THE NORTHERN REPUBLICS
Such history as can be claimed by the remaining Republics of South
America has been achieved, from the political point of view, on a far
smaller and less conspicuous scale than that of the great southern and
central states. In many respects the happenings have been more strictly
local, although, of course, there have been a certain number of
incidents, such as that of President Castro in Venezuela, whose
irresponsible conduct roused half the European Powers to take action
against his country, and whose childish obstinacy was responsible for
temporarily strained relations between Great Britain and the United
States. This may serve as an example of what weighty influences may be
brought to bear by totally insignificant causes.
Of this group of lesser Republics, however, Venezuela may well enough be
taken among the last, since that State still remains one of the rapidly
declining number of Republics whose affairs continue in a really
backward condition. Of the remaining countries of the north, Bolivia is,
it scarcely need be said, by far the most important. That the interests
of this country have up to the present not been of a more cosmopolitan
character is due mainly to the fact of the great difficulty experienced
in the establishing of modern communications in so wealthy yet so
mountainous a land.
According to F. Garcia Calderon--
"Bolivia sprang, armed and full-grown as in the classic myth, from
the brain of Bolivar. The Liberator gave to her a name, a
Constitution, and a President. In 1825 he created, by decree, an
autonomous Republic in the colonial territory of the district of
the Charcas, and became its Protector. Sucre, the hero of Ayacucho,
succeeded him in 1826. During the War of Independence this noble
friend of Bolivar resigned from power, disillusioned; he was the
Patroclus of the American Iliad."
Sucre's name is one of those most intimately and gloriously associated
with the history of the youthful State. After his passing and that of
Bolivar, Andreas Santa Cruz became the virtual ruler of Bolivia. Santa
Cruz was a powerful chief, who feared not to shed blood in the cause of
civilization, as he understood it, and who, considering the
circumstances in which he found himself, proved an extremely able and
enlightened President. Under his fostering care the national security
became a little more assured, and the treasury of the Republic waxed.
Santa Cruz is said by some to have cherished Imperialistic ambitions. It
is certain that his talents were recognized to some extent in Europe, if
from no other evidence than from the fact that he received the Order of
the Legion of Honour from Louis Philippe of France. There is no doubt
that the new Chief-of-State realized to the full the benefits which the
influx of foreigners must bring to his country. On this account he
encouraged immigration from Europe. Santa Cruz, indeed, did his utmost
to introduce every measure likely to increase the population of Bolivia,
and, as has been explained in another place, carried his policy to the
length of proposing the exclusion of celibates from all public offices.
[Illustration: BRIGADIER-GENERAL BARTOLOME MITRE.]
The powerful personality of Santa Cruz soon enabled him to become the
virtual Protector of Peru, in addition to President of Bolivia, and he
now began to organize the fusion of the two Republics into a single
State. These measures were regarded with great uneasiness by the
Chilians, who ultimately invaded the territory of Santa Cruz. The first
Chilian expedition was defeated, but the second gained a decisive
victory at Yungai in 1838, and, as a result of this battle, the star of
Santa Cruz became totally eclipsed in South America. He retired to
Paris, where he became the friend of Napoleon III., and where he died in
1865.
With the exile of Santa Cruz ended the first period of tranquillity
enjoyed by the youthful Republic. His powerful figure was followed by
many others, the majority of whom were tyrannical, some incapable, and a
few whose aims were really progressive. Progress, indeed, in the vortex
of the whirlpool of events which ensued was practically an
impossibility. It is said that from 1825 to 1898 more than sixty
revolutions burst out in Bolivia, to say nothing of intermittent foreign
wars! In the course of these various struggles no less than six
Presidents were assassinated, and it was not until the advent to power
of Colonel (now General) Pando that the situation of the country changed
definitely for the better.
In the year 1899 President Pando inaugurated civil government, and,
having proved himself an able and powerful soldier, now turned his
attention to the industrial and commercial status of the country. These
desirable features he fostered by modern and liberal methods, which
proved eminently successful, and it was during the period of his office
that the first really important plans were matured for the opening up of
the remoter districts by means of the railway.
