MUTUAL AID AMONGST OURSELVES
Popular revolts at the beginning of the State-period. Mutual Aid
institutions of the present time. The village community; its struggles
for resisting its abolition by the State. Habits derived from the
village-community life, retained in our modern villages. Switzerland,
France, Germany, Russia.
The mutual-aid tendency in man has so remote an origin, and is so deeply
interwoven with all the past evolution of the human race, that it has
been maintained by mankind up to the present time, notwithstanding all
vicissitudes of history. It was chiefly evolved during periods of peace
and prosperity; but when even the greatest calamities befell men--when
whole countries were laid waste by wars, and whole populations were
decimated by misery, or groaned under the yoke of tyranny--the same
tendency continued to live in the villages and among the poorer classes
in the towns; it still kept them together, and in the long run it
reacted even upon those ruling, fighting, and devastating minorities
which dismissed it as sentimental nonsense. And whenever mankind had to
work out a new social organization, adapted to a new phasis of
development, its constructive genius always drew the elements and the
inspiration for the new departure from that same ever-living tendency.
New economical and social institutions, in so far as they were a
creation of the masses, new ethical systems, and new religions, all have
originated from the same source, and the ethical progress of our race,
viewed in its broad lines, appears as a gradual extension of the
mutual-aid principles from the tribe to always larger and larger
agglomerations, so as to finally embrace one day the whole of mankind,
without respect to its divers creeds, languages, and races.
After having passed through the savage tribe, and next through the
village community, the Europeans came to work out in medieval times a
new form of organization, which had the advantage of allowing great
latitude for individual initiative, while it largely responded at the
same time to man's need of mutual support. A federation of village
communities, covered by a network of guilds and fraternities, was called
into existence in the medieval cities. The immense results achieved
under this new form of union--in well-being for all, in industries, art,
science, and commerce--were discussed at some length in two preceding
chapters, and an attempt was also made to show why, towards the end of
the fifteenth century, the medieval republics--surrounded by domains of
hostile feudal lords, unable to free the peasants from servitude, and
gradually corrupted by ideas of Roman Caesarism--were doomed to become a
prey to the growing military States.
However, before submitting for three centuries to come, to the
all-absorbing authority of the State, the masses of the people made a
formidable attempt at reconstructing society on the old basis of mutual
aid and support. It is well known by this time that the great movement
of the reform was not a mere revolt against the abuses of the Catholic
Church. It had its constructive ideal as well, and that ideal was life
in free, brotherly communities. Those of the early writings and sermons
of the period which found most response with the masses were imbued with
ideas of the economical and social brotherhood of mankind. The "Twelve
Articles" and similar professions of faith, which were circulated among
the German and Swiss peasants and artisans, maintained not only every
one's right to interpret the Bible according to his own understanding,
but also included the demand of communal lands being restored to the
village communities and feudal servitudes being abolished, and they
always alluded to the "true" faith--a faith of brotherhood. At the same
time scores of thousands of men and women joined the communist
fraternities of Moravia, giving them all their fortune and living in
numerous and prosperous settlements constructed upon the principles of
communism.(1) Only wholesale massacres by the thousand could put a stop
to this widely-spread popular movement, and it was by the sword, the
fire, and the rack that the young States secured their first and
decisive victory over the masses of the people.(2)
For the next three centuries the States, both on the Continent and in
these islands, systematically weeded out all institutions in which the
mutual-aid tendency had formerly found its expression. The village
communities were bereft of their folkmotes, their courts and independent
administration; their lands were confiscated. The guilds were spoliated
of their possessions and liberties, and placed under the control, the
fancy, and the bribery of the State's official. The cities were divested
of their sovereignty, and the very springs of their inner life--the
folkmote, the elected justices and administration, the sovereign parish
and the sovereign guild--were annihilated; the State's functionary took
possession of every link of what formerly was an organic whole. Under
that fatal policy and the wars it engendered, whole regions, once
populous and wealthy, were laid bare; rich cities became insignificant
boroughs; the very roads which connected them with other cities became
impracticable. Industry, art, and knowledge fell into decay. Political
education, science, and law were rendered subservient to the idea of
State centralization. It was taught in the Universities and from the
pulpit that the institutions in which men formerly used to embody their
needs of mutual support could not be tolerated in a properly organized
State; that the State alone could represent the bonds of union between
its subjects; that federalism and "particularism" were the enemies of
progress, and the State was the only proper initiator of further
development. By the end of the last century the kings on the Continent,
the Parliament in these isles, and the revolutionary Convention in
France, although they were at war with each other, agreed in asserting
that no separate unions between citizens must exist within the State;
that hard labour and death were the only suitable punishments to workers
who dared to enter into "coalitions." "No state within the State!" The
State alone, and the State's Church, must take care of matters of
general interest, while the subjects must represent loose aggregations
of individuals, connected by no particular bonds, bound to appeal to the
Government each time that they feel a common need. Up to the middle of
this century this was the theory and practice in Europe. Even commercial
and industrial societies were looked at with suspicion. As to the
workers, their unions were treated as unlawful almost within our own
lifetime in this country and within the last twenty years on the
Continent. The whole system of our State education was such that up to
the present time, even in this country, a notable portion of society
would treat as a revolutionary measure the concession of such rights as
every one, freeman or serf, exercised five hundred years ago in the
village folkmote, the guild, the parish, and the city.
The absorption of all social functions by the State necessarily favoured
the development of an unbridled, narrow-minded individualism. In
proportion as the obligations towards the State grew in numbers the
citizens were evidently relieved from their obligations towards each
other. In the guild--and in medieval times every man belonged to some
guild or fraternity two "brothers" were bound to watch in turns a
brother who had fallen ill; it would be sufficient now to give one's
neighbour the address of the next paupers' hospital. In barbarian
society, to assist at a fight between two men, arisen from a quarrel,
and not to prevent it from taking a fatal issue, meant to be oneself
treated as a murderer; but under the theory of the all-protecting State
the bystander need not intrude: it is the policeman's business to
interfere, or not. And while in a savage land, among the Hottentots, it
would be scandalous to eat without having loudly called out thrice
whether there is not somebody wanting to share the food, all that a
respectable citizen has to do now is to pay the poor tax and to let the
starving starve. The result is, that the theory which maintains that men
can, and must, seek their own happiness in a disregard of other people's
wants is now triumphant all round in law, in science, in religion. It is
the religion of the day, and to doubt of its efficacy is to be a
dangerous Utopian. Science loudly proclaims that the struggle of each
against all is the leading principle of nature, and of human societies
as well. To that struggle Biology ascribes the progressive evolution of
the animal world. History takes the same line of argument; and political
economists, in their naive ignorance, trace all progress of modern
industry and machinery to the "wonderful" effects of the same principle.
The very religion of the pulpit is a religion of individualism, slightly
mitigated by more or less charitable relations to one's neighbours,
chiefly on Sundays. "Practical" men and theorists, men of science and
religious preachers, lawyers and politicians, all agree upon one
thing--that individualism may be more or less softened in its harshest
effects by charity, but that it is the only secure basis for the
maintenance of society and its ulterior progress.
