BRAZIL: FROM COLONY TO EMPIRE
Until the period of Napoleonic chaos which overwhelmed the two
westernmost countries of Europe, the South American colonies of Spain
and Portugal had continued their existence on similar lines. Both had
been entirely subservient to the Mother Country. The laws which governed
Brazil and the Spanish colonies were framed on the same model, and the
disadvantages under which the colonists of either nation had laboured
from the start had been practically identical.
With the upheaval which occurred at the beginning of the nineteenth
century, a new order came into being, so far as the Spaniards and
Portuguese were concerned. The parting of the ways was now marked. It
is, indeed, curious to notice that, while Spanish South America was
strenuously engaged in transforming itself from the status of a royal
colony to that of a group of independent republics, an operation was
being carried out in Brazil, the effect of which was precisely the
reverse.
Brazil, in fact, in place of the neglect of centuries from which she had
suffered, now underwent a sudden, dazzling, and altogether unexpected
shower of honours and distinctions. That this did not come about
spontaneously affected the colony but little; the fact remained that she
was destined in a remarkably short space of time to rise from a colony
to a kingdom, and from a kingdom to an empire. The circumstances which
led to this transformation were sufficiently dramatic in themselves.
In order to preserve the thread of these rather complicated events, it
is necessary to transfer the scene for a short while to Western Europe,
where at the moment the armies of Napoleon were sweeping all before
them.
In 1807, when the French troops under Junot were on the eve of entering
Lisbon, the Portuguese Royal Family embarked on a Portuguese man-of-war,
and, escorted by a Portuguese fleet, sought the protection of the
British Fleet under Sir Sidney Smith.
The move was effected only just in time, and the Prince Regent's
confidential servant, who embarked just after the rest, left his
departure so late that he was obliged to forsake some of his papers, his
money, and even his hat, on the beach. Sir Sidney Smith convoyed the
fleet as far as latitude 37 deg. 47' north, after which he left them under
the protection of the _Marlborough_, the _London_, the _Monarch_, and
the _Bedford_. Almost at the same time Sir Samuel Hood and General
Beresford took possession of the Island of Madeira, holding it in trust
for Portugal.
The royal party landed at Bahia on January 21, 1808. So enthusiastic was
their reception that they remained in the town for a month. While at
Bahia the Regent gave promise of his future good-will and liberality by
promulgating a _carta regia_, dated January 28, by which he opened the
ports of Brazil to general commerce, levying on imports only a moderate
duty, and permitting exports of all articles under any flag, with the
exception of one or two articles which still remained royal monopolies.
The departure of the Royal Family from Bahia was rendered necessary by
strategic considerations, for, owing to its peculiar situation, the town
could easily have been cut off from the rest of the mainland by hostile
forces. The royal party therefore sailed south, and arrived in Rio de
Janeiro on March 7.
The joy in the port at the arrival of the Regent and his party
manifested itself in an excitement approaching delirium on the part of
the officials and populace. The mountains and the waters of the bay were
illuminated night after night with Bengal fires, rockets, and similar
fireworks, and every possible demonstration of joy known to the
colonists was continued unbroken for nine days. In the meanwhile the
inhabitants were preparing the beautiful site of the town for its
promotion as a capital city of a kingdom and the residence of a King.
Indeed, in material advantages Brazil benefited almost immediately from
the arrival of the Portuguese Royal Family. In the first place, as has
already been explained, on January 28, 1808, the Prince Regent abolished
the old exclusive system, and opened the ports of Brazil. A local
writer, referring with enthusiasm to this, said the edict "ought to be
written in letters of gold."
New desires, new habits, and new objects, were now introduced, and came
crowding one after the other in haste into the wonderful tropical
regions of the Bay of Rio de Janeiro. Printing was legalized with the
arrival of the Prince Regent, who brought over with him his library, and
this, in 1814, was thrown open to the public. The progress of science
went hand in hand with that of the rest, and in 1811 vaccination was
introduced. The pleasant arts were not left out in the cold, since, in
1813, the first regular theatre was opened. In 1814 the French were
invited to come over as residents, and they accepted in numbers.
The old Criollo families now mustered about the royal representatives of
Portugal, and rubbed shoulders with the nobility, who had come out in
attendance, taking no little pride in the contact, and desirous only of
exhibiting to the utmost possible extent the depth of their loyalty.