The most severe blow with which Bolivia has met since the foundation of
the Republic in that country has been the loss of her coast-line, as the
result of the unsuccessful war waged against Chile. Negotiations have on
several occasions been initiated with a view to an attempt to recover
some strip of the lost territory, even if no more than sufficient for
the building of a port and for the accommodation of a railway-line to
connect this point on the seaboard with the interior of the Republic;
but, so far, none of these negotiations have been brought to a
favourable issue.
Bolivia thus remains an inland State. But in spite of a disadvantage
such as this, there is no doubt that the extraordinary natural wealth of
the country, which must in the near future be exploited, will rapidly
bring the Republic into the forefront of the South American nations from
the commercial and industrial point of view.
With the exception of this and one or two other circumstances of the
kind, the majority of the South American States have suffered very
little frontier alteration since their first foundation. Such, however,
has not been the case with the Northern States of Colombia, Ecuador, and
Venezuela. Here, for almost half a century after the liberation of the
provinces, a process of alternate fusion and disintegration continued.
Thus, in 1832, the three States of Venezuela, Ecuador, and New Granada
were formed. In 1863 the latter country became the United States of
Colombia; but it was not until 1886 that the Republic of Colombia as it
now stands was instituted.
Colombia has suffered from as many revolutions as the majority of its
neighbours. General Santander, one of the many of Bolivar's lieutenants
who became Presidents, was the first Chief-of-State of Venezuela. A
strong ruler, he governed in comparative peace until 1831. The next
important President to follow him was General Mosquera, who likewise
held the reins of power with a firm hand, and, with two or three breaks,
ruled from 1845 to 1867. Dr. Rafael Nunez succeeded him, and proved
himself an intellectual President, who became more and more autocratic
as his years of office increased. He continued, indeed, whether in the
actual tenure of office or not, to exercise an influence of personal
absolutism over the Republic until 1894, when he died.
His death was the signal for the breaking out of internal disturbances
which his long rule had steadily kept in check. It was in 1903 that,
owing to the negotiations in progress for the enterprise of the Panama
Canal, the portion of Colombia which had been chosen for the purpose of
the cutting seceded from the Republic, and established itself as a
separate State--that of Panama. The new Republic immediately concluded
arrangements with the United States of America, and granted concessions
for the immense enterprise which is now in the act of being completed.
The history of Ecuador since the establishment of the Republic requires
very little comment. In this State the proportion of the white races to
the coloured is unusually small; nevertheless, this has not had the
effect of checking the revolutions, of which the Republic has been
extremely prolific.
General Juan Jose Flores stands as the chief hero of Ecuador. He it was
who actually founded the Republic in 1830. Flores provides one more
instance of the power of the men who stood at the helm of these new
States when they were first of all launched on the stormy waters of
their careers. When his fifteen years of power ended came the inevitable
flock of revolutions, and Ecuador went the way of her neighbours.
A military Dictatorship endured until 1860, when Garcia-Moreno, being
declared President, supported the clerical influence and established a
species of Dictatorship. His influence continued for many years after he
had ostensibly resigned his office, and the sincerity of his acts was
unquestionable. Considering that the situation of the country rendered
it necessary, he resumed power and arrested various attempts at
revolutions. In 1875, however, he was assassinated. A statesman of
disinterested merit and high ideals, he was generally mourned by the
populace.
Venezuela began its fateful career under the guardianship of General
Paez, one of the principal heroes of the revolution. It was Paez who had
led his Llanero cavalry so often to victory against the Spaniards, and
who, as already related in these pages, had achieved the unique feat of
capturing a flotilla of Spanish gunboats--or, to be more accurate,
gun-barges--by means of this very cavalry. Those were certainly
remarkable men who swam their horses into the river where the flotilla
was anchored, and succeeded in this most extraordinary onslaught!
Paez, whose strain was half Spanish and half Indian, was intensely
practical in his views of government. Caring nothing for idealists and
for those who indulged in abstract theories, he severed himself abruptly
from Bolivar shortly after the final patriot victories, and in the end
was the chief cause of the exile of the Liberator. There is no doubt
that both his views and those of the Liberator had changed considerably
in the interval, for it is said that in 1826 General Paez had implored
Bolivar to mount the throne of the new kingdom which it was proposed to
found. The career of Paez fluctuated between a tenure of the office of
President and an apparent retirement into private life, in the course of
which, however, his influence and actual power remained as great as
ever.