It seems, therefore, hopeless to look for mutual-aid institutions and
practices in modern society. What could remain of them? And yet, as soon
as we try to ascertain how the millions of human beings live, and begin
to study their everyday relations, we are struck with the immense part
which the mutual-aid and mutual-support principles play even now-a-days
in human life. Although the destruction of mutual-aid institutions has
been going on in practice and theory, for full three or four hundred
years, hundreds of millions of men continue to live under such
institutions; they piously maintain them and endeavour to reconstitute
them where they have ceased to exist. In our mutual relations every one
of us has his moments of revolt against the fashionable individualistic
creed of the day, and actions in which men are guided by their mutual
aid inclinations constitute so great a part of our daily intercourse
that if a stop to such actions could be put all further ethical progress
would be stopped at once. Human society itself could not be maintained
for even so much as the lifetime of one single generation. These facts,
mostly neglected by sociologists and yet of the first importance for the
life and further elevation of mankind, we are now going to analyze,
beginning with the standing institutions of mutual support, and passing
next to those acts of mutual aid which have their origin in personal or
social sympathies.
When we cast a broad glance on the present constitution of European
society we are struck at once with the fact that, although so much has
been done to get rid of the village community, this form of union
continues to exist to the extent we shall presently see, and that many
attempts are now made either to reconstitute it in some shape or another
or to find some substitute for it. The current theory as regards the
village community is, that in Western Europe it has died out by a
natural death, because the communal possession of the soil was found
inconsistent with the modern requirements of agriculture. But the truth
is that nowhere did the village community disappear of its own accord;
everywhere, on the contrary, it took the ruling classes several
centuries of persistent but not always successful efforts to abolish it
and to confiscate the communal lands.
In France, the village communities began to be deprived of their
independence, and their lands began to be plundered, as early as the
sixteenth century. However, it was only in the next century, when the
mass of the peasants was brought, by exactions and wars, to the state of
subjection and misery which is vividly depicted by all historians, that
the plundering of their lands became easy and attained scandalous
proportions. "Every one has taken of them according to his powers ...
imaginary debts have been claimed, in order to seize upon their lands;"
so we read in an edict promulgated by Louis the Fourteenth in 1667.(3)
Of course the State's remedy for such evils was to render the communes
still more subservient to the State, and to plunder them itself. In
fact, two years later all money revenue of the communes was confiscated
by the King. As to the appropriation of communal lands, it grew worse
and worse, and in the next century the nobles and the clergy had already
taken possession of immense tracts of land--one-half of the cultivated
area, according to certain estimates--mostly to let it go out of
culture.(4) But the peasants still maintained their communal
institutions, and until the year 1787 the village folkmotes, composed of
all householders, used to come together in the shadow of the bell-tower
or a tree, to allot and re-allot what they had retained of their fields,
to assess the taxes, and to elect their executive, just as the Russian
mir does at the present time. This is what Babeau's researches have
proved to demonstration.(5)
The Government found, however, the folkmotes "too noisy," too
disobedient, and in 1787, elected councils, composed of a mayor and
three to six syndics, chosen from among the wealthier peasants, were
introduced instead. Two years later the Revolutionary Assemblee
Constituante, which was on this point at one with the old regime, fully
confirmed this law (on the 14th of December, 1789), and the bourgeois du
village had now their turn for the plunder of communal lands, which
continued all through the Revolutionary period. Only on the 16th of
August, 1792, the Convention, under the pressure of the peasants'
insurrections, decided to return the enclosed lands to the communes;(6)
but it ordered at the same time that they should be divided in equal
parts among the wealthier peasants only--a measure which provoked new
insurrections and was abrogated next year, in 1793, when the order came
to divide the communal lands among all commoners, rich and poor alike,
"active" and "inactive."
These two laws, however, ran so much against the conceptions of the
peasants that they were not obeyed, and wherever the peasants had
retaken possession of part of their lands they kept them undivided. But
then came the long years of wars, and the communal lands were simply
confiscated by the State (in 1794) as a mortgage for State loans, put up
for sale, and plundered as such; then returned again to the communes and
confiscated again (in 1813); and only in 1816 what remained of them,
i.e. about 15,000,000 acres of the least productive land, was restored
to the village communities.(7) Still this was not yet the end of the
troubles of the communes. Every new regime saw in the communal lands a
means for gratifying its supporters, and three laws (the first in 1837
and the last under Napoleon the Third) were passed to induce the village
communities to divide their estates. Three times these laws had to be
repealed, in consequence of the opposition they met with in the
villages; but something was snapped up each time, and Napoleon the
Third, under the pretext of encouraging perfected methods of
agriculture, granted large estates out of the communal lands to some of
his favourites.
As to the autonomy of the village communities, what could be retained of
it after so many blows? The mayor and the syndics were simply looked
upon as unpaid functionaries of the State machinery. Even now, under the
Third Republic, very little can be done in a village community without
the huge State machinery, up to the prefet and the ministries, being set
in motion. It is hardly credible, and yet it is true, that when, for
instance, a peasant intends to pay in money his share in the repair of a
communal road, instead of himself breaking the necessary amount of
stones, no fewer than twelve different functionaries of the State must
give their approval, and an aggregate of fifty-two different acts must
be performed by them, and exchanged between them, before the peasant is
permitted to pay that money to the communal council. All the remainder
bears the same character.(8)
What took place in France took place everywhere in Western and Middle
Europe. Even the chief dates of the great assaults upon the peasant
lands are the same. For England the only difference is that the
spoliation was accomplished by separate acts rather than by general
sweeping measures--with less haste but more thoroughly than in France.
The seizure of the communal lands by the lords also began in the
fifteenth century, after the defeat of the peasant insurrection of
1380--as seen from Rossus's Historia and from a statute of Henry the
Seventh, in which these seizures are spoken of under the heading of
"enormitees and myschefes as be hurtfull ... to the common wele."(9)
Later on the Great Inquest, under Henry the Eighth, was begun, as is
known, in order to put a stop to the enclosure of communal lands, but it
ended in a sanction of what had been done.(10) The communal lands
continued to be preyed upon, and the peasants were driven from the land.
But it was especially since the middle of the eighteenth century that,
in England as everywhere else, it became part of a systematic policy to
simply weed out all traces of communal ownership; and the wonder is not
that it has disappeared, but that it could be maintained, even in
England, so as to be "generally prevalent so late as the grandfathers of
this generation."(11) The very object of the Enclosure Acts, as shown by
Mr. Seebohm, was to remove this system,(12) and it was so well removed
by the nearly four thousand Acts passed between 1760 and 1844 that only
faint traces of it remain now. The land of the village communities was
taken by the lords, and the appropriation was sanctioned by Parliament
in each separate case.