The character of the Regent was such as to warrant the fervent loyalty
displayed by his American subjects. Although set free by the mental
disease of Queen Francisca Isabel, his mother, to the exercise of almost
despotic authority from his earliest years, he had developed very few of
the vices usually resulting from such lack of control and training. He
is described as having been "mild and just" in temper, and of
comparatively pure moral character. He was, however, called to the
exercise of authority in troubled times, and had not the balance which
makes the perfect statesman. To Joao VI. the nearest trouble was always
the greatest, and the courtier at hand, able to gain the royal ear, had
far more chance of success with him than the one who proffered his
request by letter. Joao found it difficult to refuse, disagreeable to
inquire, and laborious to discuss. He was, in fact, an amiable man, but
not a strong one.
Joao used the best measures at his command for the prosperity of his
adopted kingdom, and he carried out reforms as far as he could or dared.
Free trade was completely established; foreign settlers were invited,
and artisans and mechanics encouraged in every way. English mechanics
and shipwrights, Swedish ironfounders, German engineers, and French
artists and manufacturers, crowded to this new field of action, so
suddenly opened up. In the meanwhile schools and hospitals were founded
throughout the country, and the new commerce, consequent on unrestricted
trading, was watched and regulated. Inspectors of ports and customs were
appointed to prevent fraud; Rio was made a bishopric, and the
ecclesiastical establishments of the country were carefully regulated,
while many new tribunals were established.
The vast increase of population and trade caused a corresponding
increase in the buildings of the central and southern cities, more
especially in those of the capital. New streets and squares and
magnificent country houses rose up on all sides, while the presence of a
brilliant Court necessarily altered many of the habits of the people.
The fashions of Europe were introduced, and the Empire gained a breadth
of outlook that no mere colony of the period could ever possess. The
introduction of the Court brought to Brazil a new life and activity, new
luxuries, increased and increasing trade, a vigorous and growing
population, fresh public and private undertakings, and all the vigour of
a rising community.
Rio de Janeiro was now the head-quarters, not only of Brazil, but of the
whole Portuguese Empire. The Papal Nuncio had taken up his residence at
the spot; Lord Strangford, the British Ambassador, and other diplomatic
representatives of the various European countries, had arrived; while
Sir Sidney Smith hovered about as a naval guardian angel. Rio, in fact,
opened its astonished eyes to a world of fashion and to functions such
as it had never known.
As could scarcely fail to prove the case in the circumstances, it was
not long before jealousies arose between the Portuguese and the
colonists; but it was some time before these appeared on the surface,
and in the first place the atmosphere of feasting and rejoicing
dissipated all other considerations.
One of the effects of the advent of the royal party in Brazil may easily
be conceived. The Court had always been somewhat prodigal of its Orders
and Decorations. The appetite in the Peninsula for these insignia had
always been sufficiently keen; among the cruder Brazilians the greed
for any distinction of the sort became quite overwhelming. The most
popular Portuguese Order has always been--and remained so even until the
recent ending of the Monarchy--that of Christo, and the effective state
dress of this Order, the long white robe with the great cross, has
always had a wide appeal. In Rio de Janeiro during this period this was
only one of the Orders which were scattered broadcast, and which, after
a short while, could be obtained at an increasingly cheap rate.
Eventually every tradesman in Rio was wont to appear at the official
gatherings, and, indeed, at the others as well, with his breast covered
with a blaze of Orders, all of which had been paid for, if not in actual
cash, in goods delivered.
The tremendous enthusiasm of the colonists bade fair to add an element
of pure farce to the situation. At this period, moreover, various negro
battalions were raised, and it is noted by travellers that the black
faces of the negro officers were wont to mingle with those of the
courtiers at royal functions--a very strange and new situation for
those, many of whose relatives were undoubtedly slaves in the same
country.
But in return for these advantages a bill--and a heavy bill at
that--mounted up steadily. As a colony Brazil had been governed simply
and inexpensively. After awhile the colonists found that a Queen, a
Regent, and a Court, were expensive luxuries. In addition to the Royal
Family there came over from Portugal more than 20,000 nobles, knights,
and gentry, each expecting to be supported out of the revenues of the
colony in the same state and circumstance as had been his own in Europe.
In order to provide for these hosts of dependents, offices and places
were created, and endowed with the most liberal salaries.
On the arrival of the Court there were already four Ministers, four
offices, and four staffs of officials in existence. These were
continued, and to them were added a Supreme Court of Law and Equity; a
Board for the simultaneous management of the affairs and property of the
Church and of the military Orders, with the power of suspending laws; a
secondary Court of Appeal, but still a superior Court to those of
Brazil; a general Board of Police; a Court of Exchequer and the
Treasury; a mint, with a large staff of officials; a bank; a royal
printing-office; large mills and factories for the manufacture of arms
and ammunition; and a supreme military court.