Eventually Jose Tadeo Monagas, who had long enjoyed the support of
Paez, revolted against the authority of the old chief. Paez, nothing
loath, accepted the challenge, rallied his followers, and marched to
battle. Here he was defeated and subsequently exiled, while Monagas was
left in power.
Paez eventually made his way to the United States. In his absence the
condition of Venezuela became chaotic, and its populace writhed in a
ceaseless frenzy of civil strife. Paez returned from the United States
in 1861, and at the spectacle of the terrible condition of his country
he resolved, though eighty years and more of age, to enter once again
the arena of public life. He succeeded in obtaining power, but only for
a short while. The spirited but tottering old man was followed by
Guzman-Blanco, and died in 1873.
Guzman-Blanco was a man of education, who had enjoyed the advantage of
travel in various parts of the world, and proved himself an able leader.
It was not long, however, before the party of the Monagas rose in
rebellion against his authority. These adherents of the Monagas were now
known as the "Blues," and the party of Guzman-Blanco was christened the
"Yellows."
In 1870, after various victories and defeats, Guzman-Blanco caused
himself to be declared Dictator. He enjoyed immense popularity until his
resignation in 1877. He was succeeded by General Alcantara, and left for
Europe. On his return he found that his influence and power had already
been destroyed. Placing himself at the head of a revolution, he again
became chief of the State, which he continued to govern, either from
within the Republic itself, or from the banks of the Seine, until 1889,
when his power was finally overthrown. Blanco himself made no attempt to
return to the country. He remained in Paris, where he died in 1898.
In 1895, when President Crespo was in power, a diplomatic incident
occurred between Great Britain and Venezuela, owing to the arrest of two
British police officers, who had been detained by the Venezuelan
authorities. The actual cause of the dispute resolved itself into the
question of frontier delimitation, and soon the excitement in Venezuela
had reached fever heat. This was by no means allayed when it became
known that the United States were inclined to intervene on behalf of the
minor Republic. President Crespo himself displayed admirable tact, and
it was largely due to his policy that the incident had a pacific ending.
It was in 1899, not long after these events, that General Crespo was
slain in a skirmish with insurgents.
After a period of anarchy General Castro was elected President. Not long
after his accession this President succeeded in embroiling the State
with Great Britain, Germany, and Italy. The main reason for the breaking
off of friendly relations was his arbitrary refusal to consider the
claims of these nations on account of the damage done to the property of
their subjects in Venezuela in the course of the numerous revolutions
which had recently occurred.
The result of the obstinacy of General Castro was the establishment of a
blockade of the port of La Guayra by the naval forces of Great Britain,
Germany, and Italy in 1902. The Custom-House was seized, and the three
Powers signified their intention of retaining this until satisfaction
could be obtained. Upon this the matter was referred to the Hague
tribunal, and awarded in favour of the three European Powers concerned.
International incidents of the kind have occurred, naturally enough, far
more rarely in the history of South America than revolutions and civil
war. Indeed, in the popular mind the chief feature of the Continent was,
until quite recently, represented by internal strife. How far from the
truth is this estimate can only be judged by one who enjoys a personal
acquaintance with Republics such as Argentina and Chile.
The sole centres where the phase of revolution has lingered on with an
intermittent flourishing are those of the Northern Republics referred to
in this chapter and the inland State of the centre of the Continent,
Paraguay.
A work of history, however slight and condensed though its form may be,
is no place in which to indulge in prophecy. Yet it may safely be
supposed that even in these less settled Republics the age of
tranquillity is now at hand. In order to justify this assertion, it is
merely necessary to take a glimpse into the past, and to investigate the
actual causes of these numerous revolutions which have splashed their
marks so thickly on the clear road of South American progress.
A country of great natural riches and of wonderful opportunities for
mankind, a dearth of population, an unusual lack of facilities of
communication, and, finally, an urgent need of ready cash in the midst
of material plenty--all these circumstances must necessarily tend to
unrest in a land populated by inhabitants whose temperament contains an
unusual measure of imagination and theoretical creative power. With the
removal of these factors, the political situation tends to become
tranquil, as has been proved in the case of the more progressive
Republics.
