THE WATERWAYS OF SWEDEN.
“From his side two rivers flowed,
The one winding, the other straight, and left between
Fair champaign, with less rivers intervened.”
—_Milton._
Although Sweden is possessed of an admirable system of lakes, which
facilitates transport over a wide area, and although the commerce
of the country is limited, and the population sparse, the canal
navigations are by no means unimportant. On the contrary, they have
been carried out over a wide area, with great enterprise and skill, and
at a very considerable expenditure. The two principal canal systems are
those of Gotha and Dalsland—the former constructed for the purpose
of connecting the two most important towns in the kingdom, Stockholm
and Gothenburg; the latter intended to afford a means of communication
between the province of Dalsland, with its productive forests and
admirable command of water-power, and the rest of Sweden.
_The Gotha Canal_ is one that has a very interesting history, and its
ultimate completion may be said to make an epoch in the history of
canal engineering, the obstacles to be surmounted being of a character
that engineers had had but little experience of up to the commencement
of the present century.
In Sweden, Gustavus Vasa fulfilled the same destiny in regard to
artificial waterways, as Peter the Great did in Russia. The ambitious
but generally utilitarian plans of the sovereign included that of
connecting Gothenburg with Stockholm, by means of the Wenner, Hielmar,
and Mælar. Eric XIV., the son of Gustavus Vasa, after his father’s
decease, caused a survey of the waters connecting with those lakes to
be made, in order that they might be joined for purposes of navigation.
Nothing further was done during his reign, but the design was revived
by Gustavus Adolphus, who, however, could not find persons capable of
carrying it out, and Charles XI. was advised by some Dutch engineers
that the project was impracticable.
It was reserved for Charles XII. to commence the serious undertaking
of rendering navigable the Gotha and the falls of Trolhätten, but the
work was not completed in his lifetime. The projected work, as proposed
by the engineer Polhem, was to connect the Mælar and the Hielmar, the
Hielmar and the Wenner, and the Wenner with the German Ocean.
Difficulties occurred in the way of completing the connection between
Lake Wenner, or Wenmon, and the Baltic; and in 1806 Thomas Telford was
consulted, at the instance of the King of Sweden, as to the best means
of carrying out the communication. Telford[97] made a complete survey,
and prepared plans which were adopted. In 1810, he again visited Sweden
for the purpose of inspecting the excavations then begun, and took
with him a number of English navvies and lockmakers, in order that the
Swedes might be instructed in the work. As designed by Telford, the
Gotha canal was 120 miles in length, including the lakes, of which 55
miles were artificial navigation. The locks are 120 feet long, and 24
feet broad. The width of the canal at the bottom is 42 feet, and the
depth of the water is 10 feet.
The completion of the Gotha canal was justly regarded at the time
as one of the most important and able engineering works of the day.
Previous to Telford’s time, an artificial waterway, called the
Carlsgraf Canal had been constructed in the time of Charles IX., and
under his direction, to connect the Wenner with that part of the river
Gotha where it is first navigable. From the end of this canal to the
village of Trolhätta, a distance of five miles, the navigation of the
river was uninterrupted, but when the cataracts of Trolhätten—locally
spoken of as the “Gulf of Hell”—were approached, all farther
navigation became impracticable through a space of about two miles.
The river is here divided into four principal cataracts, separated by
whirlpools and eddies, and descending through a perpendicular height of
100 feet. Several attempts having been made to construct a canal here,
some of which ended in complete failure, while others, including that
made in the time of Gustavus III., threatened to involve so much
expense, that that monarch, after visiting the works, ordered them to
be suspended, a wooden road was constructed alongside the river, from
the beginning to the end of the cataracts, in order to facilitate the
conveyance of merchandise to Gothenburg.
The following data relative to the Gotha Canal are extracted from the
large atlas of plates published along with the life of that engineer
for the purpose of illustrating the principal works of Telford.
DETAILS OF THE GOTHA CANAL.
────────────────────────────┬───────────────────────┬──────────────
│ Distance. │ Lockage.
├───────────┬───────────┼───────┬──────
│ Canal. │ Lake. │ Fall. │Rise.
