THE PUNA, OR THE HIGH TABLE-LANDS OF PERU AND BOLIVIA.
Striking Contrast with the Llanos--Northern Character of their
Climate--The Chuñu--The Surumpe--The Veta: its Influence upon Man,
Horses, Mules, and Cats--The Vegetation of the Puna--The Maca--
The Llama: its invaluable Services--The Huanacu--The Alpaca--
The Vicuñas: Mode of Hunting Them--The Chacu--The Bolas--The
Chinchilla--The Condor--Wild Bulls and Wild Dogs--Lovely Mountain
Valleys.
Between the two mighty parallel mountain chains of the Cordillera and
the Andes,[3] the giant bulwarks of Western South America, we find,
extending throughout the whole length of Peru and Bolivia, at a height
of from ten to fourteen thousand feet above the level of the sea,
vast plateaus, or table-lands, which are named, in the language of
the country, the Puna, or ‘the Uninhabited.’ They present a striking
contrast to the Llanos of Venezuela; for though situated, like these
sultry plains, within the torrid zone, their great elevation paralyses
the effects of a vertical sun, and transfers the rigours of the north
to the very centre of the tropical world.
Their climate is hardly less bleak and winterly than that of the high
snow-ridges which bound them on either side. Cold winds sweep almost
constantly over their surface, and during four months of the year
they are daily visited by fearful storms. The suddenly darkened sky
discharges, under terrific thunder and lightning, enormous masses of
snow, until the sun breaks forth again. But soon the clouds obscure
its brilliancy; and thus winter and summer, here reign alternately,--
not, as in our temperate climes, during several months, but within the
short space of a single day. In a few hours the change of temperature
often amounts to forty or forty-five degrees, and the sudden fall of
the thermometer is rendered still more disagreeable to the traveller
by biting winds, which so violently irritate the skin of the hands
and face, that it springs open and bleeds from every fissure. An
intolerable burning and swelling accompany these wounds, so as to
prevent the use of the hands for several days. On the lips it is also
very disagreeable, as the pain increases by eating and speaking; and an
incautious laugh produces deep rents, which bleed for a long time and
heal with difficulty.
This evil, which is called _Chuñu_ by the Peruvian Indians, is also
very painful on the eyelids; but it becomes absolutely insupportable by
the addition of the _Surumpe_, a very acute and violent inflammation
of the eyes, caused by the sun’s reflection from the snow. In
consequence of the rarefied air and the biting winds, the visual
organs are constantly in a state of irritation, which renders them
far more sensitive to any strong light than would be the case in a
more congenial atmosphere. The rapid change from a clouded sky to
the brilliancy of a sunny snow-field, causes a painful stinging and
burning, which increases from minute to minute to such a degree,
that even the stoical Indian, when afflicted with this evil, will
sit down on the road-side and utter cries of anguish and despair.
Chronical ophthalmia, suppuration of the eyelids, and total blindness,
are the frequent consequences of an intense surumpe, against which
the traveller over the high lands carefully guards himself by green
spectacles or a dark veil.
A third plague of the wanderer in the Puna is the _Veta_, which is
occasioned by the great rarefaction of the air. Its first symptoms,
which generally appear at an elevation of 12,000 feet, consist in
giddiness, buzzing in the ear, headache, and nausea. Their intensity
increases with the elevation, and is aggravated by a lassitude,
which augments to such a degree as to render walking impossible, by
a great difficulty of respiration, and violent palpitation of the
heart. Absolute rest mitigates these symptoms; but on continuing the
journey they reappear with increased violence, and are then frequently
accompanied by fainting and vomiting. The capillary vessels of the eye,
nose, and lips burst, and emit drops of blood. The same phenomenon
appears also in the mucous membrane of the respiratory and digestive
organs; so that blood-spitting and bloody diarrhœa frequently accompany
the Veta, and are sometimes so violent as to cause death.
The influence of diminished atmospheric pressure likewise shows itself
in the horses that are unaccustomed to mountain travelling. They begin
to pace more slowly, frequently stand still, tremble all over, and fall
upon the ground. If not allowed to rest, they invariably die. By way of
a restorative their nostrils are slit open, which seems to be of use by
allowing a greater influx of air.
As the dry sand of the rainless coast prevents the putrefaction
of animal substances which are buried in it, the power of the dry
Puna-winds in a like manner arrests the progress of decomposition.
Under their influence, a dead mule changes in a few days into a mummy,
so that even the entrails do not exhibit the least sign of putrefaction.
