FOREIGN RAIDS ON PORTUGUESE COLONIES
The rivalry which had existed between the Portuguese and the French in
the early days of Brazilian colonization has already been referred to.
With this exception, the first era of the Colony of Brazil was
comparatively peaceful--that is to say, the Portuguese, proving
themselves of a more liberal temperament than the Spaniards, did not
suffer from the fierce aggressions of the English and the Dutch to the
same extent as did their Castilian neighbours. In 1580, however, the
situation altered itself abruptly--in a most unpleasant fashion so far
as the Portuguese were concerned.
In that year Portugal became subject to Spain, and thus the Portuguese
Colonies were now controlled by Spain. As a result of this Brazil had to
undergo the enmity of the English and the Dutch in addition to that of
the French. This latter was now of comparatively old standing. The
forays and raids of the French had, indeed, continued almost without
cessation, Pernambuco and Paraiba being two of the chief spots attacked.
In many of these incursions the French were assisted by the natives,
with many tribes of whom they had succeeded in establishing good
relations. In the course of time, however, it became evident that the
French, like the British, were to be feared in these neighbourhoods
rather on account of their raids than for the danger of a permanent
settlement.
Until 1580 several English expeditions had proceeded to Brazil, and had
succeeded in trafficking with the Portuguese in complete amity. One or
two of the English are even said to have established themselves near
Bahia in the quite early days of the colony, and to have lived on good
terms with the Iberian lords of the soil. Afterwards, through the
instigation of the European officials, this cordiality became lessened,
and in 1580, as has been said, the nations proceeded to open warfare in
South America.
In 1582 Edward Fenton visited the coast of Brazil, and was attacked by a
Spanish squadron. One of the latter vessels was sunk, and a decided
victory was obtained by Fenton, who, after this, put out to sea. This
was the first hostile action undertaken by the English on the Brazilian
coast.
In 1591 Cavendish came to raid the various settlements. He ravaged many
places, and eventually came to Espiritu Santo, where he landed a force,
which, through bad generalship, was much cut up by the defenders of the
place. Cavendish after this left the coast, and died on the way home to
England--some say of a broken heart.
In 1595 James Lancaster's expedition arrived off Brazil. Lancaster had
been brought up among the Portuguese in Europe. He understood their
temperament, and was thus especially well equipped to command an
enterprise such as this. After taking a number of prizes on the high
seas, he fell in with another expedition commanded by Captain Venner,
and the two forces united, Lancaster remaining in chief command. The
English fleet now sailed for Recife. In this port they discovered three
large Dutch ships, which permitted them to attack the port without
interference. Lancaster, who displayed admirable generalship, landed his
forces. These surrounded and captured Recife, and the English found
themselves masters of a large amount of booty. Lancaster, who was a
tactician as well as a fighter, now made terms with the Dutch, and
offered them freight to take to England on terms which caused the Dutch
ships to abandon their attitude of benevolent neutrality in favour of an
active alliance.
Shortly afterwards a squadron of five vessels hove in sight; these
proved to be French. By presenting them with a gift of Brazil wood,
Lancaster won these to his cause as well. So now a fleet of three
nations--English, Dutch, and French--were simultaneously occupied in
plundering Recife. Against this force the Portuguese could do little.
Fire-ships and blazing rafts were sent down the river by the garrison
who had taken refuge inland; but these attempts were frustrated, and,
after some few weeks spent at Recife, Lancaster sailed away with his
rich plunder, and the gathering of the hawks dispersed. It is worthy of
note that Lancaster exhibited a trait sufficiently rare in his comrades.
He apparently remained content with his booty, and determined to enjoy
it, for he does not appear any more in the character of a buccaneer.
The Dutch now gave serious attention to South America, and a West India
Company was formed in Holland for no other purpose than to capture and
exploit Brazil. The first fleet, commanded by Jacob Willikens, sailed
from Holland in 1623. Both the authorities in the peninsula and Brazil
had received warning of what was threatening, but no adequate steps
would seem to have been taken for the defence of the colonies. The Dutch
fleet anchored off Bahia, where a force was landed, which succeeded in
obtaining possession of the town. The Dutch were welcomed by the
European Jews, who had taken up their abode in that place, and also by
the negroes, both of whom appeared to live in dread of the Inquisition.