├─────┬─────┼─────┬─────┼───────┼──────
│miles│yards│miles│yards│ │ft. in.
├─────┼─────┼─────┼─────┼───────┼──────
Canal from Lake Wenern to │ 22 │ 1039│ .. │ .. │ .. │158 0
the Wiken │ │ │ │ │ │
│ │ │ │ │ │west
Lake Wiken │ .. │ .. │ 12 │ 318 │ .. │end
│ │ │ │ │ │of
Canal at Edet │ .. │ 534│ │ │ │summit.
Lake │ .. │ .. │ .. │ 535 │ │
Canal │ .. │ 581│ .. │ .. │ East │
│ │ │ │ │ end │
Lake │ .. │ .. │ .. │ 117 │ of │
│ │ │ │ │summit.│
Canal near Forsvik │ .. │ 496│ │ │ft. in.│
Lake Boltensjön │ .. │ .. │ 4 │ 803 │ 9 9 │
Canal at Rödesund │ .. │ 486│ │ │ │
Lake Wettern │ .. │ .. │ 19 │1136 │ │
Canal between Wettern and │ 2 │ 841│ .. │ .. │ 49 9 │
Lake Boren │ │ │ │ │ │
Lake Boren │ .. │ .. │ 6 │1140 │ │
Canal from thence to Roxen │ 14 │ 63│ .. │ .. │130 9 │
Lake Roxen │ .. │ .. │ 15 │1423 │ │
Canal from thence to │ │ │ │ │ │
Asplangen │ 4 │ 446│ .. │ .. │ 19 6 │
Lake Asplangen. │ .. │ .. │ 3 │ 208 │ │
Canal from thence to the │ 10 │ 494│ .. │ .. │ 86 6 │
Baltic near Soderkoping │ │ │ │ │ │
├─────┼─────┤ │ ├───────┤
Total length of canal │ 54 │ 1460│ .. │ .. │296 3 │
├─────┼─────┼─────┼─────┼───────┤
Total length of lake │ │ │ │ │ │
navigation │ .. │ .. │ 62 │ 400 │ │296 3
│ │ ├─────┼─────┤ ├──────
│ │ │ │ │ │454 3
Total length of canal and │ │miles│yards│ │ │
lakes in English miles │ │ 117│ 100 │ │ │
────────────────────────────┴─────┴─────┴─────┴─────┴───────┴──────
About a mile below the cataracts, the course of the Gotha was again
interrupted by a fall called Akerstræum; and at the end of last century
a canal 182 feet long, and 36 feet broad, was constructed here, through
a bed of rock, until, at the other end of the cataract, the river is
clear to Gothenburg. Before the construction of the Gotha Canal, the
traffic for Gothenburg was unloaded at the cataracts, carried over the
wooden road to the end of the falls by horses, and again put on board
vessels which carried it through the Akerstræum Canal to its ultimate
destination.[98]
At Trolhätta, about 1¼ mile below the point where the river Göta-Elf
leaves the Wenner Lake, there occurs a series of falls and rapids,
the river descending 108 feet in a length of about 4590 feet. The
works which were commenced at this place early in the last century,
were well advanced in 1755, when an unusually heavy flood caused much
destruction and loss of life, and the abandonment of the works, never
since resumed. The intention was to surmount the difference of level,
viz., 108 feet, at the falls above mentioned, by three locks only, with
a rise of 36 feet each. In the canal, as constructed in 1800, there is
a chain of eight locks (still in service), but these being insufficient
for the traffic, a second set of eleven were constructed alongside the
former in 1844. These are cut in the solid granite. There are sixteen
locks in all, with a fall of 142 feet on this canal (Trolhätta), which
is 22 miles long. The breadth of the canal-bottom is 39 feet in soil
and 23 feet 5 inches in rock, with a depth at mean water-level of 12
feet 8 inches. The number of vessels passing annually is about 7000.