It may safely be said that the South American temperament is, in itself,
no more revolutionary than any other. When the material circumstances of
one of these States have been brought to resemble those which prevail in
a European country, the conditions of politics necessarily grow to
resemble each other as well. Thus the difficulty with which the more
advanced Republics are confronted is no longer one connected with rapid
and disorderly changes of Government and Presidents. The States in
question are now too wealthy in themselves and too loaded with serious
responsibilities for the possibility of such casual recurrences. The
strife, in consequence, tends rather to centre itself, as in Europe, to
a contest between capital and labour, and, as elsewhere in the world,
strikes have taken the place of more sanguinary battles.
All this, of course, applies with greater force to some of the South
American countries than to others. The vitality and power of the
Continent in general is now, at all events, beginning to assert itself
to the full, and in the minds of a certain number of its educated and
intelligent inhabitants South America is destined in the future, however
distant this may be, to become the rallying-ground of the Latin races.
[Illustration: SKETCH-MAP: SOUTH AMERICA.]
INDEX
Abipones, 12
Aboriginal tribes, 145, 146
Alberdi, Manuel, 167
Alfinger, 28, 33
Almagro, 47, 48, 52, 54
Almagro, Diego (the Younger), 112
Alvarado, Pedro de, 51, 52
Alvear, 170, 172, 255, 276
Andradas, the, 198, 203, 204, 211-214
"Araucana, La," 23
Araucanians, 13, 56, 58, 122, 128
Artigas, 172, 193, 201, 275
Asuncion, 67, 69, 73
Atahualpa, 48-51
Ayacucho, Battle of, 184
Aymaras, tribe of the, 56
Ayolas, Juan de, 66-68
Bahia, 40, 42, 96-98, 103, 107, 186, 194, 198, 200
Balboa, Nunez de, 31, 32, 33
Balcarce, 168
Balmaceda, 271
Belgrano, 159, 167-170, 173, 245
Benalcazar, 34
Bogota, Santa Fe de, 115, 147, 149, 223
Bolivar, Simon, 154-156, 159-166, 175, 182-184, 229, 232-235
Bolivia, 283-285
Brazil, 36-46, 79, 80, 185-227
Brazil wood, 37
British mariners, 95-98
British, hardships endured on northern campaign, 161, 162
British settlers, methods of, 43
British invasion of the River Plate, 139-141
Brouwer, 126
Buccaneers, 93, 94, 146
Buenos Aires, first settlements at, 65
Buenos Aires, 71, 115, 118, 167-173, 208, 209, 234, 236
Buonaparte, Joseph, 156, 157
Buonaparte, Napoleon, 156, 157
Cabot Sebastian, 64
Cabral, Pedro Alvarez, 24, 37
Caceres, 244
Carabobo, Battle of, 165, 166
Caracas, 90, 147-149, 159
Caribs, 12
Carrera, the Brothers, 173, 174, 266
Casa de Contratacion de los Indias, 75, 76
Casas, Bartolome de Las, 61, 63
Caseros, Battle of, 280
Castelfuerte, Viceroy, 179
Castelli, 167, 168
Castilla, Ramon, 241
Castro, Cristobal Vaca, 112, 113
Castro, President, 290
Caupolican, Araucanian Chief, 58, 59, 124
Cavendish, 93, 96
Chacabuco, Battle of, 176
Charles I. of England, 108
Charles V. of Spain, 28, 33
Chibcha, Indians, 11, 34, 56, 149
Chile, 13, 64-71
Chiquitos, 12
Chiriguanos, 12
Chunchos, 12
Cisneros, Baltasar, Hidalgo de, 167
Cocapac, 5, 6
Cochabamba, 169
Cochrane, Lord, 175, 177, 200, 201
Coelho, Duarte, 39