It may easily be imagined that, under these circumstances, vegetation
can only appear in stunted proportions, and indeed the Puna presents
the monotonous aspect of a northern steppe, its whole surface being
covered with dun and meagre herbage, which at all times gives it
an autumnal or even wintry aspect. A few arid compositæ and yellow
echinocacti are quite unable to relieve the dreary landscape; and even
the large-flowered calceolarias, the blue gentians, the sweet-smelling
verbenas, and many other Alpine plants, the usual ornaments of the
higher mountain regions, are here almost suffocated by the dense
grasses. But rarely the eye meets with a solitary queñua tree
(_Polylepis racemosa_) of crippled growth, or with large spaces covered
with red-brown ratania shrubs, which are carefully collected for fuel,
or for roofing the wretched huts of the scanty population of these
desolate highlands.
The cold climate of the Puna naturally confines agriculture to very
narrow limits. The only cultivated plant which grows to maturity
is the Maca (a species of tropæolum), the tuberous roots of which
are used like the potato, and form in many parts the chief food of
the inhabitants. This plant grows best at an elevation of twelve or
thirteen thousand feet, and is not planted in the lower regions,
where its roots are said to be completely unpalatable. Barley is also
cultivated in the Puna, but never ripens, and is cut green for forage.
The animal kingdom is more amply represented; for there is no want of
food on the grass-covered plains, and wherever this exists, there is
room for the development of animals appropriate to the climate.
[Illustration: THE LLAMA.]
Thus the Llama and its near relations, the _Alpaca_, the _Huanacu_,
and the _Vicuña_, the largest four-footed animals which Peru possessed
before the Spaniards introduced the horse and the ox, are all natives
of the Puna. Long before the invasion of Pizarro, the llama was
used by the ancient Peruvians as a beast of burthen, and was not
less serviceable to them than the camel to the Arabs of the desert.
The wool served for the fabrication of a coarse cloth; the milk and
flesh, as food; the skin, as a warm covering or mantle; and without
the assistance of the llama, it would have been impossible for the
Indians to transport goods or provisions over the high table-lands of
the Andes, or for the Incas to have founded and maintained their vast
empire. The llama is also historically remarkable as being the only
animal domesticated by the aboriginal Americans. The reindeer of the
north[4] and the bison of the prairies enjoyed then, as they do now,
their savage independence: the llama alone was obliged to submit to the
yoke of man. But the llama reminds us of the dromedary not only by a
similar destiny and similar services, but also by a strong resemblance
in form and structure, so as to be classed by naturalists in the same
family. The unsightly hump is wanting, but the llama possesses the
same callosities on the breast and on the knees, the same divided
hoof and a similar formation of the toes and stomach. Thus Nature has
formed in the llama a species of mountain camel, admirably adapted to
the exigencies of a totally different soil and climate; and surely it
is not one of the least wonders of creation to see animals so similar
in many respects emerge, without any connecting links, at the opposite
extremities of the globe.
The ordinary load of the llama is about one hundred pounds, and its
rate of travelling with this burthen over rugged mountain passes is
from twelve to fifteen miles a-day. When overloaded it lies down, and
will not rise until relieved of part of its burthen. ‘The Indians,’
says Tschudi, ‘often travel with large herds of llamas to the coast
to fetch salt. Their journeys are very small, rarely more than three
or four leagues; for the llamas never feed after sunset, and are thus
obliged to graze while journeying, or to rest for several hours. While
reposing they utter a peculiar low tone, which at a distance resembles
the sound of an Æolian harp. A loaded herd of llamas traversing the
high table-lands affords an interesting spectacle. Slowly and stately
they proceed, casting inquisitive glances on every side. On seeing any
strange object which excites their fears, they immediately scatter
in every direction, and their poor drivers have great difficulty to
gather the herd.’ The Indians, who are very fond of these animals,
decorate their ears with ribbons, hang little bells about their necks,
and always caress them before placing the burthen on their back. When
one of them drops from fatigue, they kneel at its side and strive to
encourage it for further exertion by a profusion of flattering epithets
and gentle warnings. Yet, in spite of good treatment, a number of
llamas perish on the way to the coast or to the forests, as they cannot
stand the hot climate.
The _Huanacu_ is of a greater size than the llama, and resembles it
so much that it was supposed to be the wild variety until Tschudi,
in his ‘Fauna Peruana,’ pointed out the specific differences between
both. Its fleece is shorter and less fine; its colour brown, the under
parts being whitish--but varieties of colour are never observed, as in
the llama; the face is blackish grey, lighter and almost white about
the lips. The huanacus generally live in small troops of from five
to seven. They are very shy, but when caught young are easily tamed,
though they always remain spiteful, and can hardly ever be trained to
carry burthens.
The _Alpaca_ is smaller than the llama, and resembles the sheep; but
its neck is longer, and it has a more elegantly formed head. The wool
which, on account of its admirable qualities, is extensively used in
England, is very long, soft, fine, and of a silky lustre--sometimes
quite white or black, but often also variegated.