_The West Göta Canal_, connecting the Wenner and Wetter lakes, rises
from the former by a series of nineteen locks, or a height of 154 feet
6 inches, to the summit level, which is 300 feet above the sea, and
the descent from here to the Baltic, _viâ_ the East Göta canal, is by
thirty-nine locks. The breadth of the bottom of these canals is 46 feet
9 inches with a mean depth of 9 feet 9 inches. These two canals were
completed in 1832 at a cost of 887,500_l._ The length of navigation is
116⅔ miles, of which 54⅓ miles are artificial canal, and
62⅓ miles lake channel. The traffic is from 4000 to 5000 vessels
per annum.
_The Dalsland Canal._—The eastern spurs of the high range dividing
Norway from Sweden run in the south through the small province of
Dalsland towards Lake Wenern, and from numerous valleys, which descend
more or less abruptly to the shore, and serve as channels for many
torrents from the mountain ridges. There are often considerable falls,
which supply a vast motive power to works of various kinds, chiefly
bar-iron forges and saw-mills. There was one serious drawback to this
industry. Lake Wenem afforded the only means of communication between
Dalsland and the outer world; and to reach that lake from the various
works, a long and costly land transport was the sole resource. This
became more and more an obstacle as increased facilities were developed
in other parts of the world. Hence, some forty years ago, the question
of utilising the Dalsland water-courses as a means of transport was
broached, and this was accomplished in the year 1868. Along the
Norwegian frontier, northward, in the province of Wermland, there is a
lake, the Stora Lee, 20 miles long, with an extreme width of 3 miles,
which joins Lake Wenem by a water-course, having eleven continually
descending basins, together constituting a fall of 200 feet. At the
northern extremity of the Stora Lee are the Toksfor works. At a
distance of 12 miles southward, where there is a fall of 28 feet, are
the iron works of Lennartsfors. At this point the Stora Lee is joined
by Lake Leelângen; and lower down, at the junction with Las Lake,
motive power is supplied by a fall to the Billingsfors works. Farther
on, towards Lake Wenem, there are the Gustafsfors Ironworks and the
Skapfors Sawmills, where several falls occur, the highest being a fall
of about 30 feet at Upperud Ironworks.
The Dalsland Canal Company having been formed, with the governor of the
province, Count Sparre, as president, the directors in 1864 succeeded
in engaging the assistance of the late Baron Nils Ericson, Colonel
of Engineers. His plan to some extent varied from former projects,
and comprised the following main conditions:—The construction of a
canal at Hofverud, near Upperud, instead of a railway, so as to avoid
unloading and reloading; a route from Las Lake, past the Billingsfors
works to Leelângen; the adoption of the same dimensions for the
whole length of the canal from Upperud to Stora Lee, viz., a depth
of 5½ feet, a width of 13 feet at the bottom, and a length of 100
feet between the lock gates; and an increase in the number of locks
between Lake Wenem and Stora Lee to twenty-five instead of fifteen, as
proposed. The contract for constructing the canal according to this
plan, including excavations round the fall at Hofverud and an aqueduct
over the stream at that place, was taken at about 76,000_l._ sterling,
raised chiefly by shares and, to some extent, by state subventions. It
was stipulated that the dimensions of the canal should be such that
vessels of 75 feet in length, 13 feet beam, and drawing 5 feet of water
should be able to navigate it. Consequently the locks were mainly of
the following dimensions:—
Ft. In.
Minimum length between the gates 100 0
” width in the flood gate 14 0
” depth of water on the sill 5 2
” height of the gate wall over the sill 6 7
” width of the sill 6 0
” length of the gate wall 7 0
Radius of the sill and of the left wall 16 0
Length of gate recess 17 0
Radius 50 0
Slope of the lock chamber sides 5 to 1.
Versed sine of the exterior of the inner wall 2 0
” ” outer ” 3 0
The gate-walls and recesses were all constructed with Wargo cement.
The sides of the lock-chambers are of masonry in cement, supported
by an earthen embankment. The gates are single, and have wooden
bolts; the sills are formed of wooden beams 10 inches by 12 inches.
Timber drawbridges are employed throughout, placed in front of a lock
immediately before the recess or entrance.
The canal is of the following dimensions:—
Ft. In.
