breathe, which it does by protruding its nostrils almost
imperceptibly above the surface. The Indian’s keen eye perceives this,
even at a considerable distance, but an arrow shot obliquely would
glance off the smooth flat shell, so he shoots up into the air with
such accurate judgment that the arrow falls nearly vertically upon
the shell, which it penetrates, and remains securely fixed in the
tortoise’s back. The head of the arrow fits loosely on to the shaft,
and is connected with it by a long fine cord, carefully wound round it;
as the tortoise dives they separate, the light shaft forming a float or
buoy which the Indian secures, and by the attached cord draws the prize
up into his canoe. In this manner almost all the tortoises sold in the
small settlements on the Amazons are procured, and the little square
vertical hole of the arrow-head may generally be seen in the shell.
The turtles, which are likewise inhabitants of the warmer latitudes,
though sometimes a strange erratic propensity or mischance will carry
them as far from their usual haunts as the North Sea, have, as we all
know, a far greater commercial and gastronomic value than all the rest
of the tortoise tribes.[28]
During the Brazilian summer (December, January, February), colossal
turtles are seen everywhere swimming about along the coast, raising
their thick round heads above the water, and waiting for the approach
of night to land. The neighbouring Indians are their bitterest enemies,
killing them whenever they can. Thus these dreary sand coasts, bounded
on one side by the ocean and on the other by gloomy primæval forests,
offer on all sides pictures of destruction, for the bones and shells
of slaughtered turtles everywhere bestrew the ground. Two parallel
grooves indicate the path of the turtle after landing; they are the
marks of the four large and long fin-shaped feet or paddles, and
between them may be seen a broad furrow where the heavy body trailed
along the ground. On following these traces about thirty or forty
yards shore-upwards, the huge animal may be found sitting in a flat
excavation formed by its circular movements, and in which one half
of its body is imbedded. It allows itself to be handled on all sides
without making the least attempt to move away, being probably taught
by instinct how useless all endeavours to escape would be. A blowing or
snorting like that of a goose when any one approaches its nest, at the
same time inflating its neck a little, are the sole signs of defence
which it exhibits.
On the small islands of Talong, on the coast of Borneo, Mr. Brooke had
an opportunity of seeing a turtle deposit its eggs. When on the sand it
wandered from place to place, and tried several by digging a little,
apparently rejecting them as unfit. At length, having made its choice,
it buried its nose, and began scooping the sand with its hinder feet in
a most deliberate and easy manner, throwing the sand to a considerable
distance. It often stopped in its work and recommenced, and so dug till
the body was pretty well buried, and the hole a depth of three or more
feet. It then took its station over the hole and began to lay its eggs,
which it did at intervals for a length of time, to the number of two
hundred and thirty, and all the while was perfectly indifferent to the
proximity of numerous spectators. Having deposited the eggs, it filled
the hole with its hinder fins, and beat down the sand both on the spot
and all around, and then retired, not _directly_ (for the track would
have been a guide to the nest), but in numerous tortuous courses,
round and round, and finally took its departure for the sea at a point
distant from its eggs. The Malays on watch have small sticks with flags
on them, and as each turtle deposits its eggs they mark the spot with
one of these, and the following morning take the eggs. With all their
vigilance, however, numbers escape their observation, and some nests
they purposely spare.
Similar scenes take place during the dry season throughout the whole
of the tropical zone, on every sandy, unfrequented coast: for the same
instinct which prompts the salmon to swim stream-upwards, the cod
to seek elevated submarine banks, or the penguin to leave the high
seas and settle for the summer on some dreary rock, attracts also the
turtles from distances of fifty or sixty leagues to the shores of
desert islands or solitary bays.
The enemies of the marine chelonians are no less numerous than those of
the terrestrial or fluviatile species. While the full-grown turtles,
as soon as they leave the water, are exposed to the attacks of many
ravenous beasts, from the wild dog to the tiger or jaguar; storks,
herons, and other strand- or sea-birds devour thousands upon thousands
of the young before they reach the ocean, where sharks and other greedy
fishes still further thin their ranks, so that but very few escape from
the general massacre, and the whole race can only maintain itself by
its great fecundity.
Of all the foes of the turtle-tribe there is, however, none more
formidable than man, as even on the most lonely islands the seafarer
lies in wait for them, eager to relieve the monotony of his coarse fare
by an abundant supply of their luscious flesh.
On the isle of Ascension, the head-quarters of the finest turtle in the
world, all the movements of the poor creatures are carefully watched,
and when, after having deposited their eggs in the sand, they waddle
again towards the sea, their retreat is often intercepted, for two
stout hands running up to the unfortunate turtle after the completion
of her task, one seizes a fore-flipper and dexterously shoves it under
her belly to serve as a purchase; whilst the other, avoiding a stroke
which might lame him, cants her over on her back, where she lies
helpless. From fifteen to thirty are thus turned in a night. In the
bays, when the surf or heavy rollers prevent the boats being beached to
take on board the turtles when caught, they are hauled out to them by
ropes.