[Illustration: THE ALPACA.]
Shy, like the chamois or the steinbock, the _Vicuña_ inhabits the most
sequestered mountain-valleys of the Andes. It is of a more elegant
shape than the alpaca, with a longer and more graceful neck, and a more
curly wool of extreme fineness. During the rainy season, the vicuñas
retire to the crests of the Cordillera, where vegetation is reduced
to the scantiest limits; but they never venture on the bare summits,
as their hoof, accustomed to tread only on the turf, is very tender
and sensitive. When pursued, they never fly to the ice-fields, but
only along the grass-grown slopes. In the dry season, when vegetation
withers on the heights, they descend to seek their food along the
sources and swampy grounds. From six to fifteen she-vicuñas live under
the protection and guidance of a single male, who always remains a few
paces apart from his harem, and keeps watch with the most attentive
care. At the least approach of danger he immediately gives the alarm
by a shrill cry, and rapidly steps forward. The herd, immediately
assembling, turns inquisitively towards the side whence danger is
apprehended, and then, suddenly wheeling, flies, at first slowly,
and constantly looking back, but soon with unrivalled swiftness. The
male covers the retreat, frequently standing still and watching the
enemy. The females reward the faithful care of their leader with an
equally rare attachment; for when he is wounded or killed, they will
keep running round him with shrill notes of sorrow, and rather be shot
than flee. The cry of the vicuña is a peculiar whistle, which, though
greatly resembling the shrill neighing of the llama, may easily be
distinguished by a practised ear, when it suddenly pierces the thin air
of the Puna, even from a distance where the sharpest eye is no longer
able to distinguish the form of the animal.
The hunting of the vicuñas, which is very singular and interesting,
takes place in April or May. Each family in the Puna villages is
obliged to furnish the contingent of one of its members at least; and
the widows accompany the hunters, to serve as cooks. The whole troop,
frequently consisting of seventy or eighty persons, and carrying
bundles of poles and large quantities of cordage, sets out for the more
elevated plateaus, where the vicuñas are grazing. In an appropriate
spot the poles are fixed into the earth, at intervals of twelve or
fifteen paces, and united by the cordage, about two feet from the
ground. In this manner a circular space, called Chacu, of about half a
league in circumference, is enclosed, leaving on one side an entrance
several hundred paces wide. The women attach to the cordage coloured
rags, which wave to and fro in the wind. As soon as the Chacu is ready,
the men disperse, and forming a ring many miles in circumference, drive
all the intervening vicuña herds through the entrance into the circle,
which is closed as soon as a sufficient number has been collected. The
shy animals do not venture to spring over the cord and its fluttering
rags, and are thus easily killed by the bolas of the Indians. These
bolas consist of three balls of lead or stone, two of which are heavy,
and one lighter, each ball being attached to a long leather thong.
The thongs are knotted together at their free extremity. When used,
the lighter ball is taken in the hand, and the two others swung in a
wide circle over the head. At a certain distance from the mark, about
fifteen or twenty paces, the hand-ball is let loose, and then all three
fly in hissing circles towards the object which they are intended to
strike, and encompass it in their formidable embrace. The hindlegs of
the vicuñas are generally aimed at. It is no easy matter to throw the
bolas adroitly, particularly when on horseback; for the novice often
wounds either himself or his horse mortally, by not giving the balls
the proper swing, or letting them escape too soon from his hand. The
flesh of the vicuñas is divided in equal portions among the hunters.
When dried in the air, and then pounded and mixed with Spanish pepper,
its taste is not unpleasing. The Church, however, manages to get the
best part of the animal, for the priest generally appropriates the
skin. As soon as all the entrapped vicuñas are killed, the chacu is
taken to pieces, and set up again ten or twelve miles further off. The
whole chase lasts a week, and the number of the animals slaughtered
frequently amounts to several hundreds.
In the times of the Incas, the Puna chases were conducted on a much
grander scale. Annually from 25,000 to 30,000 Indians assembled, who
were obliged to drive all the wild animals from a circuit of more than
a hundred miles into an enormous chacu. As the circle narrowed, the
ranks of the Indians were doubled and trebled, so that no animal could
escape. The pernicious quadrupeds, such as bears, cuguars, and foxes,
were all killed, but only a limited number of stags, deer, vicuñas, and
huanacus; for the provident Incas did not lose sight of the wants of
futurity, and were more economical of the lives of animals than their
brutal successors, the Christian Spaniards, were of the lives of men.
In spite of the persecutions to which they are subject, not only from
hunters but from the ravenous condor, who frequently robs them of their
young, the vicuñas do not seem to diminish, and are often seen roaming
about in large numbers--the inaccessible wilds to which they are able
to retreat amply securing them against extermination.