Minimum width at bottom 13 0
” depth 5 6
Height of the bank above water level 2 0
Width of the bank at top 8 0
” towing path 5 0
At the Waterfalls of Hofverud, the most interesting point of this
canal, the rock on one side is almost perpendicular for 150 feet, while
the other side of the stream is occupied by the ironworks of Hofverud.
For this reason Ericson constructed an iron aqueduct over the fall of
110 feet span. This aqueduct has the form of an open box. The two sides
for carrying the weight are wrought-iron bow girders, 10 feet deep at
the middle and 6½ feet at the ends, of English iron plate ¼ inch. The
bottom and top flanges are ½ inch and ⅛ inch thick respectively, formed
of three layers of plates bolted together. The top flange serves as a
pathway as well.
The Dalsland canal rises 192 feet 6 inches by twenty-five locks, the
summit level being 338 feet above the sea. The length of the navigation
is 155 miles; but the actual length of the works that were needed to
complete the system is only 4·8 miles.
The locks on this canal are each about 98 feet 6 inches long, with
a breadth of 13 feet 8 inches, and a depth over the sill of 5 feet
4 inches. The breadth of the bottom is 14 feet 6 inches and 15 feet
7 inches, in soil and rock, respectively. The canal is navigated by
vessels of 70 tons, and steamers of 45 tons and 25 H.P. The
traffic amounts to about 4000 vessels per annum. It was completed in
1868 at a cost of 81,500_l._
_The Kinda Canal_ rises 171 feet by fifteen locks to a level of 277
feet above the sea. The length of the navigation is 49½ miles, of which
22¾ is either artificial canal or trained river. The length of the
locks is 90 feet 6 inches, breadth 18 feet 4 inches, and depth over
sill 4 feet 10½ inches. The traffic is from 3000 to 4000 vessels per
annum. It was completed in 1871 at a cost of 72,500_l_.
_The Orebro Canal._—One of the most recent canal undertakings in
Sweden is the Orebro Canal, which is designed to bring down to the town
of that name the traffic from the Mälar and Hjelmar Lakes, instead of
being compelled to cart it from the old harbour of Skebäck, two or
three miles distant. There is no special engineering feature about the
canal, which was commenced in June 1886, and opened in 1888. For some
distance it follows the bed of the Svarta, and is subsequently divided
into two branches, one of which, the main branch, to the south, has a
length of 4600 feet, and the other, to the north, is 2600 feet long.
The former is designed for passenger and lighter traffic, and the other
is specially arranged for the transport of grain, coal, timber, &c. The
main canal has a width of 80 to 90 feet at the water line, and has 8½
feet depth. The lock at the commencement of the canal is 125 feet long
and 25 feet broad, and at the northern end of the canal, where there is
a high granite quay, 1200 feet long, the canal is 150 feet wide. The
water on the canal is enclosed by a dam of 200 feet long, and the total
cost of the undertaking is about 40,000_l_. The enterprise is mainly
interesting as an example of the local application of water power with
a view to economy of local transport.
_Projected Canals._—At the present time a canal is projected whereby
it is intended to connect the Kattegat with the Lake of Wenern, thus
bringing into direct water communication the towns of Uddevalla and
Genersborg. The length of this canal will be about twelve miles, some
four miles of that distance being through lakes. The level of the canal
will be raised above that of Lake Wenern by three sluices. The depth
of water in the Uddevalla harbour and in the Venersborgvik would limit
the depth of the canal to about 21 feet, but this would be sufficient
to admit vessels of about 3000 tons. The sluices proposed would be 350
feet long and about 45 feet in width. The canal would be a natural
outlet for a large traffic in timber, iron, and wood pulp, now so
largely employed in the manufacture of paper.
FOOTNOTES:
[97] Thomas Telford, born in Dumfries-shire, Scotland, in humble
circumstances, was, next after Brindley, the greatest English canal
engineer. He constructed the Caledonian, Ellesmere, Gloucester and
Berkeley, Grand Trunk, Birmingham, Macclesfield, Birmingham and
Liverpool Junction, and other canals. He also constructed a number of
harbours, docks, roads, and bridges, including the Menai Bridge and
St. Katherine’s Docks. He died in 1834, and was buried in Westminster
Abbey.
[98] Cox’s ‘Travels,’ vol. iv.