In Germany, in Austria, in Belgium the village community was also
destroyed by the State. Instances of commoners themselves dividing their
lands were rare,(13) while everywhere the States coerced them to enforce
the division, or simply favoured the private appropriation of their
lands. The last blow to communal ownership in Middle Europe also dates
from the middle of the eighteenth century. In Austria sheer force was
used by the Government, in 1768, to compel the communes to divide their
lands--a special commission being nominated two years later for that
purpose. In Prussia Frederick the Second, in several of his ordinances
(in 1752, 1763, 1765, and 1769), recommended to the Justizcollegien to
enforce the division. In Silesia a special resolution was issued to
serve that aim in 1771. The same took place in Belgium, and, as the
communes did not obey, a law was issued in 1847 empowering the
Government to buy communal meadows in order to sell them in retail, and
to make a forced sale of the communal land when there was a would-be
buyer for it.(14)
In short, to speak of the natural death of the village communities in
virtue of economical laws is as grim a joke as to speak of the natural
death of soldiers slaughtered on a battlefield. The fact was simply
this: The village communities had lived for over a thousand years; and
where and when the peasants were not ruined by wars and exactions they
steadily improved their methods of culture. But as the value of land was
increasing, in consequence of the growth of industries, and the nobility
had acquired, under the State organization, a power which it never had
had under the feudal system, it took possession of the best parts of the
communal lands, and did its best to destroy the communal institutions.
However, the village-community institutions so well respond to the needs
and conceptions of the tillers of the soil that, in spite of all, Europe
is up to this date covered with living survivals of the village
communities, and European country life is permeated with customs and
habits dating from the community period. Even in England,
notwithstanding all the drastic measures taken against the old order of
things, it prevailed as late as the beginning of the nineteenth century.
Mr. Gomme--one of the very few English scholars who have paid attention
to the subject--shows in his work that many traces of the communal
possession of the soil are found in Scotland, "runrig" tenancy having
been maintained in Forfarshire up to 1813, while in certain villages of
Inverness the custom was, up to 1801, to plough the land for the whole
community, without leaving any boundaries, and to allot it after the
ploughing was done. In Kilmorie the allotment and re-allotment of the
fields was in full vigour "till the last twenty-five years," and the
Crofters' Commission found it still in vigour in certain islands.(15) In
Ireland the system prevailed up to the great famine; and as to England,
Marshall's works, which passed unnoticed until Nasse and Sir Henry Maine
drew attention to them, leave no doubt as to the village-community
system having been widely spread, in nearly all English counties, at the
beginning of the nineteenth century.(16) No more than twenty years ago
Sir Henry Maine was "greatly surprised at the number of instances of
abnormal property rights, necessarily implying the former existence of
collective ownership and joint cultivation," which a comparatively brief
inquiry brought under his notice.(17) And, communal institutions having
persisted so late as that, a great number of mutual-aid habits and
customs would undoubtedly be discovered in English villages if the
writers of this country only paid attention to village life.(18)
As to the Continent, we find the communal institutions fully alive in
many parts of France, Switzerland, Germany, Italy, the Scandinavian
lands, and Spain, to say nothing of Eastern Europe; the village life in
these countries is permeated with communal habits and customs; and
almost every year the Continental literature is enriched by serious
works dealing with this and connected subjects. I must, therefore, limit
my illustrations to the most typical instances. Switzerland is
undoubtedly one of them. Not only the five republics of Uri, Schwytz,
Appenzell, Glarus, and Unterwalden hold their lands as undivided
estates, and are governed by their popular folkmotes, but in all other
cantons too the village communities remain in possession of a wide
self-government, and own large parts of the Federal territory.(19)
Two-thirds of all the Alpine meadows and two-thirds of all the forests
of Switzerland are until now communal land; and a considerable number of
fields, orchards, vineyards, peat bogs, quarries, and so on, are owned
in common. In the Vaud, where all the householders continue to take part
in the deliberations of their elected communal councils, the communal
spirit is especially alive. Towards the end of the winter all the young
men of each village go to stay a few days in the woods, to fell timber
and to bring it down the steep slopes tobogganing way, the timber and
the fuel wood being divided among all households or sold for their
benefit. These excursions are real fetes of manly labour. On the banks
of Lake Leman part of the work required to keep up the terraces of the
vineyards is still done in common; and in the spring, when the
thermometer threatens to fall below zero before sunrise, the watchman
wakes up all householders, who light fires of straw and dung and protect
their vine-trees from the frost by an artificial cloud. In nearly all
cantons the village communities possess so-called. Burgernutzen--that
is, they hold in common a number of cows, in order to supply each family
with butter; or they keep communal fields or vineyards, of which the
produce is divided between the burghers, or they rent their land for the
benefit of the community.(20)
It may be taken as a rule that where the communes have retained a wide
sphere of functions, so as to be living parts of the national organism,
and where they have not been reduced to sheer misery, they never fail to
take good care of their lands. Accordingly the communal estates in
Switzerland strikingly contrast with the miserable state of "commons" in
this country. The communal forests in the Vaud and the Valais are
admirably managed, in conformity with the rules of modern forestry.
Elsewhere the "strips" of communal fields, which change owners under the
system of re-allotment, are very well manured, especially as there is no
lack of meadows and cattle. The high level meadows are well kept as a
rule, and the rural roads are excellent.(21) And when we admire the
Swiss chalet, the mountain road, the peasants' cattle, the terraces of
vineyards, or the school-house in Switzer land, we must keep in mind
that without the timber for the chalet being taken from the communal
woods and the stone from the communal quarries, without the cows being
kept on the communal meadows, and the roads being made and the
school-houses built by communal work, there would be little to admire.
It hardly need be said that a great number of mutual-aid habits and
customs continue to persist in the Swiss villages. The evening
gatherings for shelling walnuts, which take place in turns in each
household; the evening parties for sewing the dowry of the girl who is
going to marry; the calling of "aids" for building the houses and taking
in the crops, as well as for all sorts of work which may be required by
one of the commoners; the custom of exchanging children from one canton
to the other, in order to make them learn two languages, French and
German; and so on--all these are quite habitual;(22) while, on the other
side, divers modern requirements are met in the same spirit. Thus in
Glarus most of the Alpine meadows have been sold during a time of
calamity; but the communes still continue to buy field land, and after
the newly-bought fields have been left in the possession of separate
commoners for ten, twenty, or thirty years, as the case might be, they
return to the common stock, which is re-allotted according to the needs
of all. A great number of small associations are formed to produce some
of the necessaries for life--bread, cheese, and wine--by common work, be
it only on a limited scale; and agricultural co-operation altogether
spreads in Switzerland with the greatest ease. Associations formed
between ten to thirty peasants, who buy meadows and fields in common,
and cultivate them as co-owners, are of common occurrence; while dairy
associations for the sale of milk, butter, and cheese are organized
everywhere. In fact, Switzerland was the birthplace of that form of
co-operation. It offers, moreover, an immense field for the study of all
sorts of small and large societies, formed for the satisfaction of all
sorts of modern wants. In certain parts of Switzerland one finds in
almost every village a number of associations--for protection from fire,
for boating, for maintaining the quays on the shores of a lake, for the
supply of water, and so on; and the country is covered with societies of
archers, sharpshooters, topographers, footpath explorers, and the like,
originated from modern militarism.
Switzerland is, however, by no means an exception in Europe, because the
same institutions and habits are found in the villages of France, of
Italy, of Germany, of Denmark, and so on. We have just seen what has
been done by the rulers of France in order to destroy the village
community and to get hold of its lands; but notwithstanding all that
one-tenth part of the whole territory available for culture, i.e.