The Portuguese themselves, in the first instance, fled to the woods,
under the impression that the raid was merely temporary, and that a day
or two would see their waters free of the marauding bands, and would
restore the sacked town to its rightful owners. When it became evident
that the Dutch were fortifying the town and meant to retain possession
of it for good, the national spirit of the Portuguese proved equal to
the occasion, and Bishop Marcos Teixeira, after assuming the garb of a
penitent, took command of the army, and hoisted the crucifix for his
standard. The Bishop proved an able commander, and the Dutch were
closely invested in Bahia, finding themselves unable to stir outside
their fortifications.
In the meanwhile the news of the capture of the capital of Brazil had
produced a tremendous shock in the peninsula, and the greatest fleet
which had ever sailed south was prepared to assist Bahia. Dom Manoel
Menezes commanded the Portuguese section of the forces, which consisted
of 4,000 men in twenty-six ships, while Fadrique de Toledo commanded the
Spanish fleet of forty sail, which carried 8,000 soldiers.
On March 28, 1625, this formidable array of vessels appeared off Bahia.
The Portuguese colonists had continued to besiege their captured
capital, and the Bishop, who had striven and fought nobly, died, worn
out by too great exertions. At the sight of the Iberian fleet, the
Brazilians made a fresh attack upon the capital with enthusiasm, but the
rash attempt was repulsed with great loss.
Several encounters now took place, and the Dutch sent out fire-ships by
night in the hope of destroying their enemy. The attempt, however,
failed, and in the end the French and English mercenaries in the Dutch
service, becoming tired of the struggle, worked their influence in the
cause of surrender. Shortly after this occurred, a powerful fleet of
Dutch ships, under Baldwin Henrick, came in sight, but on seeing the
Spanish standards flying instead of the Dutch, sailed away to the north.
Had it remained, it would undoubtedly have gained a decisive victory,
since the Iberian forces were in much confusion. The Dutch prisoners
were honourably treated, and in the end returned to Holland, where they
met with a somewhat contemptuous reception on the part of their
fellow-countrymen.
In 1627 the Dutch West India fleet fell in with a Mexican treasure
fleet, captured this in its entirety, and the enormous wealth thus
gained gave great impetus to the enterprises of this kind. The Dutch now
raided the north of the Continent, and in 1629 prepared an important
expedition against Pernambuco. Fifty vessels sailed from Holland for
this purpose. The force landed under the Dutch commander Wardenburg, and
commenced operations in earnest. First the town of Olinda, and then the
neighbouring town of Recife, were captured, after very severe fighting.
It was some while, however, ere the position of the Dutch became secure,
and even the short passage between the twin towns could only be effected
in circumstances of great danger and difficulty, owing to the raids of
the investing Portuguese.
Soon after this the Dutch captured other neighbouring ports, such as
Nazareth and Paraiba. The dominion of Holland in Northern Brazil now
appeared assured. At the same time the counter attacks of the Portuguese
were ceaseless, and the leaders of the Dutch garrisons in South America
made representations to the Netherlands in favour of reinforcements and
a commander of real note. In response, Prince Mauritz, Count of Nassau,
was sent out to take supreme control of the Dutch ventures on Brazilian
soil. A personality more fitted for this particular purpose could
scarcely have been lighted upon. For Prince Mauritz was not only a brave
soldier, but a tactful and chivalrous enemy; indeed, his figure stands
out in glowing colours in this campaign among the woods of the far
southern coast, and the continuance of the Dutch dominion was no doubt
largely due to his individuality. His arrival with nearly 3,000 men
inspired the worn soldiers of Holland with new confidence. Ceara was
captured, and Sao Jorge da Mina was attacked and taken as well.
In his few moments of leisure Count Mauritz gave his attention to the
improvement of the town of Recife, Olinda being now utterly destroyed,
as a result of the numerous battles of which it had stood as the unhappy
centre. He drained the marshy ground, and planted it with oranges,
lemons, and groves of coconut-trees, thus embellishing the country in
the neighbourhood. Very little leisure was permitted for undertakings of
this kind, for the Portuguese, persevering in their determination to
regain their coastal territories, persisted in their attacks whenever an
opportunity offered. A certain number, whose patriotism was less dear to
them than their purses, consented to traffic with the Dutch, and the
Jews upheld with enthusiasm the interests of the new-comers in this
matter; but the Portuguese, on the whole, remained steadfast to their
ideals, and refused to have any dealings with the intruders.
