THE WATERWAYS OF CANADA.
“Heads the running springs and standing lakes,
And bounding banks for winding rivers makes.”
—_Dryden._
It appears to be among the “things not generally known” that Canada
has, relatively to the trade and population of the Dominion, one of the
most extensive and perfect systems of canal communication in existence.
The really important canals are few in number, and the traffic that
they transport is by no means so considerable as that carried on
many of the canals of the United States and some European countries.
But, all the same, the Canadian people, always appreciative of the
advantages of cheap water transport, and looking to that agency as a
means for the development of their internal resources, have neglected
no opportunity that offered for advancing their waterways, and
utilising them to the utmost extent.
The principal canals in Canadian territory are the Welland, the
Lachine, the Cornwall, the Galops, the Murray, the Quebec and Montreal,
and the Sault Ste Marie, or St. Mary’s Falls, the latter being partly
on United States and partly on Canadian territory. These canals have
chiefly been constructed for the purpose of affording communication
between the great lakes and the St. Lawrence river, whence vessels pass
into the Atlantic.
_The Welland Canal._—The waters of Lake Erie empty into Lake Ontario
through the Niagara river and over the Niagara Falls. The difference
in the levels of the two lakes cannot be stated with any exactness, as
the influences which cause the variations in the height of water in
the two lakes are not identical. It is, however, as nearly as can be
ascertained, 326¾ feet. The course of the Niagara river is due north,
and its current is swift and turbulent
The Welland river flows nearly at right angles with the Niagara river,
and discharges into it at Chippewa, a village about 2 miles above
Niagara Falls. It is navigable for deeply loaded vessels for a distance
of 40 miles or more, and has scarcely any current. The Grand River
flows south-easterly, and empties into Lake Erie. Port Maitland, one
of the safest harbours on Lake Erie, is situated at the mouth of the
Grand River. Port Colborne, another very secure harbour on the same
lake, is about 18 miles west of the upper end of the Niagara river.
Port Dalhousie, on Lake Ontario, is about 11 miles west of the mouth of
the Niagara. The desirability of connecting the two lakes by navigable
water was, very early in the history of the country, admitted by all
who gave the matter attention; surveys were made from time to time,
and various plans were proposed and discussed, but nothing definite
was done until, in 1824, a company was incorporated under the name
of the Welland Canal Company. Their first intention seems to have
been to establish a line of communication between the two lakes by a
combination of canal and railway, the canal to be of comparatively
small capacity; but this plan was soon laid aside, and it was
determined to secure water communication throughout the whole length,
and to build a canal sufficiently large to admit schooners and sloops.
The plan thus adopted contemplated utilising the Niagara river from
Lake Erie to the mouth of the Welland river, the Welland river being
followed for a distance of 8¾ miles, and building a canal from Welland
river to Lake Ontario. The water supply was to be obtained from the
Welland river, and a high ridge of land in the line of the proposed
canal was to be overcome by a deep cut. There were many objections to
this plan, the chief of which were the circuitous course necessitated
by the use of the Niagara and Welland rivers, the swift current of
the Niagara, and its unsuitability for heavily loaded boats, and
the constant danger of slides, because of the unstable character
of the soil through which the deep cutting would have to be made.
Notwithstanding these objections, and various other obstacles which
were developed by close inquiry and examination, the company adhered
to their plans, and in July 1825 entered into a contract for the
prosecution of the work. But the undertaking dragged from lack of funds.
[Illustration: THE WELLAND CANAL, WITH LOCKS OPEN.]
In the summer of 1828 the work of construction had made such progress
that it was confidently expected that the water would be let into the
canal by the autumn of that year; but just at this time the predictions
of the opponents of the scheme were realised, and the completion of the
enterprise was delayed by the falling in of a part of the embankment in
the deep cut. The accident was so formidable as to seriously embarrass
the company, already well drained of its resources, and working on a
plan not generally approved. The directors, therefore, abandoned the
design of using the Welland river as a feeder, and determined to obtain
their water supply for the canal from the Grand River, through a new
feeder to be constructed for a distance of 27 miles. This necessitated
raising the level of the canal, but the depth of cutting was at the
same time diminished 15½ feet, and the danger of a recurrence of the
accident referred to was much lessened. Work was again begun, and on
November 30th, 1829, two schooners ascended the canal from Lake Ontario
to the Welland river.
[Illustration: THE WELLAND CANAL, WITH LOCKS SHUT.]