These new posts and offices were filled throughout by European
officials, and the expenses of the Court itself, added to them, made up
a burden which the new trade and increased population failed to
compensate. In order to meet the cost of these many new appointments the
Government had imposed new taxes and duties. Tobacco, cotton, sugar,
hides, and other exports, were taxed; and 10 per cent. was levied on
house rent, on the sale of real property, and harbour dues.
All this, however, was insufficient, and as a last resort the expedient
of tampering with the currency was tried. Dollars were sent into
circulation at 20 per cent. above their commercial value. Money was
borrowed from the bank, which was in close connection with the mint, and
taxes were mortgaged in advance; while even the royal regalia was
pledged as security. Notes were issued far beyond the amount of cash
available for redemption, and a few years later the bank, its affairs
brought to irremediable confusion, stopped payment.
While these things were occurring, public discontent was growing; and in
order to divert the attention of the populace from internal troubles, a
war was determined on. French Guiana was near, and provided an
admirable object for the purpose. In 1809, when France was fully engaged
in European struggles, Guiana was attacked and captured with little
trouble. The colony capitulated, and remained Brazilian for six years,
when the Treaty of Vienna restored it to French rule.
The conquest was of great indirect value to Brazil, in that it led to
the introduction and free cultivation of agricultural products which had
either been non-existent in Brazil up to that time, or extirpated by the
crippling policy which Portugal pursued towards her colonies. Cinnamon,
for instance, had hitherto been destroyed wherever found in Brazil,
being regarded as a monopoly of the East Indies.
[Illustration: ARMS OF THE EMPIRE OF BRAZIL.]
[Illustration: ARMS OF UNITED KINGDOMS OF PORTUGAL, THE ALGARVES, AND
BRAZIL.]
The easy victory over Guiana induced the Regent to make attacks on the
Spanish colonies to the south and west of Brazil. Here, however willing
the colonists were to shake off their subjection to Spain, they by no
means desired to become subject to Brazil. It was just at this period
that the War of Independence was raging, and the Spanish colonies were
forming themselves into republics. Joao, fearing republicanism more
than he hated Spain, aided Elio, the Spanish Governor of the Plate
districts, with money and men in his attacks on the insurgents.
[Illustration: PEDRO I., EMPEROR OF BRAZIL.
_A. Rischgitz._]
Elio was defeated, and the new Republicans made a hostile entry into Rio
Grande and Sao Paolo. The Regent, fearing the result of this incursion,
sent 5,000 Portuguese troops with a contingent of Brazilians to drive
the enemy over the southern frontier. In this the Brazilian force was
entirely successful, and the evacuation of Montevideo and occupation of
Misiones were followed by the chasing of the Uruguayan patriot Artigas
across the Uruguay River.
In spite of popular and successful war, the Brazilians refused to be
entirely contented, and Joao had some reason to fear their discontent,
since Brazilian money supported the Government and Court, and ruin would
necessarily follow the withdrawal of this. In order to meet all
objections Joao determined to make Brazil his kingdom.
On December 16, 1815, a decree was issued declaring that from the date
of its publication the State of Brazil should be elevated to the dignity
of a kingdom, and henceforth called the Kingdom of Brazil, and should
form with those in Europe the United Kingdom of Portugal, Algarves, and
Brazil. Immediately after this event the Queen, Dona Maria, died at Rio,
and the Prince Regent delayed the ceremony of his succession until the
expiration of a year of mourning. The arms of the new King consisted of
an armillary sphere of gold, in field azure, and in a scutcheon
containing the quinas of Portugal and the seven castles of Algarves. The
sphere was surmounted by the royal crown.
On November 5, 1817, a vessel brought out the Archduchess Leopoldina,
daughter of the Emperor Francis I. of Austria, who had been married by
proxy to Dom Pedro, the son of Joao VI.
On February 6, 1818, Joao VI. was formally crowned at Rio, a ceremony
which was emphasized--
"by bursts of music, peals of bells, explosions of artillery,
deafening shouts, of discharges of fireworks, and such a universal
display of extravagant joy that, as my worthy author, Goncalves dos
Santos says: 'It would require the pencil of Zeuxis and the odes of
Pindar to describe; and if anything on earth could be compared to
the joys of heaven, it was that moment.'"
The following year Princess Dona Maria da Gloria was born, a
circumstance which rejoiced the loyal colonists not a little.
Nevertheless, in the remoter regions of the enormous colony of Brazil,
where the influence of these joyous events had been less felt, all was
not so tranquil.