By this time the Dutch had every right to consider themselves as likely
to remain the permanent possessors of Northern Brazil. The circumstance,
as a matter of fact, which was destined seriously to disturb their
dominion came in the light of a totally unexpected happening. Throughout
the history of South America, when its lands were the colonies of
Spain and Portugal, events in the European Peninsula had nearly always
been echoed in the Southern Continent. The event, of course, which had
so great an influence on the affairs of both Brazil and the Spanish
possessions was the revolt in 1640, when, after her eighty years'
captivity, Portugal freed herself from the Spanish yoke.
[Illustration: FERNAO DE MAGALHAES (FERDINAND MAGELLAN).
Who first discovered the passage to the Pacific named after him.]
In the north of the colony the new situation led to a somewhat curious
and paradoxical state of affairs. The Dutch had overrun Northern Brazil
for the sole ostensible reason that it was a possession of Spain. Now
that Portugal had freed herself from Spain, and that Brazil in
consequence was once again a purely Portuguese possession, all reason
for the Dutch occupation of the coast of Brazil was at an end. In Europe
the situation was this: The Dutch and the Spaniards had been for
generations at deadly enmity, while the rivalry between the Portuguese
and the Spaniards had induced a hostility rather less deadly, it is
true, but, nevertheless, sufficiently keen for the purposes of war.
Thus, with the freedom of Holland from Spain, and with the liberation of
Portugal from Spain, the situation of the two, once vassal countries,
was identical. They had an interest in common in preserving themselves
from the rapacity of Spain.
This was all very well in Europe, but in South America matters worked
out very differently in actual practice. The Dutch were now firmly
established in Northern Brazil, having their headquarters at the town of
Recife, or Pernambuco. It was not in human nature to give up the fruits
of their conquest merely because the Portuguese had driven out the
Spanish officials from their territories in Europe. The situation from
the point of view of Holland was simple, and could be put in a nutshell.
The Dutchmen were willing enough to enter into friendly relations with
the Portuguese, but not at the cost of the Brazilian possessions of the
Dutch West Indian Company, which had been especially formed for the
purpose of acquiring these.
Count Mauritz of Nassau had proved himself an able administrator, and it
was now the turn of the Dutch to intrigue where before they had fought
openly. In June, 1641, an agreement was negotiated in Europe between
Portugal and the United States of the Netherlands, which concluded a
truce for ten years. A year was allowed in order to carry this
intelligence to the Dutch commanders in South America and elsewhere. In
order to cement this new friendship, the Dutch further agreed to supply
Portugal with arms and ammunition to aid in the common fight against
Spain.
The Brazilian policy of Holland was, however, quite different from that
proposed in Europe. Instructions were sent to Count Mauritz of Nassau
ordering him to continue in the command, to extend the sphere of the
Dutch dominion, and, if possible, to capture Bahia. These instructions
were largely due to the belief held in Holland that Portugal would be
unable to maintain her independence for any length of time.
When the news of the truce was first brought to Count Mauritz at Recife,
all the outward marks of festivity and great rejoicings were exhibited.
A general fraternization ensued, and the late enemies and temporary
friends regaled each other at various banquets. Thus Paulo da Cunha, the
Brazilian patriot, upon whose outlawed head the Count had put a price of
500 florins (to which da Cunha had retorted by placing a price of 2,000
cruzados upon the Count's), was now invited to feast with Nassau, and
the two entered into an intimate and rather chaffing discussion upon the
respective prices they had put upon each other's heads.
Very shortly, however, the Brazilians found reason to suspect the
sincerity of the Dutch professions of friendship. A Dutch fleet sailed
north, captured Sao Christovao, and in other places seized a number of
Portuguese vessels. The Portuguese now found themselves in something of
a dilemma, owing to the very fact of the independence they had won.
During the Spanish dominion the ports had been manned by the Spaniards
as well as by the Portuguese. This, of course, was no longer the case.
Bahia, for instance, had now lost a great part of its garrison. The 700
Spaniards and Neapolitans who had served there were honourably treated
by the Portuguese, and were sent on their way to Europe, but were
captured by the Dutch ere they had left the coast.