Colombia, 186, 187
Colonia, 80
Columbus, Bartholomew, 23
Columbus, Christopher, 13-25
Columbus, Diego, 31
Conquistadores, 2, 26-31, 57, 58, 60, 67, 68, 159
Correia, 40
Crespo, President, 289, 290
Criminals used to explore fresh countries, 19, 20, 38, 39
Cuzco, 4, 6, 50, 53
Da Cunha, Paulo, 102
Darwin, 278
Davis, 93
Devereux, General, 161
Dorrego, 276
Drake, Sir Francis, 86, 89, 90, 125
Dutch, 40, 44, 95, 97-109, 126, 127, 129, 148
Dutch method of colonization, 44, 45
Earthquakes, 122, 166
Ecuador, 286-288
Encomiendas, 70, 121
English, General, 161
Ercilla, 73, 124
Fenton, Edward, 96
Ferdinand of Spain, 17-19, 21-24
Fernandes, Joao, 106
Fernando de Noronha, 108
Flores, General Juan Jose, 287
Fonseca, General Deodoro, 218, 220-223
Francia, Jose Gaspar Rodriguez de, 236, 245-250
French in Brazil, 40, 98
Gallado, Antonio, 116
Gama, Admiral da, 224, 225
Gama, Vasco da, 38
Gamarra, President, 240
Garay, Juan de, 71
Gasca, Pedro de la, 113, 114
Gran Reunion Americana, the, 170
Guarani, Indians, the, 11, 67, 81
Guarayos, Indians, 12
Guatavita, Lake of, 60
Guemes, 159, 171, 173
Gueneche, 168, 169
Guianas, the, 12
Guido, 167
Guzman-Blanco, 289
Hawkins, Sir John, 87-89
Henry, Prince, the Navigator, 15
Hernandarias, 135, 136
Hispaniola, or Haiti, 19, 21-23, 29, 61
Hoogstraten, Dirk van, 105, 107
Huasca, 48, 51
Huguenots, 41
Huitotos, 12
Iberian, colonization system of, 44, 45
Incas, 1, 2, 4-11, 56
Incas, origin of, 4-7
Incas, revolt of, 53, 54
Inquisition, 128, 129
Inter-marriage, 45
Ipurines, 12
Irala, Domingo Martinez de, 68-71
Isabella, Princess of Brazil, 211, 213, 215-218
Isabella of Spain, Queen, 16, 17, 21, 23, 24, 34
Jamamaries, 12
Jesuits, 8, 81, 148
Jews in Brazil, 97, 100
Joao VI., 186-196, 199, 209
Junin, Battle of, 183, 184
Junot, 186
Junta of Argentina, 167
Knight, 93
Lancaster, James, 96
Lautaro, 59, 123
Lavalle, General, 276
Lavalleja, General, 276
Ledesma, Alonso, Andrea de, 92
Leopoldina, wife of Pedro I. of Brazil, 193, 205, 206
L'Ermite, Jaques, 94
Lima, Regent of Brazil, 212, 213
Lima, town of, 52, 110, 111, 117, 118, 182, 270
Liniers, General, 140, 166, 168, 236
L'Ollonais, Francois, 94
Lopez, Carlos Antonio, 250
Lopez, Francisco Solano, 215, 250-263
Luques, Hernando, 47
Lynch, Madame, 251, 261
Maciel, 103
Maipu, Battle of, 174, 176, 180
Mamelucos, 81
Manco-Capac, 5
Manco-Capac, brother to Huasca, 51, 52, 54
Maranhao, 103, 104
Marie I. of Portugal, 188, 193
Marie II. of Portugal, 194, 209
Mauritz, Prince of Nassau, 99, 100, 102-105
Mello, Admiral Custodio de, 223, 225
Mendoza, Andres Hurtado de, 114
Mendoza, Garcia Hurtado de, 123, 124
Mendoza, Pedro de, 27, 65, 66
Miguel, Dom, of Portugal, 194, 209
Miranda, Francisco, General, 154-156, 159-160, 164, 264, 265
Mitre, Bartolome, General, 153, 281
Mojos, 12
Monagas, Jose Tadeo, 288, 289
Monte Video, 168, 170-172, 193, 201
Moraes, Prudente Barros de, Dr., 226
Moreau, 137
Moreno, Garcia, 288
Moreno, Mariano, 170
Morgan, Captain, 146, 209
Narborough, Sir John, 127
Navarro, Deputy, 213, 214
Negro slaves, 81
New Granada, 145, 148, 160, 238, 286
Nicuesa, 31
Noorte, van, 94
Nunez, Raphael, 287
O'Higgins, Ambrose, 119, 120, 265