Vessels drawing 7½ feet of water and not having more than 21½ feet
breadth of beam then sailed down the river Niagara until they
approached about one-fourth of a mile from the mouth of the Welland
river. There they entered a canal, 15 chains in length, which has been
cut across a point of land into the Welland river, up which they passed
a distance of 9½ miles. They then ascended two locks into the deeper
cut, and passed through it for a distance of 16½ miles more into Lake
Ontario.
The feeder was 20 feet broad at the bottom, 40 feet broad at
water-level, and 5 feet deep. The Government, in 1831, granted the
company a loan to assist in carrying out an extension of the main line
over the Welland river to Port Colborne by enlarging the feeder for
about five miles, so as to make it a navigable channel, and excavating
a new canal for the remaining distance between the main line, as
originally completed, and Lake Erie. This work was finished in 1833,
the line thus constructed occupying nearly the same route as the
enlarged line of 1841, and the old line of the present day having the
same termini on the two lakes. It was 27¼ miles long, and the breadth
at the bottom was 24 feet. There were forty locks, built of wood,
all 110 feet long by 22 feet wide, except the first three ascending
locks from Port Dalhousie, which were 130 by 32 feet, and one at Port
Colborne from the canal into Lake Erie, which was 125 by 24 feet.
At the solicitation of the company, an Act was passed in 1839
authorising the purchase by the province of the rights of the private
stockholders, and, shortly after the union in 1841, the purchase
was made and the line was transferred to the new Board of Works of
Canada. Up to this time it had cost the province of Upper Canada in
loans (which were never repaid), in advances, and in the purchase of
stock 1,751,427 dollars; in addition to which 100,000 dollars had been
contributed to its construction in the purchase of the company’s stock
by the Government of Lower Canada, and 222,220 dollars in loans by the
Imperial Government, making the total cost 2,073,647 dollars.
The Welland Canal, as originally built, had never been satisfactory,
either in its location, in its dimensions, or in the character of the
work, and it had never been looked upon as permanently completed.
From time to time surveys and investigations had been made, and changes
and improvements suggested, but nothing of any moment had been done.
As soon, however, as the line came wholly under the control of the
Government, by the purchase of the interests of the private holders, it
was determined by the Board of Public Works that all the locks should
be rebuilt in stone, and their dimensions increased to 120 feet long by
26 feet broad, with 8½ feet water on the sills; that the aqueduct
required to carry the canal over the Welland river should be rebuilt of
stone; that the feeder should be converted into a navigable channel;
that the harbours on both lakes should be improved; and, finally, that
the projected Port Maitland branch should be undertaken and completed,
with an entrance lock from Lake Erie 200 feet long, 45 feet wide, and
having 9 feet depth of water.
These works were commenced in 1842 and completed in 1849. The original
plan was modified during the progress of the work so as to make the
locks 150 feet long by 26½ feet wide, and the bed of the main line 26
feet wide at the bottom.
As the Grand River gave evident signs that it could not be relied
upon as a feeder, it was decided to obtain the water supply for
the canal from Lake Erie. To do this it became necessary to lower
the summit-level 8 feet to that of Lake Erie. This undertaking was
commenced in 1846, but was not finally completed so as to render the
canal independent of the Grand River until a few years ago. These
enlargements and improvements cost the Government of Canada up to the
1st of July 1867, 4,900,810 dollars.
Even after its enlargement, no vessel drawing more than 10 feet of
water, or over 150 feet in length, could pass through the Welland
Canal. Increased accommodation being needed, a larger canal with a new
set of locks was commenced in 1873, and completed in 1881. This canal
branches off from the old canal 19 miles from Lake Erie, and rejoins
it again at Lake Ontario. The old canal was deepened from Lake Erie to
its junction, with the new canal, so that vessels having a draught of
less than 12 feet can pass from one lake to the other. The new canal is
100 feet wide at the bottom, 12 feet in depth, and has side slopes of 2
to 1; but the excavation through rock has been carried down to 14 feet
in depth, to facilitate the deepening of the canal if required in the
future. It is 13 miles long, and cost 3,840,000_l._ The difference in
level is 313 feet, which is surmounted by twenty-five locks, with lifts
ranging between 12 to 16 feet. Regulating weirs have also been built,
some attaining a width of 300 feet; the flow of water through them is
regulated by sluice-gates, formed of sheet iron, which are raised and
lowered by screws. The locks are 40 feet 4 inches wide, and have a
length of 270 feet between the sills. The side walls are 29 feet high,
with a batter of 1 in 24; they are built of limestone ashlar, and are
strengthened by counterforts. The lock floor is planked with pine
timber, and the gates are constructed of white oak. The gates are moved
by chains, guided by rollers and winding round drums, and one man is
able to move a gate. The sluice-gates are raised by lifting a small
shutter (½ foot by 1 foot), which allows the current to work a small
turbine, whose revolutions set in motion a screw which raises and
lowers the sluice-gate. The rate of motion transmitted by the turbine
is so much reduced in passing through a train of wheels and a revolving
nut that 212 revolutions of the turbine are required to raise the
sluice-gate 1 inch. The sluice-gates are 5 feet by 1½ foot, and are
raised in two minutes.