13,500,000 acres, including one-half of all the natural meadows and
nearly a fifth part of all the forests of the country, remain in
communal possession. The woods supply the communers with fuel, and the
timber wood is cut, mostly by communal work, with all desirable
regularity; the grazing lands are free for the commoners' cattle; and
what remains of communal fields is allotted and re-allotted in certain
parts Ardennes--in the usual of France--namely, in the way.(23)
These additional sources of supply, which aid the poorer peasants to
pass through a year of bad crops without parting with their small plots
of land and without running into irredeemable debts, have certainly
their importance for both the agricultural labourers and the nearly
three millions of small peasant proprietors. It is even doubtful whether
small peasant proprietorship could be maintained without these
additional resources. But the ethical importance of the communal
possessions, small as they are, is still greater than their economical
value. They maintain in village life a nucleus of customs and habits of
mutual aid which undoubtedly acts as a mighty check upon the development
of reckless individualism and greediness, which small land-ownership is
only too prone to develop. Mutual aid in all possible circumstances of
village life is part of the routine life in all parts of the country.
Everywhere we meet, under different names, with the charroi, i.e. the
free aid of the neighbours for taking in a crop, for vintage, or for
building a house; everywhere we find the same evening gatherings as have
just been mentioned in Switzerland; and everywhere the commoners
associate for all sorts of work. Such habits are mentioned by nearly all
those who have written upon French village life. But it will perhaps be
better to give in this place some abstracts from letters which I have
just received from a friend of mine whom I have asked to communicate to
me his observations on this subject. They come from an aged man who for
years has been the mayor of his commune in South France (in Ariege); the
facts he mentions are known to him from long years of personal
observation, and they have the advantage of coming from one
neighbourhood instead of being skimmed from a large area. Some of them
may seem trifling, but as a whole they depict quite a little world of
village life.
"In several communes in our neighbourhood," my friend writes, "the old
custom of l'emprount is in vigour. When many hands are required in a
metairie for rapidly making some work--dig out potatoes or mow the
grass--the youth of the neighbourhood is convoked; young men and girls
come in numbers, make it gaily and for nothing; and in the evening,
after a gay meal, they dance.
"In the same communes, when a girl is going to marry, the girls of the
neighbourhood come to aid in sewing the dowry. In several communes the
women still continue to spin a good deal. When the winding off has to be
done in a family it is done in one evening--all friends being convoked
for that work. In many communes of the Ariege and other parts of the
south-west the shelling of the Indian corn-sheaves is also done by all
the neighbours. They are treated with chestnuts and wine, and the young
people dance after the work has been done. The same custom is practised
for making nut oil and crushing hemp. In the commune of L. the same is
done for bringing in the corn crops. These days of hard work become fete
days, as the owner stakes his honour on serving a good meal. No
remuneration is given; all do it for each other.(24)
"In the commune of S. the common grazing-land is every year increased,
so that nearly the whole of the land of the commune is now kept in
common. The shepherds are elected by all owners of the cattle, including
women. The bulls are communal.
"In the commune of M. the forty to fifty small sheep flocks of the
commoners are brought together and divided into three or four flocks
before being sent to the higher meadows. Each owner goes for a week to
serve as shepherd.
"In the hamlet of C. a threshing machine has been bought in common by
several households; the fifteen to twenty persons required to serve the
machine being supplied by all the families. Three other threshing
machines have been bought and are rented out by their owners, but the
work is performed by outside helpers, invited in the usual way.
"In our commune of R. we had to raise the wall of the cemetery. Half of
the money which was required for buying lime and for the wages of the
skilled workers was supplied by the county council, and the other half
by subscription. As to the work of carrying sand and water, making
mortar, and serving the masons, it was done entirely by volunteers [just
as in the Kabyle djemmaa]. The rural roads were repaired in the same
way, by volunteer days of work given by the commoners. Other communes
have built in the same way their fountains. The wine-press and other
smaller appliances are frequently kept by the commune."
Two residents of the same neighbourhood, questioned by my friend, add
the following:--
"At O. a few years ago there was no mill. The commune has built one,
levying a tax upon the commoners. As to the miller, they decided, in
order to avoid frauds and partiality, that he should be paid two francs
for each bread-eater, and the corn be ground free.
"At St. G. few peasants are insured against fire. When a conflagration
has taken place--so it was lately--all give something to the family
which has suffered from it--a chaldron, a bed-cloth, a chair, and so
on--and a modest household is thus reconstituted. All the neighbours aid
to build the house, and in the meantime the family is lodged free by the
neighbours."
Such habits of mutual support--of which many more examples could be
given--undoubtedly account for the easiness with which the French
peasants associate for using, in turn, the plough with its team of
horses, the wine-press, and the threshing machine, when they are kept in
the village by one of them only, as well as for the performance of all
sorts of rural work in common. Canals were maintained, forests were
cleared, trees were planted, and marshes were drained by the village
communities from time immemorial; and the same continues still. Quite
lately, in La Borne of Lozere barren hills were turned into rich gardens
by communal work. "The soil was brought on men's backs; terraces were
made and planted with chestnut trees, peach trees, and orchards, and
water was brought for irrigation in canals two or three miles long."
Just now they have dug a new canal, eleven miles in length.(25)
To the same spirit is also due the remarkable success lately obtained by
the syndicats agricoles, or peasants' and farmers' associations. It was
not until 1884 that associations of more than nineteen persons were
permitted in France, and I need not say that when this "dangerous
experiment" was ventured upon--so it was styled in the Chambers--all due
"precautions" which functionaries can invent were taken. Notwithstanding
all that, France begins to be covered with syndicates. At the outset
they were only formed for buying manures and seeds, falsification having
attained colossal proportions in these two branches;(26) but gradually
they extended their functions in various directions, including the sale
of agricultural produce and permanent improvements of the land. In South
France the ravages of the phylloxera have called into existence a great
number of wine-growers' associations. Ten to thirty growers form a
syndicate, buy a steam-engine for pumping water, and make the necessary
arrangements for inundating their vineyards in turn.(27) New
associations for protecting the land from inundations, for irrigation
purposes, and for maintaining canals are continually formed, and the
unanimity of all peasants of a neighbourhood, which is required by law,
is no obstacle. Elsewhere we have the fruitieres, or dairy associations,
in some of which all butter and cheese is divided in equal parts,
irrespective of the yield of each cow. In the Ariege we find an
association of eight separate communes for the common culture of their
lands, which they have put together; syndicates for free medical aid
have been formed in 172 communes out of 337 in the same department;
associations of consumers arise in connection with the syndicates; and
so on.(28) "Quite a revolution is going on in our villages," Alfred
Baudrillart writes, "through these associations, which take in each
region their own special characters."