[Illustration: CHINCHILLA.]
Besides these four remarkable Camelides, we find among the animals
peculiar to the Puna the stag-like Tarush (_Cervus antisiensis_); the
timid deer, who also descends from the high mountain-plains into the
coast-valleys and the forest region; the Viscachas and the Chinchillas.
The Peruvian Viscachas (_Lagidium peruanum_ and _pallipes_), live at an
elevation of from 10,000 to 12,000 feet, between 33° and 18° S. lat.,
and resemble the rabbit in form and colour, but have shorter ears and
a long rough tail. Their far is soft, but not nearly so fine as that
of the near-related Chinchilla (_Chinchilla lanigera_). This little
creature, which is somewhat larger than our squirrel, has large and
brilliant eyes, an erect tail, strong bristles on the upper lip, and
almost naked, rounded ears. It lives in burrows, feeding chiefly upon
roots, and is found in such numbers in the Chilian Andes that its holes
considerably increase the difficulty of travelling. The fur is too well
known to require any further description. Where ruminants and rodents
abound it may easily be imagined that beasts of prey will not be
wanting. The cunning fox (_Canis Azaræ_) waylays both the chinchillas
and the water-birds; and, impelled by hunger, the Puma, or American
lion, ascends even to the borders of eternal snow in quest of the
vicuña and the deer. But the monarch of the Puna is unquestionably the
mighty condor, who, soaring over the highest peaks of the Andes, sees
on one side the Pacific rolling its heavy breakers against the coast,
and on the other the Marañon vanishing in the hazy distance of the
primitive forest.
The frequent showers and snow-falls of the Puna naturally give rise to
numerous swamps and lagunes, which afford nourishment to an abundance
of birds,--such as the beautiful snow-white Huachua goose (_Chloéphaga
melanoptera_), with dark-green wings of a metallic lustre; the licli, a
species of plover; the ibis; the long-legged flamingo; the Quiulla gull
(_Larus serranus_), and the gigantic coot (_Fulica gigantea_), which,
unable to fly, dives in the cold waters, and builds its nest on the
solitary stones which rise above the surface.
To the aboriginal animals of the Puna man has added the horse, the
ox, the dog, and the sheep. In the more sheltered valleys there are
estates possessing from 60,000 to 80,000 sheep, and from 400 to 500
oxen. During the wet season the herds are driven into the Altos or
highest regions, often to a height of 15,000 feet; but when the frosty
nights of the dry period of the year parch the grass, they are obliged
to descend to the swampy valleys, where they have much to suffer from
hunger. In many parts of the Puna, wild bulls render travelling very
dangerous, as they sometimes rush upon man without any previous notice,
though they generally announce their approach by a hoarse bellowing.
But even then it is almost impossible to escape them in the open plain,
and more than once Tschudi was only able, by a well-aimed shot, to save
himself from the attack of one of these formidable animals.
Though not so dangerous, the half-wild Puna dogs (_Canis Ingæ_,
Tschudi) are extremely troublesome to the traveller,--false, spiteful
animals, which ferociously attack enemies far stronger than themselves;
and, like the bull-dog, will rather suffer themselves to be cut to
pieces than retreat. They have a particular antipathy to the white
race, and it is rather a bold undertaking for the European traveller to
approach the hut of an Indian that is guarded by these animals.
The frosts of winter and an eternal spring are nowhere found in closer
proximity than in the Peruvian highlands, for deep valleys cleave the
windy Puna; and when the traveller, benumbed by the cold blasts of
the mountain-plains, descends into these sheltered gorges he almost
suddenly finds himself transported from a northern climate to a
terrestrial paradise. Situated at a height where the enervating power
of the tropical sun is not felt, and where at the same time the air is
not too rarefied, these pleasant mountain vales, protected by their
rocky walls against the gusts of the Puna, enjoy all the advantages of
a genial sky. Here the astonished European sees himself surrounded by
the rich corn-fields, the green lucerne meadows, and the well-known
fruit trees of his distant home, so that he might almost fancy that
some friendly enchanter had transported him to his native country, if
the cactuses and the agaves on the mountain-slopes by day, and the
constellations of another hemisphere by night, did not remind him of
the vast distance which separates him from the land of his birth.
There are regions in this remarkable country where the traveller may
in the morning leave the snow-decked Puna hut, and before sunset pluck
pine-apples and bananas on the cultivated margin of the primeval
forest; where in the morning the stunted grasses and arid lichens of
the naked plain remind him of the arctic regions, and where he may
repose at night under the fronds of gigantic palms.
[Illustration: GUANO ISLAND.]