It has been doubted by many men who have carefully studied the question
whether the very large expenditure that has been incurred over the
Welland Canal will ever be justified by the result. The canal is, of
course, the main connecting link between the great lakes of the south
and south-west and the principal maritime outlets of the Dominion,
and the Dominion Government has no doubt been animated by the belief
that the time would come when the great commerce that now passes from
Duluth, Chicago, and other ports in the United States to New York, and
thence to Europe, would take the Welland Canal route, instead of the
Erie Canal, thereby making Montreal the chief port on the American
continent. This impression has been supported by the consideration that
Montreal is nearly 300 miles nearer to Liverpool than New York.
It is, no doubt, of the greatest possible consequence to Great Britain,
to the United States, and last, but not least, to the Dominion of
Canada, to consider how the immense traffic which is now carried on
between the great North-western States and the markets of Europe is to
be carried in the time to come.
At the present time we receive from the United States about thirty
millions of cwts. of wheat per annum, of which two-thirds are brought
to us from ports on the Atlantic, and one-third from ports on the
Pacific. We also receive between twelve and fifteen million cwts. of
wheat meal and flour, and ten to twelve million cwts. of maize or
Indian corn, in addition to smaller quantities of barley and other
cereals.
The great bulk of this immense traffic is transported from Chicago,
which is the great gathering ground, to New York, which is the great
distributing centre. There is no traffic in the world that is more
fiercely competed for. Everything is done that can be done to draw
it on to the railways on the one hand, and on to the waterways on
the other, and as a consequence the rates of freight, as we have
seen, are on both systems reduced to the lowest attainable limit. The
Transatlantic traffic is competed for quite as keenly, so that grain
has been carried between Chicago and the markets of Great Britain, a
distance of over four thousand miles, for less than 20_s._ per ton,
including a railway journey of 950 miles, or a lake and canal journey
of 1200 miles, in addition to the ocean voyage.
It is, however, beginning to be felt that even this extraordinary
outcome of the development of the means of efficient transportation may
be threatened with successful rivalry. There are those who argue that
the natural outlet for the grain grown in the North-west is not New
York, but Montreal, which is 270 miles, or a day’s steaming, nearer to
Liverpool than New York.
The grain traffic is sent from Chicago to Buffalo in either case. But
from Buffalo to Liverpool by way of the Erie Canal and New York is 3450
miles, while by way of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Montreal it is only
3180 miles. In both cases, the grain is carried by water, so that there
is practically no difference in point of cost at the port of departure.
It has been found necessary in Canada, with a view to meeting the
competition of the Erie Canal route, to reduce the canal tolls and
harbour dues. Prior to 1884, the rate of tolls on the grain shipped by
way of the Welland Canal was 20 cents per ton, which allowed a vessel
to pass through the St. Lawrence Canal without additional payment.
But, as the tolls on the Erie Canal were abolished in 1883, it became
increasingly difficult for the Montreal route to compete with that
_viâ_ the enfranchised Erie Canal to New York.
A remission of one-half of the tolls on grain has, therefore, since
1884 been allowed on the Welland Canal, so that the present rate is
only 10 cents, or 5_d._ per ton. Other concessions have been made in
the interval, until now the rate is only 2 cents per ton on grain
passing eastwards to Canadian ports. This has had the effect of greatly
stimulating the canal traffic. The quantity of grain carried into
Montreal by railway was, in 1885, about 3½ million bushels
more than that carried by canal. In 1886, however, the canal carried
nearly five millions of bushels more than the railway.[121]
The Canadian port, however, notwithstanding its advantages in point of
nearer proximity to Liverpool, and its equally good if not superior
navigation from Buffalo, is very far behind that _viâ_ New York. The
receipts of grain at New York in some recent years have amounted to
as much as 175 millions of bushels, or fully nine times as much as
the quantity received at Montreal in 1886. It is manifest, therefore,
that Montreal, whatever its geographical advantages, has not secured
that share of this immense trade to which it has considered itself to
be entitled. This fact is probably due to a variety of causes, one
of which, the impediments in the way of the navigation of the St.