The Dutch aggression, as a matter of fact, was not confined to South
America. A Dutch force of 2,000 regular troops had entered Sao Paul de
Loanda, the capital of Angola. The loss of this important Portuguese
possession on the west coast of Africa produced a direct effect on South
America, for it was from here that the Brazilians had imported all their
African slaves. Thus the whole of this traffic passed entirely into the
hands of the Dutch for the time being. Mauritz of Nassau went the length
of suggesting that the territory of Angola should become an appendage of
that of Dutch Brazil, as the two were bound so closely by this traffic!
The Dutch had also captured the Island of St. Thomas. In that place,
however, the climate avenged the Portuguese to the full, and the
mortality among the Dutch from fever in this island was appalling.
The Dutch in Brazil now sent an expedition to the north to obtain
possession of the Province of Maranhao. They captured and plundered the
capital, pillaging churches and ransacking the sugar factories. The
Governor, Maciel, appears to have behaved very badly, and with no
little treachery towards his fellow-countrymen. Nassau, when Maciel
surrendered, treated him with contempt, and imprisoned him. The
situation had now become grimly farcical. In Europe the Dutch were
supplying the Portuguese with arms and stores, and acting in general as
their allies; while in Brazil the two nations were openly at war, and
the Dutch were sending hostile expeditions in all directions!
Just at this period, indeed, the ambition of the Dutch appeared to swell
to the highest point. Count Mauritz determined to push his conquests far
to the south, and had even prepared an expedition for the capture of the
Spanish town of Buenos Aires; but the attempt was frustrated by the
hostility of the Portuguese and Indians nearer home. All this time, of
course, Dutch fleets had been harrying the Pacific coast, and the Dutch
had actually obtained a footing in Southern Chile, although this was not
destined to prove permanent. With the extension of their boundaries,
however, it was but natural that the difficulty of preserving their
dominion should increase.
In Maranhao, freshly conquered as it was, rebellion broke out almost as
soon as the Dutch had established themselves. Desperate fighting took
place in the neighbourhood of the capital, and many barbarities were
committed on both sides. The Dutch Governor, in a fit of exasperation,
delivered twenty-five Portuguese to the savages of Ceara, and sent fifty
to the Barbadoes to be sold as slaves. The English Governor, however,
after he had received these latter on shore, set them at liberty, and
administered a severe reproof to the agent who had offered white men for
sale in this way. Owing to happenings such as these the bitterness
between the two races increased.
In the end Maranhao was regained by the Portuguese, and the Fort of
Ceara itself was surprised by a force of Tapuya Indians and its garrison
massacred. These occurrences were ominous, and the turn of the tide
seemed to have set in. Prince Mauritz of Nassau now sent in his
resignation, and, after leaving everything in a state of complete
preparedness, set out for Europe, accompanied by no fewer than 1,400
persons all told, a force which could ill be spared from Brazil at that
period. Among them were a few Indians who were taken to Holland to
demonstrate to the inhabitants of that country the accomplishments of
their countrymen, and the nature of the new subjects.
Nassau had governed the captured territories in a liberal and
imperialistic spirit, and his personality had been popular to a certain
extent even among the Portuguese. His absence was severely felt, and the
policy of the West India Company, in itself parsimonious and somewhat
petty, undoubtedly suffered much from the want of his presence; for
during the time that he was in power he had restrained the excesses of
his own people, and used no little tact towards the Portuguese. His
rank, moreover, counted not a little in winning their esteem. The new
authorities had not the influence over the soldiery that Prince Mauritz
had enjoyed, and lacked not only experience but judgment.
Shortly after this Dirk van Hoogstraten, a Dutch officer, offered his
services to the Portuguese, and various other symptoms portended a break
up of the organization of the Dutch West India Company. Several attempts
at insurrection took place in the neighbourhood of Recife itself, and
the methods of the Dutch in repressing these became increasingly harsh.
Some of the malcontents were hanged, and in several cases their hands
were lopped off before death.
The Brazilian patriot, Joao Fernandes, now became very prominent, and
the Dutch in consequence began to be more and more harassed. The woods
in the neighbourhood of the town sheltered numbers of discontented
Portuguese and Indians, who had collected stores and weapons, and had
hidden themselves in the recesses of the forests until the time came for
them to sally out for the attack. Several expeditions sent out by the
Dutch to break up these bands were unsuccessful. The Portuguese either
eluded them, or the Dutch fell into the ambushes prepared for them, and
suffered loss without being able to retaliate.