In Pernambuco and Bahia local jealousies had fermented; the revolutions
had been put down with a firm hand, and the leaders of the movements
executed. This severity was much resented, both at the time and
subsequently, and these provinces, in consequence, remained in a state
of suppressed irritation.
In 1820 some territory was annexed in the south, when, Uruguay being
convulsed by civil war, the troops of Brazil occupied Tacuarembo and the
Arroyo-Grande.
After a while it became evident that Prince Pedro had gained more
popularity than the King. The conservative methods of Joao VI. were in
the end responsible for protests on the part of the populace, and the
King at length was obliged to give way, and to promise more liberal
constitutions than he had endeavoured to uphold. Dom Pedro swore in his
father's name to respect these constitutions, and his example was
followed by his brother, Dom Miguel. The enthusiasm which followed the
concession was tumultuous, and the King himself found it necessary to
come from his country seat, Boa Vista.
When he arrived at the capital his horses were taken from his carriage,
and it was dragged to the palace by the people. Fireworks and
illuminations followed, and a gala performance at the opera for the
succeeding night was ordered; but King Joao VI. was unable to attend.
The proceedings had really been adopted against the grain in his case,
and thus, when the curtains in the royal box were drawn apart, it was
seen to be occupied by the pictures of the King and Queen instead of by
royalty in the flesh; but these pictures were received with the same
enthusiasm and as hearty plaudits as though they had been royal humanity
itself.
While all this was happening in Brazil, the French had been finally
driven out from Portugal, and King Joao VI. determined to return once
more to his native country. On April 24 he sailed with the Royal Family,
leaving his son, Dom Pedro, as Governor of Brazil. Only a day or two
before a disturbance had broken out in the capital. When the electors
assembled, they were wantonly attacked by the Portuguese soldiery, and
about thirty of them were slain, the majority in cold blood. The
atrocity would have doubtlessly been more serious had not the popular
Dom Pedro interfered.
With the departure of the King from Brazil it was inevitable that
complications should ensue. Having once enjoyed the status of a kingdom,
and having been granted those privileges which had so benefited the
country during the past few years, it was only natural that Brazil
should resent any attempt to place her once again in the neglected
situation from which she had been rescued. It seemed, nevertheless, as
though the policy of Portugal would now be directed towards this end. It
was at this juncture that the influence of Prince Pedro began to be
felt.
Prince Pedro possessed a personality essentially capable of commanding;
his talents, moreover, were varied. He was a good horseman, a keen
sportsman, and was addicted to music and many of the politer arts. The
part he had to play was undoubtedly a difficult one. His sentiments were
intensely Brazilian; at the same time, in the letters he wrote to the
Court of Portugal he stated distinctly that the Mother Country alone
possessed his loyalty, as was only just, and that he would make no move
whatever that would prejudice the interests of Portugal. He even went
the length of lamenting his presence in the far-away land he governed,
and swore that he longed for the day when he might return and sit upon
the steps of his father's throne.
In the meanwhile the jealousies between the Portuguese and Brazilians
increased rapidly, the bitterness being more especially evident in the
soldiery of the respective lands. King Joao himself had behaved with
little consideration ere his departure. One of his last acts in Brazil
had been to promise the soldiery of that country double pay, yet, though
he had left the promise behind him, he had left no means whatever to
carry it out, and thus disturbances arose in many places.
On December 9, 1821, the brig _Dom Sebastiao_ arrived, bearing a decree
to institute a provisional Government, which should again reduce the
country to the condition of a province, and another which ordered the
immediate return to Portugal of the young Prince Regent. A real crisis
now arose. The Brazilians, devoted to Dom Pedro, implored him to remain;
the Portuguese garrison spoke of removing him on a homeward-bound ship
by force. The whole city was agog, and the excitement at fever-heat. In
the midst of the turmoil the Brazilian troops surrounded the Portuguese,
and, after obtaining a great strategic advantage, ordered them to march
on board the vessels of the fleet bound for Lisbon.
[Illustration: THE OPENING OF THE SENATE HOUSE, RIO DE JANEIRO.]
The Portuguese were inclined to resist, when Dom Pedro himself
appeared in their midst and ordered their commanders specifically to
embark the next day and to sail for Portugal. He had now decided on his
attitude, and was determined that his orders should be obeyed. To show
that he was in earnest he even took a match in his hand and lit it, and
swore that, did the Portuguese troops refuse, he would be the first man
to fire a cannon at them. This ended the matter, and the next day the
ship sailed and carried away the Portuguese garrison.
[Illustration: CHAMBER OF DEPUTIES, RIO DE JANEIRO.]