Very much the same must be said of Germany. Wherever the peasants could
resist the plunder of their lands, they have retained them in communal
ownership, which largely prevails in Wurttemberg, Baden, Hohenzollern,
and in the Hessian province of Starkenberg.(29) The communal forests are
kept, as a rule, in an excellent state, and in thousands of communes
timber and fuel wood are divided every year among all inhabitants; even
the old custom of the Lesholztag is widely spread: at the ringing of the
village bell all go to the forest to take as much fuel wood as they can
carry.(30) In Westphalia one finds communes in which all the land is
cultivated as one common estate, in accordance with all requirements of
modern agronomy. As to the old communal customs and habits, they are in
vigour in most parts of Germany. The calling in of aids, which are real
fetes of labour, is known to be quite habitual in Westphalia, Hesse, and
Nassau. In well-timbered regions the timber for a new house is usually
taken from the communal forest, and all the neighbours join in building
the house. Even in the suburbs of Frankfort it is a regular custom among
the gardeners that in case of one of them being ill all come on Sunday
to cultivate his garden.(31)
In Germany, as in France, as soon as the rulers of the people repealed
their laws against the peasant associations--that was only in
1884-1888--these unions began to develop with a wonderful rapidity,
notwithstanding all legal obstacles which were put in their way(32) "It
is a fact," Buchenberger says, "that in thousands of village
communities, in which no sort of chemical manure or rational fodder was
ever known, both have become of everyday use, to a quite unforeseen
extent, owing to these associations" (vol. ii. p. 507). All sorts of
labour-saving implements and agricultural machinery, and better breeds
of cattle, are bought through the associations, and various arrangements
for improving the quality of the produce begin to be introduced. Unions
for the sale of agricultural produce are also formed, as well as for
permanent improvements of the land.(33)
From the point of view of social economics all these efforts of the
peasants certainly are of little importance. They cannot substantially,
and still less permanently, alleviate the misery to which the tillers of
the soil are doomed all over Europe. But from the ethical point of view,
which we are now considering, their importance cannot be overrated. They
prove that even under the system of reckless individualism which now
prevails the agricultural masses piously maintain their mutual-support
inheritance; and as soon as the States relax the iron laws by means of
which they have broken all bonds between men, these bonds are at once
reconstituted, notwithstanding the difficulties, political, economical,
and social, which are many, and in such forms as best answer to the
modern requirements of production. They indicate in which direction and
in which form further progress must be expected.
I might easily multiply such illustrations, taking them from Italy,
Spain, Denmark, and so on, and pointing out some interesting features
which are proper to each of these countries. The Slavonian populations
of Austria and the Balkan peninsula, among whom the "compound family,"
or "undivided household," is found in existence, ought also to be
mentioned.(34) But I hasten to pass on to Russia, where the same
mutual-support tendency takes certain new and unforeseen forms.
Moreover, in dealing with the village community in Russia we have the
advantage: of possessing an immense mass of materials, collected during
the colossal house-to-house inquest which was lately made by several
zemstvos (county councils), and which embraces a population of nearly
20,000,000 peasants in different parts of the country.(35)
Two important conclusions may be drawn from the bulk of evidence
collected by the Russian inquests. In Middle Russia, where fully
one-third of the peasants have been brought to utter ruin (by heavy
taxation, small allotments of unproductive land, rack rents, and very
severe tax-collecting after total failures of crops), there was, during
the first five-and-twenty years after the emancipation of the serfs, a
decided tendency towards the constitution of individual property in land
within the village communities. Many impoverished "horseless" peasants
abandoned their allotments, and this land often became the property of
those richer peasants, who borrow additional incomes from trade, or of
outside traders, who buy land chiefly for exacting rack rents from the
peasants. It must also be added that a flaw in the land redemption law
of 1861 offered great facilities for buying peasants' lands at a very
small expense,(36) and that the State officials mostly used their
weighty influence in favour of individual as against communal ownership.
However, for the last twenty years a strong wind of opposition to the
individual appropriation of the land blows again through the Middle
Russian villages, and strenuous efforts are being made by the bulk of
those peasants who stand between the rich and the very poor to uphold
the village community. As to the fertile steppes of the South, which are
now the most populous and the richest part of European Russia, they were
mostly colonized, during the present century, under the system of
individual ownership or occupation, sanctioned in that form by the
State. But since improved methods of agriculture with the aid of
machinery have been introduced in the region, the peasant owners have
gradually begun themselves to transform their individual ownership into
communal possession, and one finds now, in that granary of Russia, a
very great number of spontaneously formed village communities of recent
origin.(37)
The Crimea and the part of the mainland which lies to the north of it
(the province of Taurida), for which we have detailed data, offer an
excellent illustration of that movement. This territory began to be
colonized, after its annexation in 1783, by Great, Little, and White
Russians--Cossacks, freemen, and runaway serfs--who came individually or
in small groups from all corners of Russia. They took first to
cattle-breeding, and when they began later on to till the soil, each one
tilled as much as he could afford to. But when--immigration continuing,
and perfected ploughs being introduced--land stood in great demand,
bitter disputes arose among the settlers. They lasted for years, until
these men, previously tied by no mutual bonds, gradually came to the
idea that an end must be put to disputes by introducing
village-community ownership. They passed decisions to the effect that
the land which they owned individually should henceforward be their
common property, and they began to allot and to re-allot it in
accordance with the usual village-community rules. The movement
gradually took a great extension, and on a small territory, the Taurida
statisticians found 161 villages in which communal ownership had been
introduced by the peasant proprietors themselves, chiefly in the years
1855-1885, in lieu of individual ownership. Quite a variety of
village-community types has been freely worked out in this way by the
settlers.(38) What adds to the interest of this transformation is that
it took place, not only among the Great Russians, who are used to
village-community life, but also among Little Russians, who have long
since forgotten it under Polish rule, among Greeks and Bulgarians, and
even among Germans, who have long since worked out in their prosperous
and half-industrial Volga colonies their own type of village
community.(39) It is evident that the Mussulman Tartars of Taurida hold
their land under the Mussulman customary law, which is limited personal
occupation; but even with them the European village community has been
introduced in a few cases. As to other nationalities in Taurida,
individual ownership has been abolished in six Esthonian, two Greek, two
Bulgarian, one Czech, and one German village. This movement is
characteristic for the whole of the fertile steppe region of the south.
But separate instances of it are also found in Little Russia. Thus in a
number of villages of the province of Chernigov the peasants were
formerly individual owners of their plots; they had separate legal
documents for their plots and used to rent and to sell their land at
will. But in the fifties of the nineteenth century a movement began
among them in favour of communal possession, the chief argument being
the growing number of pauper families. The initiative of the reform was
taken in one village, and the others followed suit, the last case on
record dating from 1882. Of course there were struggles between the
poor, who usually claim for communal possession, and the rich, who
usually prefer individual ownership; and the struggles often lasted for
years. In certain places the unanimity required then by the law being
impossible to obtain, the village divided into two villages, one under
individual ownership and the other under communal possession; and so
they remained until the two coalesced into one community, or else they
remained divided still. As to Middle Russia, its a fact that in many
villages which were drifting towards individual ownership there began
since 1880 a mass movement in favour of re-establishing the village
community. Even peasant proprietors who had lived for years under the
individualist system returned en masse to the communal institutions.