O'Higgins, Bernardo, 120, 173, 174, 233, 235, 264, 268
Ojeda, Alonso, 23, 31
Olinda, capture of, 99
Omaguas, Indians, 12
Origin of the Incas, 2, 3
Ovando, Nicolas de, 24, 29, 31
Paez, General, 162-165, 288-289
Pampa Indians, 57, 66
Panama, exploration of, 47
Pando, General, 185
Paraguay, 67-71, 215, 245-263
Pardo, Manuel, 242, 243
Pedrarias, 32, 33
Pedro I. of Brazil, 194-210, 212
Pedro II. of Brazil, 210-219
Peixoto, General Floriana, 218, 223, 226
Pena Nicolas Rodriguez, 167
Penna, Affonso, Dr., 227
Pernambuco, 95, 194, 205, 215
Peru, 3-5, 47-55, 65, 110-114, 237-244
Pierola, Nicolas de, 243, 244
Pinzon, Admiral, 241, 242
Pinzon, Vincente, 24, 36
Pizarro, Francisco, 47-54
Pizarro, Gonzales, 113, 114
Popham, Admiral Home, 139, 140
Portugues, Bartholomew, 94
Portuguese settlers, methods of, 42, 45, 46
Prado, General, 242, 243
Puyrredon, 173
Quesada, Gonzalo Jimines de, 34, 35, 142-144
Quiroga, 231, 232, 279
Quito, 7, 146, 147, 148
Raleigh, Sir Walter, 92, 93
Recife, 96, 97, 99, 100, 102, 105, 108
Repartemiento, 61
Rio de Janeiro, 41, 42, 65, 187-190, 205, 221-223
Rio Grande, 215, 222, 223-225
Rivadavia, 172, 235, 275, 276
Rivera, 278
River Plate, 12, 27, 64, 65, 69, 82, 159, 166, 205, 230, 272-281
River Plate, colonization of, 65
River Plate, discovery of, 64
Rolt, extract from, 127
Rondeau, General, 173
Rosario, 65, 171
Rosas, 215, 274, 276-281
Royal audience, 113
Saavedra, Cornelio de, 167, 170
Salles, Campos, Dr., 226, 227
San Martin, General, 159, 170-172, 175-177, 182, 183, 229, 232, 233, 235
Santa Cruz, Andreas, 240, 241, 284, 285
Santander, General, 286
Santiago, town of, 72, 180, 181
Sao Paulo, town of, 80, 81, 198, 215, 216
Sharpe, 93
Slave trade abolished in Brazil, 217
Smith, Sir Sydney, 186, 189
Smuggling, 78, 79
Sobremonte, Viceroy, 140
Socialism of the tribes, 13
Solis, Juan de, 64
Sousa, Martin Affonso de, 39
Souza, Thome de, 42
Spanish gunboats captured by cavalry, 163, 164
Spanish methods of settling, 44, 45
Suarez, 184
Sucre, General, 159, 175, 184, 284
Suipacha, victory of, 168
Sun, worship of the, 5, 7, 8, 11
Tacanas, 12
_Tamayo_, newspaper, 203
Teixeira, Bishop Marcos, 98
Terra Firma, 110
Titicaca, Lake, 4, 5, 56
Titles, 152
Treaties with Araucanians, 128
Tribes, names of, 12
Tupac-Amaru (Condorcanqui), 114, 116, 117
Tupis, 12
Tuyuti, Battle of, 257
Uraba, 31, 32
Urquiza, 215, 280, 281
Ursua, Francisco de Paula Bucareli y, 138
Uruguay, disputed territory, 80
Uruguay, rival parties, 282
Vaca, Alvar Nunez Cabeza de, 69, 70
Valdivia, Pedro de, 59, 65, 72
Valdivia, town, 125, 127, 129
Vasconcellos, 214
Vela, Blasco Nunez, 113
Venezuela, 148, 150, 155, 288-290
Venner, Captain, 96
Vespucci, Amerigo, 23, 36
Viamonte, 167
Viceregal functions, Peru, 110-112
Villagran, Francisco, 122, 124
Villanueva, Colonel Alonzo de, 125
Villegagnon, Nicolas Durant de, 41
War of Independence, 118, 159-184
Welzers, the, 28, 33
West India Company (Dutch), 97, 99, 105, 106
Whitelocke, General, 140, 141
Willikens, Jacob, 97
Yegros, Fulgencio, 246, 247
Zapiola, Matias, 170
ERRATA.--Page 188, lines 6 and 7, _for_ "Queen Francisca Isabel," _read_
"Queen Maria."
THE END
BILLING AND SONS, LTD, PRINTERS, GUILDFORD