In former times, as long as the island had neither master nor
inhabitants, every ship’s crew that landed helped itself to as many
turtles as it could catch; but since England has taken possession
of the island, turtle-turning has been converted into a Government
monopoly. They are kept in two large enclosures near the sea, which
flows in and out, through a breakwater of large stones. A gallows is
erected between the two ponds, where the turtles are slaughtered for
shipping, by suspending them by the hind-flippers and then cutting
their throats. Often above 300 turtles, of 400 lbs. and 500 lbs. each,
are lying on the sand or swimming about in the ponds--a fine sight for
an alderman.
The way by which the turtles are most commonly taken at the Bahama
Islands is by striking them with a small iron peg of two inches long,
put in a socket at the end of a staff of twelve feet long. Two men
usually set out for this work in a canoe, one to row and gently steer
the boat, while the other stands at the end of it with his weapon. The
turtles are sometimes discovered by their swimming with their head
and back out of the water, but they are more often seen lying at the
bottom a fathom or more deep. If a turtle perceives he is discovered,
he starts up to make his escape; the men in the boat, pursuing him,
endeavour to keep sight of him, which they often lose and recover again
by the turtle putting his nose out of the water to breathe.
On Keeling Island, Mr. Darwin witnessed another highly interesting
method of catching turtle.
‘I accompanied Captain Fitzroy to an island at the head of the lagoon,’
says the eminent naturalist; ‘the channel was exceedingly intricate,
winding through fields of delicately-branched corals. We saw several
turtles, and two boats were then employed in catching them. The method
is rather curious: the water is so clear and shallow that, although
at first a turtle quickly dives out of sight, yet in a canoe, or boat
under sail, the pursuers, after no very long chase, come up to it. A
man, standing ready in the bows, at this moment dashes through the
water upon the turtle’s back; then clinging with both hands by the
shell of the neck, he is carried away till the animal becomes exhausted
and is secured. It was quite an interesting chase to see the two boats
thus doubling about, and the men dashing into the water trying to seize
their prey.’
[Illustration: GREEN TURTLE.]
The Green turtle (_Chelonia midas_), which has been known to attain a
length of seven feet, and a weight of 900 lbs., is most prized for its
flesh; but the Hawksbill (_Chelonia imbricata_), which hardly reaches
one-third of the size, is of far greater commercial value, the plates
of its shell being stronger, thicker, and clearer than those of any
other species. It is caught all over the tropical seas, but principally
near the Moluccas, the West Indian, and the Feejee Islands, where it is
preserved in pens by the chiefs, who have a barbarous way of removing
the valuable part of the shell from the living animal. A burning brand
is held close to the outer shell, until it curls up and separates a
little from that beneath. Into the gap thus formed a small wooden wedge
is then inserted, by which the whole is easily removed from the back.
When stripped, the animal is again put into the pen, where it has full
time for the growth of a new shell--for though the operation appears
to give great pain, it is not fatal.
A similar cruel method of removing the tortoise’s shell by heat
is resorted to in Ceylon; but the mode in which the flesh of the
edible turtle is sold piecemeal, while it is still alive, by the
fishermen of that island, is still more repulsive, and a disgrace
to the Colonial Government which allows it to be openly practised.
‘The creatures,’ says Sir Emerson Tennent, ‘are to be seen in the
market-place undergoing this frightful mutilation, the plastron and
its integuments having been previously removed, and the animal thrown
on its back, so as to display all the motions of the heart, viscera,
and lungs. A broad knife, from twelve to eighteen inches in length,
is first inserted at the left side, and the women, who are generally
the operators, introduce one hand to scoop out the blood, which oozes
slowly. The blade is next passed round till the lower shell is detached
and placed to one side, and the internal organs exposed in full action.
Each customer, as he applies, is served with any part selected, which
is cut off as ordered, and sold by weight. Each of the fins is thus
successively removed, with portions of the fat and flesh, the turtle
showing by its contortions that each act of severance is productive of
agony. In this state it lies for hours writhing in the sun, the heart
and head being usually the last pieces selected; and till the latter is
cut off, the snapping of the mouth, and the opening and closing of the
eyes, show that life is still inherent, even when the shell has been
nearly divested of its contents.’
The Coriaceous turtle (_Sphargis coriacea_), of a more elongated form
than the other species, and whose outer covering, marked along its
whole length by seven distinct, prominent, and tuberculated ridges,
is not of a horny substance, but resembles strong leather, grows to
the greatest size of all the marine chelonians, some having been taken
above eight feet in length, and weighing no less than 1,600 lbs., so
that even the crocodile can hardly be compared to it in bulk.
[Illustration: LOGGERHEAD.]
While the land-tortoises can scarcely be said to have a voice, merely
hissing or blowing when irritated or seized, the Coriaceous turtle,
when taken in a net or seriously wounded, utters loud shrieks, or
cries, that may be heard at a considerable distance--a power which,
in an inferior degree, seems to belong to most of the fluviatile and
marine chelonians.
The turtles generally live on marine plants, but the Caouana, or
Loggerhead (_Chelonia caouana_), and the Hawksbill (_C. imbricata_),
feed on crustaceans and cuttle-fish, which they can easily crush in
their strong, horny beak. The Caouana and the Coriaceous turtles are
frequently found in the Mediterranean, and on the coasts of South
America and Africa. Both are of no commercial importance; their shell
is almost useless, and their flesh, which, like that of the alligator,
exhales a strong smell of musk, is extremely coarse and ill flavoured.
[Illustration: CROCODILES AND ALLIGATORS.]