On May 13, 1822, a deputation from the Rio Chamber of Deputies
approached Prince Pedro and persuaded him to assume the title of
"Constitutional Prince Regent and Perpetual Defender of Brazil."
Portugal, for its part, was now bitterly opposed to Brazil and to the
Brazilians. Decrees were enacted towards the suppression of the
independence of the great colony. One of these ran to the effect that
Prince Pedro was to return to Europe within four months, and that any
of the military who obeyed his orders, unless by compulsion, were to be
deemed traitors to Portugal.
During all this time fresh troops were arriving to reinforce the
garrison at Bahia, which had remained Royalist. The patriots, for their
part, had collected strong forces and hemmed the Royalists in Bahia to
such an extent that they could only retain communication by sea.
Matters grew more and more strained every day, for the Mother Country
sought to put an end to the virtual supremacy of its great colony, while
Brazil was utterly opposed to Portuguese rule. When Prince Pedro was
ordered to return to Portugal, "in order to complete his education," the
Brazilians, and especially the provincial Government of Sao Paulo,
begged him to disobey and remain in Brazil. The soldiers threatened to
mutiny if he went, and the people entreated him not to go, while every
proof of his popularity was added cause for exasperation on the part of
the Home Government, rendering his situation more dangerous.
If Dom Pedro went to Portugal, said the Brazilians, they must choose
between an anarchical republic and the old state of dependence on
Portugal. In the matter of Sao Paulo and the requests of its citizens,
the brothers Andrada were most prominent, and they obtained a promise
from the Prince that he would not go. Together with the Andradas he
toured the States of Minas and Sao Paulo on a mission of pacification;
but the people of the country felt that the present state of affairs
could not continue, and in his absence it was determined to make him the
ruler of the country, and he was declared Defender of the Empire. On
September 7, 1822, he received a bundle of despatches from Portugal, and
his staff watched while he read letter after letter. There was one
which he read two or three times, and then destroyed. What its contents
were was never known, but after pondering and a few minutes of thought,
Pedro raised his hand and spoke his decision--"Independence or death!"
There was no doubt that he had carried out the wishes of his father, and
probably the letter which he destroyed contained Joao's written
directions. Some idea of this seems to have been general among the
Brazilians, for both they and the Portuguese soldiers in Brazil always
spoke of Joao with affection, and regarded him rather as a prisoner of
the Cortes of Lisbon than as King of Portugal.
The Brazilians determined that the last doubt concerning the situation
should be dissipated, and on October 12, 1822, Dom Pedro, who was at
Piranga, was made constitutional Emperor of Brazil, and all relation and
connection with Portugal was severed.
Dom Pedro had all this time kept up a correspondence with his father,
King Joao, and in one of these letters he wrote:
"They wish, and they say they wish, to proclaim me Emperor. I
protest to your Majesty that I will not be perjured ... that I will
never be false to you; and if they commit that folly, it will not
be till _after they have cut me to pieces_--me and all the
Portuguese--a solemn oath, which I here have written with my blood
in the following words:
"'I swear to be always faithful to your Majesty, to the Portuguese
nation, and Constitution.'"
These latter words were apparently actually written in his blood, and
the epistle is certainly a proof of the complicated state of affairs and
of the strange influences which were at work.
Open warfare now broke out between Brazil and Portugal. At Bahia the
Portuguese, although their garrison was hemmed in, were masters of the
sea. The Brazilians determined to make a bold bid for the control of the
waves, and to this end sent an invitation to Lord Cochrane, who had just
freed the Pacific Ocean from the Spanish fleet, and was at the time in
Chile.
An invitation of that kind was never refused by Cochrane. In March,
1823, he arrived and took command of the new Brazilian fleet, which was
considerably inferior to that of Portugal. He sailed immediately for
Bahia, but found his crews in no very anxious mood to fight their
compatriots. A few skirmishes ensued, and the Portuguese fleet took
refuge under the guns of the land forces. On the same day the Brazilians
entered the city and took possession of it.
The Portuguese fleet now sailed to the north, and was pursued by Lord
Cochrane beyond the Equator. He saw to it that their voyage was an
eventful one, for he captured more than one-half of their transports,
and completely dispersed the remainder. Cochrane then returned to
Brazil, and was instrumental in releasing the north of that country from
the remaining foreign forces.
On December 1, 1823, Dom Pedro was formally crowned. The ceremony was
dramatic, and crowns and wreaths of laurels were showered down upon the
hero of the nation, while patriotic airs were thundered out with
tremendous enthusiasm.
Three years later (August 29, 1825) Pedro was acknowledged as Emperor of
Brazil by the Mother Country, after the last Portuguese troops in the
country had been withdrawn.