Lawrence, the Canadian Government have recently been attempting to
overcome. But the most serious drawback to Montreal is, no doubt, the
climate, which closes up the navigation entirely for a great part of
the year, while that of New York is always open.
_The Cornwall Canal._—This canal, which is now being enlarged, between
Moulinette and Milleroches, where several breaches have occurred in
its banks, was originally constructed with a width of 100 feet at the
bottom and 10 feet depth. The embankment was raised to 14 feet above
the canal bottom, and was made 12 feet wide at the top with slopes on
either side of two to one.
That portion of the canal embankment on the upper reach, which, for
upwards of a mile in length (from Moulinette to Milleroches) holds the
water in the canal at a level of about twenty feet above the branch of
the St. Lawrence, which runs alongside, is in part founded upon the
treacherous clay bottom in which were found springs of water, and in
part in side cutting permeated by streaks of sand. The embankment over
this ground was formed with extra care, the earth being laid on in
courses with carts, and where the outer slope ran out into the river, it
was protected by boulder stones along its outer edge. Where springs
were found under the seat of the embankment they were led out to the
river’s edge by French drains, and where the streaks of sand were
encountered in the side cutting they were cut off by puddle trenches, 6
feet deep or more, and the bottom and side bank were lined with puddle,
3 feet thick, from the puddle trench to high-water mark. This mode of
protection was not continuous over the whole line, but was confined to
such parts of the bank only as appeared to require it.
Since the opening of the canal, there have been several breaches
in this bank, the last and worst of all, which occurred in 1888,
inflicting serious damage upon the trade of the St. Lawrence in that
year.
The enlarged canal is to be 6 feet deeper than the old one. Sixteen
feet of water, instead of 10 feet, implies greater strain upon the
bank, and a deeper searching after the hidden springs and streaks of
sand that may be interposed between the canal bottom and the river.
It has been proposed, with a view of avoiding this risk, to substitute
a lake three miles in length for a canal where the breaks have
occurred, and to throw dams across the narrow channels at the head and
foot of Speek’s Island, in order to raise the water up to canal level.
_The Sault St. Marie Canal._[122]—The Dominion of Canada, which borders
on the Sault, has, or believes that she has, quite as great an interest
in the development of the traffic on this route as her neighbours, and
hence has resolved on constructing a canal at this point, which will,
of course, be built on Canadian territory. So far back as 1852, the
Canadian Government had surveys made with a view to the construction
of a canal on the Canadian shore, and the execution of the project was
recommended by the Canadian Canal Commission of 1871, but it was not
until 1888 that the work was actually placed under contract.
On the Canadian side of the St. Mary’s river there is to be a lock of
18 feet, with a chamber 600 feet in length between the gates, 85 feet
wide, and narrowed at the gates to 60 feet on opposite sides.
_The Canadian Canal System generally._—A Commission appointed by the
Dominion Government in 1870 to report on the best means of improving
the canal system of Canada, adopted a series of recommendations, which
have since been followed as far as possible. The principal of these
were:—
[Illustration: MAP SHOWING THE POSITION OF THE SAULT ST. MARIE, IN
RELATION TO THE AMERICAN LAKES, AND THE TRADE FROM WEST TO EAST.]
1. That one uniform size of locks and canals be adopted throughout the
whole of the St. Lawrence route; that the locks be made 270 feet long
and 45 feet wide, with a depth of 12 feet clear on the mitre sills;
and that the bottom of the canals be sunk at least 1 foot below the
mitre sills of the locks, with a width throughout of not less than 100
feet. They stated that these dimensions would enable vessels of the
usual build, carrying 1000 tons, to pass, and if their breadth of beam
and sectional areas were increased, the canals might be navigable for
vessels of 1500 tons.