Every month the Portuguese grew stronger in numbers, and attacks were
now frequent on the Dutch isolated settlements, many of which were
captured and the inhabitants massacred. The Portuguese were determined
to surrender none of the advantages which the nature of the country
offered them, and thus the warfare still remained of a guerilla order,
and upon the sallying out of a formidable Dutch force, the Portuguese,
with their Indian allies, would disperse in the dense forests, and come
together again when the Dutch had concluded their march.
The retaliatory methods of the Dutch served to enrage the Portuguese
beyond all bearing. The Council of the Dutch West India Company issued a
proclamation to the effect that all women and children in the towns,
whose husbands and fathers were rebels, were to be evicted from their
houses and left to fend for themselves. The idea seems to have been that
these people would flock to the insurgents and thus hamper their
movements. The result was that the unfortunate women and children were
exposed to the mercy of the weather and the forests.
Joao Fernandes had now collected a formidable number of men, and,
posting these about nine leagues to the westward of Recife in a spot of
great strategic advantage, he awaited the Dutch advance. One thousand
five hundred Dutch troops, aided by a number of native auxiliaries, came
on to the attack. Three times they advanced and drove the Portuguese and
their Indian allies some way up the hill on the sides of which they were
posted, but each time the Dutch lost more and more men from the ambushes
in the thick cane-brake which covered the ground. In the end the Dutch
retired, having suffered very severe casualties. It is said that 370 of
their force were found dead upon the field. Beyond this a number died on
the retreat, while many hundreds were wounded. The Portuguese assert
that their army consisted of 1,200 whites, aided by about 100 Indians
and negroes. This fight had very important consequences, since it
enabled the Portuguese forces to arm themselves with the weapons left on
the field by the dead and wounded Dutch.
During all this time the authorities at Bahia had remained quiescent,
since officially no state of war existed, and in the eyes of the
Government the Dutch were supposed merely to be quelling some
revolutionary movements ere they departed for Europe! Now the time came
for this farce to be ended, and the Governor of Bahia sent troops to the
north to join the insurgents in their struggle against the Dutch. The
traitor Hoogstraten now definitely joined these forces, and the whole of
the country south of Recife fell once more into the hands of the
Portuguese. During this period the bitterness between the two armies was
still further accentuated by the massacre of Portuguese by the Tapuya
Indians at Cunhau. This atrocity, as a matter of fact, was perpetrated
on the initiative of the Indians alone, but at the time the
Dutch--unjustly, as it turned out--were blamed for it. This circumstance
induced retaliation, and eventually caused many barbarous acts to be
done on both sides.
After the fortunes of war had fluctuated on various occasions and the
Dutch had alternately been defeated, received reinforcements, and become
temporarily victorious again, the war came to an end. The Dutch
consented to withdraw entirely from Brazil, to surrender Recife and all
the remaining forts which they possessed, as well as the Island of
Fernando de Noronha. In return they were granted an amnesty, which was
extended to the Indians in their service.
Arrangements had been carried almost to a conclusion when the Dutch
showed themselves prepared to continue the campaign in South America.
This threat of renewed aggression had the effect of increasing the
liberality of the Portuguese terms. The ensuing negotiations were
considerably assisted by Charles II. of England, who, about to marry
Catherine of Portugal, strongly took up the cause of the Portuguese in
South America, and announced to the Dutch his intention to ally his
forces with those of the Portuguese, and, if necessary, proceed to
extremities. These representations of Charles were taken up by France
and Portugal, and the Dutch, as a result, decided to waive some of their
wilder claims. Before, however, the treaty was finally concluded, it was
found necessary to pay certain sums in the nature of a ransom to the
Dutch. These consisted of 4,000,000 cruzados, in money, sugar, tobacco,
and salt, which were to be paid in sixteen annual instalments. All the
artillery taken in Brazil, which was marked either with the arms of the
United Provinces of the Netherlands or of the West India Company, were
to be restored to their former owners.
[Illustration: DUTCH VESSELS SAILING THROUGH THE STRAITS OF MAGELLAN.
_From a seventeenth-century engraving._]
Thus, although Portugal may be said in one sense to have cooped the
Dutch up within a narrow strip of remaining territory, and to have
been on the point of expelling them from Brazil by the sword, actually
the withdrawal was only effected by the payment of this heavy ransom. As
Southey has it: "The Portuguese consented to pay for the victory which
they had obtained."