Thus, there is a considerable number of ex-serfs who have received
one-fourth part only of the regulation allotments, but they have
received them free of redemption and in individual ownership. There was
in 1890 a wide-spread movement among them (in Kursk, Ryazan, Tambov,
Orel, etc.) towards putting their allotments together and introducing
the village community. The "free agriculturists" (volnyie
khlebopashtsy), who were liberated from serfdom under the law of 1803,
and had bought their allotments--each family separately--are now nearly
all under the village-community system, which they have introduced
themselves. All these movements are of recent origin, and non-Russians
too join them. Thus the Bulgares in the district of Tiraspol, after
having remained for sixty years under the personal-property system,
introduced the village community in the years 1876-1882. The German
Mennonites of Berdyansk fought in 1890 for introducing the village
community, and the small peasant proprietors (Kleinwirthschaftliche)
among the German Baptists were agitating in their villages in the same
direction. One instance more: In the province of Samara the Russian
government created in the forties, by way of experiment, 103 villages on
the system of individual ownership. Each household received a splendid
property of 105 acres. In 1890, out of the 103 villages the peasants in
72 had already notified the desire of introducing the village community.
I take all these facts from the excellent work of V.V., who simply
gives, in a classified form, the facts recorded in the above-mentioned
house-to-house inquest.
This movement in favour of communal possession runs badly against the
current economical theories, according to which intensive culture is
incompatible with the village community. But the most charitable thing
that can be said of these theories is that they have never been
submitted to the test of experiment: they belong to the domain of
political metaphysics. The facts which we have before us show, on the
contrary, that wherever the Russian peasants, owing to a concurrence of
favourable circumstances, are less miserable than they are on the
average, and wherever they find men of knowledge and initiative among
their neighbours, the village community becomes the very means for
introducing various improvements in agriculture and village life
altogether. Here, as elsewhere, mutual aid is a better leader to
progress than the war of each against all, as may be seen from the
following facts.
Under Nicholas the First's rule many Crown officials and serf-owners
used to compel the peasants to introduce the communal culture of small
plots of the village lands, in order to refill the communal storehouses
after loans of grain had been granted to the poorest commoners. Such
cultures, connected in the peasants' minds with the worst reminiscences
of serfdom, were abandoned as soon as serfdom was abolished but now the
peasants begin to reintroduce them on their own account. In one district
(Ostrogozhsk, in Kursk) the initiative of one person was sufficient to
call them to life in four-fifths of all the villages. The same is met
with in several other localities. On a given day the commoners come out,
the richer ones with a plough or a cart and the poorer ones
single-handed, and no attempt is made to discriminate one's share in the
work. The crop is afterwards used for loans to the poorer commoners,
mostly free grants, or for the orphans and widows, or for the village
church, or for the school, or for repaying a communal debt.(40)
That all sorts of work which enters, so to say, in the routine of
village life (repair of roads and bridges, dams, drainage, supply of
water for irrigation, cutting of wood, planting of trees, etc.) are made
by whole communes, and that land is rented and meadows are mown by whole
communes--the work being accomplished by old and young, men and women,
in the way described by Tolstoi--is only what one may expect from people
living under the village-community system.(41) They are of everyday
occurrence all over the country. But the village community is also by no
means averse to modern agricultural improvements, when it can stand the
expense, and when knowledge, hitherto kept for the rich only, finds its
way into the peasant's house.
It has just been said that perfected ploughs rapidly spread in South
Russia, and in many cases the village communities were instrumental in
spreading their use. A plough was bought by the community, experimented
upon on a portion of the communal land, and the necessary improvements
were indicated to the makers, whom the communes often aided in starting
the manufacture of cheap ploughs as a village industry. In the district
of Moscow, where 1,560 ploughs were lately bought by the peasants during
five years, the impulse came from those communes which rented lands as a
body for the special purpose of improved culture.
In the north-east (Vyatka) small associations of peasants, who travel
with their winnowing machines (manufactured as a village industry in one
of the iron districts), have spread the use of such machines in the
neighbouring governments. The very wide spread of threshing machines in
Samara, Saratov, and Kherson is due to the peasant associations, which
can afford to buy a costly engine, while the individual peasant cannot.
And while we read in nearly all economical treatises that the village
community was doomed to disappear when the three-fields system had to be
substituted by the rotation of crops system, we see in Russia many
village communities taking the initiative of introducing the rotation of
crops. Before accepting it the peasants usually set apart a portion of
the communal fields for an experiment in artificial meadows, and the
commune buys the seeds.(42) If the experiment proves successful they
find no difficulty whatever in re-dividing their fields, so as to suit
the five or six fields system.
This system is now in use in hundreds of villages of Moscow, Tver,
Smolensk, Vyatka, and Pskov.(43) And where land can be spared the
communities give also a portion of their domain to allotments for
fruit-growing. Finally, the sudden extension lately taken in Russia by
the little model farms, orchards, kitchen gardens, and silkworm-culture
grounds--which are started at the village school-houses, under the
conduct of the school-master, or of a village volunteer--is also due to
the support they found with the village communities.
Moreover, such permanent improvements as drainage and irrigation are of
frequent occurrence. For instance, in three districts of the province of
Moscow--industrial to a great extent--drainage works have been
accomplished within the last ten years on a large scale in no less than
180 to 200 different villages--the commoners working themselves with the
spade. At another extremity of Russia, in the dry Steppes of Novouzen,
over a thousand dams for ponds were built and several hundreds of deep
wells were sunk by the communes; while in a wealthy German colony of the
south-east the commoners worked, men and women alike, for five weeks in
succession, to erect a dam, two miles long, for irrigation purposes.
What could isolated men do in that struggle against the dry climate?
What could they obtain through individual effort when South Russia was
struck with the marmot plague, and all people living on the land, rich
and poor, commoners and individualists, had to work with their hands in
order to conjure the plague? To call in the policeman would have been of
no use; to associate was the only possible remedy.
And now, after having said so much about mutual aid and support which
are practised by the tillers of the soil in "civilized" countries, I see
that I might fill an octavo volume with illustrations taken from the
life of the hundreds of millions of men who also live under the
tutorship of more or less centralized States, but are out of touch with
modern civilization and modern ideas. I might describe the inner life of
a Turkish village and its network of admirable mutual-aid customs and
habits. On turning over my leaflets covered with illustrations from
peasant life in Caucasia, I come across touching facts of mutual
support. I trace the same customs in the Arab djemmaa and the Afghan
purra, in the villages of Persia, India, and Java, in the undivided
family of the Chinese, in the encampments of the semi-nomads of Central
Asia and the nomads of the far North. On consulting notes taken at
random in the literature of Africa, I find them replete with similar
facts--of aids convoked to take in the crops, of houses built by all
inhabitants of the village--sometimes to repair the havoc done by
civilized filibusters--of people aiding each other in case of accident,
protecting the traveller, and so on. And when I peruse such works as
Post's compendium of African customary law I understand why,
notwithstanding all tyranny, oppression, robberies and raids, tribal
wars, glutton kings, deceiving witches and priests, slave-hunters, and
the like, these populations have not gone astray in the woods; why they
have maintained a certain civilization, and have remained men, instead
of dropping to the level of straggling families of decaying
orang-outans. The fact is, that the slave-hunters, the ivory robbers,
the fighting kings, the Matabele and the Madagascar "heroes" pass away,
leaving their traces marked with blood and fire; but the nucleus of
mutual-aid institutions, habits, and customs, grown up in the tribe and
the village community, remains; and it keeps men united in societies,
open to the progress of civilization, and ready to receive it when the
day comes that they shall receive civilization instead of bullets.