In giving their reasons for fixing the greatest depth of water on this
route at 12 feet, the Commission says:—
“While some of the writers who ought to be best informed on the subject
recommend a draught of 14 feet, and others as much as 16 feet, regard
must, nevertheless, be had to the capabilities of the harbours, and to
the engineering characteristics of our canals, as well as the prudent
suggestions of moderate and experienced men, who have limited their
views to 12 feet. It would be extremely unwise to embark in magnificent
schemes exceeding the resources of a young country, with the view of
introducing ocean vessels into our canals and lakes.”
2. That the locks on the proposed Bay Verte Canal be made 270 feet long
and 50 feet wide, with a depth of 15 feet on the mitre sills.
3. That the locks on the Ottawa system be made 200 feet long and 45
feet wide, with a depth of 9 feet on the mitre sills.
4. And that the locks in the Richelieu river be made 200 feet long and
45 feet wide, with such a depth on the mitre sills, not exceeding 9
feet, as the channel of the Richelieu would afford.
The dimensions fixed upon for these routes were thought sufficiently
large to accommodate the largest barges used for carrying timber, that
being the main article transported through them.
_The Ottawa River._—The Canadian Government a few years ago began
the improvement of the Ottawa river, westward from Ottawa, with the
design of opening up a waterway to Lakes Huron, Michigan, and Superior
by means of the Ottawa and French rivers and Lake Nipissing. This
undertaking, after being under discussion for a considerable period,
was finally abandoned, after an expenditure of over 1,000,000 dollars.
According to a report made by a Government engineer on the cost of
the completion of the scheme, it would have involved about 24,000,000
dollars. A canal 6 miles long would be required to surmount the
Chaudiere Falls at Ottawa, which are a barrier to continued river
navigation above this city (and from which the valuable water power
of the city is derived). Another canal 3 miles in length would
be necessary to overcome the Chats Falls. This work, called the
Chats Canal, was commenced in 1854 and abandoned in 1856, after an
expenditure of 483,000 dollars.
_The St. Lawrence River._—Only at the close of the year 1888, a work
of river improvement, which was commenced fifty years before, was
completed by the official opening of the 27½-feet channel between
Montreal and Quebec, on the St. Lawrence river. This undertaking
involved the deepening of the channel through the flats of Lake St.
Peter, where there was only a depth of 12 feet in 1867. In 1873 the
Dominion Legislature resolved to deepen the channel to 22 feet at
low-water, and not less than 300 feet wide. In 1878 a minimum depth of
22 feet at ordinary low water had been attained. In 1882, the channel
was further deepened to 25 feet at low-water, and in 1883, the Harbour
Commissioners began to increase the depth to 27½ feet, which has now
been completed. Between 1851 and 1882 upwards of eight millions of
cubic yards had been dredged from the channel, at a total expenditure
of 1,780,130 dollars, including 534,809 dollars for dredging plant.
Vessels of 4000 tons can now go up the St. Lawrence to Montreal. The
people of the latter city, as already indicated, mean to compete with
New York for the European trade.
The inland canal and lake system of Canada, together with the United
States Canals at the Sault St. Marie, have established an unbroken
water communication, for vessels up to 1800 and 2000 tons (gross), from
Duluth, at the western extremity of Lake Superior, to the Straits of
Belle Isle, at the mouth of the St. Lawrence river—a distance of 2384
miles.
The difference in level between Lake Superior and the St. Lawrence,
at Montreal, is about 600 feet, and fifty-five locks are required
to overcome this, although the mileage of the eight canals is but
seventy-one. The ordinary locks of the Canadian canals are 270 feet
long, by 45 feet broad, and 14 feet on the sills, and the American
locks at the Sault, as already mentioned, are 515 feet long, 80 feet
wide, and 18 feet on the sills. These locks are all built specially
wide, to accommodate the various classes of steamers and barges
employed; for it has been remarked that although in England the trade
is arranged to suit the boats, in America the boats must be built to
suit the trade, and the locks accordingly.
FOOTNOTES:
[121] The exact figures were—
┌───────┬─────────────────────────────┐
│ │ Bushels of Grain carried by │
│ Year. ├────────────┬────────────────┤
│ │ Railway. │ Canal. │
├───────┼────────────┼────────────────┤
│ 1885 │ 10,007,061 │ 6,559,000 │
│ 1886 │ 6,685,000 │ 11,366,000 │
└───────┴────────────┴────────────────┘
[122] The leading particulars as to the location and characteristics
of this canal are given at p. 209, and need not here be repeated.