The same applies to our civilized world. The natural and social
calamities pass away. Whole populations are periodically reduced to
misery or starvation; the very springs of life are crushed out of
millions of men, reduced to city pauperism; the understanding and the
feelings of the millions are vitiated by teachings worked out in the
interest of the few. All this is certainly a part of our existence. But
the nucleus of mutual-support institutions, habits, and customs remains
alive with the millions; it keeps them together; and they prefer to
cling to their customs, beliefs, and traditions rather than to accept
the teachings of a war of each against all, which are offered to them
under the title of science, but are no science at all.
NOTES:
1. A bulky literature, dealing with this formerly much neglected
subject, is now growing in Germany. Keller's works, Ein Apostel der
Wiedertaufer and Geschichte der Wiedertaufer, Cornelius's Geschichte des
munsterischen Aufruhrs, and Janssen's Geschichte des deutschen Volkes
may be named as the leading sources. The first attempt at familiarizing
English readers with the results of the wide researches made in Germany
in this direction has been made in an excellent little work by Richard
Heath--"Anabaptism from its Rise at Zwickau to its Fall at Munster,
1521-1536," London, 1895 (Baptist Manuals, vol. i.)--where the leading
features of the movement are well indicated, and full bibliographical
information is given. Also K. Kautsky's Communism in Central Europe in
the Time of the Reformation, London, 1897.
2. Few of our contemporaries realize both the extent of this movement
and the means by which it was suppressed. But those who wrote
immediately after the great peasant war estimated at from 100,000 to
150,000 men the number of peasants slaughtered after their defeat in
Germany. See Zimmermann's Allgemeine Geschichte des grossen
Bauernkrieges. For the measures taken to suppress the movement in the
Netherlands see Richard Heath's Anabaptism.
3. "Chacun s'en est accommode selon sa bienseance ... on les a
partages.. pour depouiller les communes, on s'est servi de dettes
simulees" (Edict of Louis the Fourteenth, of 1667, quoted by several
authors. Eight years before that date the communes had been taken under
State management).
4. "On a great landlord's estate, even if he has millions of revenue,
you are sure to find the land uncultivated" (Arthur Young). "One-fourth
part of the soil went out of culture;" "for the last hundred years the
land has returned to a savage state;" "the formerly flourishing Sologne
is now a big marsh;" and so on (Theron de Montauge, quoted by Taine in
Origines de la France Contemporaine, tome i. p. 441).
5. A. Babeau, Le Village sous l'Ancien Regime, 3e edition. Paris, 1892.
6. In Eastern France the law only confirmed what the peasants had
already done themselves. See my work, The Great French Revolution,
chaps. xlvii and xlviii, London (Heinemann), 1909.
7. After the triumph of the middle-class reaction the communal lands
were declared (August 24, 1794) the States domains, and, together with
the lands confiscated from the nobility, were put up for sale, and
pilfered by the bandes noires of the small bourgeoisie. True that a stop
to this pilfering was put next year (law of 2 Prairial, An V), and the
preceding law was abrogated; but then the village Communities were
simply abolished, and cantonal councils were introduced instead. Only
seven years later (9 Prairial, An XII), i.e. in 1801, the village
communities were reintroduced, but not until after having been deprived
of all their rights, the mayor and syndics being nominated by the
Government in the 36,000 communes of France! This system was maintained
till after the revolution of 1830, when elected communal councils were
reintroduced under the law of 1787. As to the communal lands, they were
again seized upon by the State in 1813, plundered as such, and only
partly restored to the communes in 1816. See the classical collection of
French laws, by Dalloz, Repertoire de Jurisprudence; also the works of
Doniol, Dareste, Bonnemere, Babeau, and many others.
8. This procedure is so absurd that one would not believe it possible if
the fifty-two different acts were not enumerated in full by a quite
authoritative writer in the Journal des Economistes (1893, April, p.
94), and several similar examples were not given by the same author.
9. Dr. Ochenkowski, Englands wirthschaftliche Entwickelung im Ausgange
des Mittelalters (Jena, 1879), pp. 35 seq., where the whole question is
discussed with full knowledge of the texts.
10. Nasse, Ueber die mittelalterliche Feldgemeinschaft und die
Einhegungen des XVI. Jahrhunderts in England (Bonn, 1869), pp. 4, 5;
Vinogradov, Villainage in England (Oxford, 1892).
11. Fr. Seebohm, The English Village Community, 3rd ed., 1884, pp.
13-15.
12. "An examination into the details of an Enclosure Act will make clear
the point that the system as above described [communal ownership] is the
system which it was the object of the Enclosure Act to remove" (Seebohm,
l.c. p. 13). And further on, "They were generally drawn in the same
form, commencing with the recital that the open and common fields lie
dispersed in small pieces, intermixed with each other and inconveniently
situated; that divers persons own parts of them, and are entitled to
rights of common on them ... and that it is desired that they may be
divided and enclosed, a specific share being let out and allowed to each
owner" (p. 14). Porter's list contained 3867 such Acts, of which the
greatest numbers fall upon the decades of 1770-1780 and 1800-1820, as in
France.
13. In Switzerland we see a number of communes, ruined by wars, which
have sold part of their lands, and now endeavour to buy them back.
14. A. Buchenberger, "Agrarwesen und Agrarpolitik," in A. Wagner's
Handbuch der politischen Oekonomie, 1892, Band i. pp. 280 seq.
15. G.L. Gomme, "The Village Community, with special reference to its
Origin and Forms of Survival in Great Britain" (Contemporary Science
Series), London, 1890, pp. 141-143; also his Primitive Folkmoots
(London, 1880), pp. 98 seq.
16. "In almost all parts of the country, in the Midland and Eastern
counties particularly, but also in the west--in Wiltshire, for
example--in the south, as in Surrey, in the north, as in
Yorkshire,--there are extensive open and common fields. Out of 316
parishes of Northamptonshire 89 are in this condition; more than 100 in
Oxfordshire; about 50,000 acres in Warwickshire; in Berkshire half the
county; more than half of Wiltshire; in Huntingdonshire out of a total
area of 240,000 acres 130,000 were commonable meadows, commons, and
fields" (Marshall, quoted in Sir Henry Maine's Village Communities in
the East and West, New York edition, 1876, pp. 88, 89). See also Dr. G.
Slater's The English Peasantry and the Enclosure of Common Fields,
London, 1907.
17. Ibid. p. 88; also Fifth Lecture.
18. In quite a number of books dealing with English country life which I
have consulted I have found charming descriptions of country scenery and
the like, but almost nothing about the daily life and customs of the
labourers.
19. In Switzerland the peasants in the open land also fell under the
dominion of lords, and large parts of their estates were appropriated by
the lords in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. (cf. A.
Miaskowski, in Schmoller's Forschungen, Bd. ii. 1879, pp. 12 seq.) But
the peasant war in Switzerland did not end in such a crushing defeat of
the peasants as it did in other countries, and a great deal of the
communal rights and lands was retained. The self-government of the
communes is, in fact, the very foundation of the Swiss liberties. (cf.
K. Burtli, Der Ursprung der Eidgenossenschaft aus der
Markgenossenschaft, Zurich, 1891.)
20. Dr. Reichesberg, Handworterbuch des Schweiz. Volkswirthschaft, Bern,
1903.
21. See on this subject a series of works, summed up in one of the
excellent and suggestive chapters (not yet translated into English)
which K. Bucher has added to the German translation of Laveleye's
Primitive Ownership. Also Meitzen, "Das Agrar-und Forst-Wesen, die
Allmenden und die Landgemeinden der Deutschen Schweiz," in Jahrbuch für
Staatswissenschaft, 1880, iv. (analysis of Miaskowsky's works); O'Brien,
"Notes in a Swiss village," in Macmillan's Magazine, October 1885.
22. The wedding gifts, which often substantially contribute in this
country to the comfort of the young households, are evidently a
remainder of the communal habits.
23. The communes own, 4,554,100 acres of woods out of 24,813,000 in the
whole territory, and 6,936,300 acres of natural meadows out of
11,394,000 acres in France. The remaining 2,000,000 acres are fields,
orchards, and so on.
24. In Caucasia they even do better among the Georgians. As the meal
costs, and a poor man cannot afford to give it, a sheep is bought by
those same neighbours who come to aid in the work.
25. Alfred Baudrillart, in H. Baudrillart's Les Populations Rurales de
la France, 3rd series (Paris, 1893), p. 479.
26. The Journal des Economistes (August 1892, May and August 1893) has
lately given some of the results of analyses made at the agricultural
laboratories at Ghent and at Paris. The extent of falsification is
simply incredible; so also the devices of the "honest traders." In
certain seeds of grass there was 32 per cent. of gains of sand, coloured
so as to Receive even an experienced eye; other samples contained from
52 to 22 per cent. only of pure seed, the remainder being weeds. Seeds
of vetch contained 11 per cent. of a poisonous grass (nielle); a flour
for cattle-fattening contained 36 per cent. of sulphates; and so on ad
infinitum.
27. A. Baudrillart, l.c. p. 309. Originally one grower would undertake
to supply water, and several others would agee to make use of it. "What
especially characterises such associations," A. Baudrillart remarks, "is
that no sort of written agreement is concluded. All is arranged in
words. There was, however, not one single case of difficulties having
arisen between the parties."
28. A. Baudrillart, l.c. pp. 300, 341, etc. M. Terssac, president of the
St. Gironnais syndicate (Ariege), wrote to my friend in substance as
follows:--"For the exhibition of Toulouse our association has grouped
the owners of cattle which seemed to us worth exhibiting. The society
undertook to pay one-half of the travelling and exhibition expenses;
one-fourth was paid by each owner, and the remaining fourth by those
exhibitors who had got prizes. The result was that many took part in the
exhibition who never would have done it otherwise. Those who got the
highest awards (350 francs) have contributed 10 per cent. of their
prizes, while those who have got no prize have only spent 6 to 7 francs
each."
29. In Wurttemberg 1,629 communes out of 1,910 have communal property.
They owned in 1863 over 1,000,000 acres of land. In Baden 1,256 communes
out of 1,582 have communal land; in 1884-1888 they held 121,500 acres of
fields in communal culture, and 675,000 acres of forests, i.e. 46 per
cent. of the total area under woods. In Saxony 39 per cent. of the total
area is in communal ownership (Schmoller's Jahrbuch, 1886, p. 359). In
Hohenzollern nearly two-thirds of all meadow land, and in
Hohenzollern-Hechingen 41 per cent. of all landed property, are owned by
the village communities (Buchenberger, Agrarwesen, vol. i. p. 300).
30. See K. Bucher, who, in a special chapter added to Laveleye's
Ureigenthum, has collected all information relative to the village
community in Germany.
31. K. Bucher, ibid. pp. 89, 90.
32. For this legislation and the numerous obstacles which were put in
the way, in the shape of red-tapeism and supervision, see Buchenberger's
Agrarwesen und Agrarpolitik, Bd. ii. pp. 342-363, and p. 506, note.
33. Buchenberger, l.c. Bd. ii. p. 510. The General Union of Agricultural
Co-operation comprises an aggregate of 1,679 societies. In Silesia an
aggregate of 32,000 acres of land has been lately drained by 73
associations; 454,800 acres in Prussia by 516 associations; in Bavaria
there are 1,715 drainage and irrigation unions.
34. For the Balkan peninsula see Laveleye's Propriete Primitive.
35. The facts concerning the village community, contained in nearly a
hundred volumes (out of 450) of these inquests, have been classified and
summed up in an excellent Russian work by "V.V." The Peasant Community
(Krestianskaya Obschina), St. Petersburg, 1892, which, apart from its
theoretical value, is a rich compendium of data relative to this
subject. The above inquests have also given origin to an immense
literature, in which the modern village-community question for the first
time emerges from the domain of generalities and is put on the solid
basis of reliable and sufficiently detailed facts.
36. The redemption had to be paid by annuities for forty-nine years. As
years went, and the greatest part of it was paid, it became easier and
easier to redeem the smaller remaining part of it, and, as each
allotment could be redeemed individually, advantage was taken of this
disposition by traders, who bought land for half its value from the
ruined peasants. A law was consequently passed to put a stop to such
sales.
37. Mr. V.V., in his Peasant Community, has grouped together all facts
relative to this movement. About the rapid agricultural development of
South Russia and the spread of machinery English readers will find
information in the Consular Reports (Odessa, Taganrog).
38. In some instances they proceeded with great caution. In one village
they began by putting together all meadow land, but only a small portion
of the fields (about five acres per soul) was rendered communal; the
remainder continued to be owned individually. Later on, in 1862-1864,
the system was extended, but only in 1884 was communal possession
introduced in full.--V.V.'s Peasant Community, pp. 1-14.
39. On the Mennonite village community see A. Klaus, Our Colonies (Nashi
Kolonii), St. Petersburg, 1869.
40. Such communal cultures are known to exist in 159 villages out of 195
in the Ostrogozhsk district; in 150 out of 187 in Slavyanoserbsk; in 107
village communities in Alexandrovsk, 93 in Nikolayevsk, 35 in
Elisabethgrad. In a German colony the communal culture is made for
repaying a communal debt. All join in the work, although the debt was
contracted by 94 householders out of 155.
41. Lists of such works which came under the notice of the zemstvo
statisticians will be found in V.V.'s Peasant Community, pp. 459-600.
42. In the government of Moscow the experiment was usually made on the
field which was reserved for the above-mentioned communal culture.
43. Several instances of such and similar improvements were given in the
Official Messenger, 1894, Nos. 256-258. Associations between "horseless"
peasants begin to appear also in South Russia. Another extremely
interesting fact is the sudden development in Southern West Siberia of
very numerous co-operative creameries for making butter. Hundreds of
them spread in Tobolsk and Tomsk, without any one knowing wherefrom the
initiative of the movement came. It came from the Danish co-operators,
who used to export their own butter of higher quality, and to buy butter
of a lower quality for their own use in Siberia. After a several years'
intercourse, they introduced creameries there. Now, a great export
trade, carried on by a Union of the Creameries, has grown out of their
endeavours and more than a thousand co-operative shops have been opened
in the villages.