THE FEEDING OF FARM STOCK.
The feeding of cattle, once a subordinate part of the operations of the
farm, has now become one of its most important departments, and a large
number of minute and elaborate experiments have been made by chemists
and physiologists with the view of determining the principles on which
its successful and economical practice depends. These investigations,
while they have thrown much light on the matter, have by no means
exhausted it, and it will be readily understood that the complete
elucidation of a subject of such complexity, touching on so many of the
most abstruse and difficult problems of chemistry and physiology, and in
which the experiments are liable to be affected by disturbing causes,
dependent on peculiarities of constitution of different animals, cannot
be otherwise than a slow process.
In considering the principles of feeding, it is necessary to point out,
in the first instance, that the plant and animal are composed of the
same chemical elements, hence the food supplied to the latter invariably
contains all the substances it requires for the maintenance of its
functions. And not only is this the case, but these elements are to a
great extent combined together in a similar manner,--the fibrine,
caseine, albumen, and fatty matters contained in animals corresponding
in all respects with the compounds extracted from plants under the same
name; and though the starchy and saccharine substances do not form any
part of the animal body, they are represented in the milk, the food
which nature has provided for the young animal. It has been frequently
assumed that the nitrogenous and fatty matters are simply absorbed into
the animal system, and deposited unchanged in its tissues; but it is
probable that the course of events is not quite so simple, although,
doubtless, the decomposition which occurs is comparatively trifling. The
starchy matters, on the other hand, are completely changed, and devoted
to purposes which will be immediately explained.
It is a matter of familiar experience, that if the food be properly
proportioned to the requirements of the animal, its weight remains
unchanged; and the inference to be drawn from this fact obviously is,
that the food does not remain permanently in the system, but must be
again got rid of. It escapes partly through the lungs, and partly by the
excretions, which do not consist merely of the part which has not been
digested, but also of that portion which has been absorbed, and after
performing its allotted functions within the system, has become effete
and useless. When the weights of the excretions, the carbon contained in
the carbonic acid expired by the lungs and the small quantity of matter
which escapes in the form of perspiration, are added together, they are
found in such a case to be exactly equal to the food. If the animal be
deprived of nutriment, it immediately begins to lose weight, because its
functions must continue--carbon must still be converted into carbonic
acid to maintain respiration--and the excretions be eliminated, although
diminished in quantity, because they no longer contain the undigested
portion of the daily food, and the substances already stored up in the
body are consumed to maintain the functions of life. Universal
experience has shewn that, under such circumstances, the fat which has
accumulated in various parts of the body disappears, and the animal
becomes lean; but it is less generally recognised that the muscular
flesh, that is the lean part of the body, also diminishes, although it
is sufficiently indicated by the fact that nitrogen still continues to
be found in the urine, and that the animal becomes feeble and incapable
of muscular exertion. Respiration and secretion, in fact, proceed quite
irrespective of the food, which is only required to repair the loss they
occasion. When the course of events within the animal body is traced, it
is found to be somewhat as follows: The food consumed is digested and
absorbed into the blood, where it undergoes a series of complicated
changes, as a consequence of which part of it is converted into carbonic
acid, and eliminated by the lungs, and part is deposited in the tissues
as fat and flesh. After the lapse of a certain period, longer or shorter
according to circumstances, a new set of actions comes into play, by
which the complex constituents of the tissues are resolved into simpler
substances, and excreted chiefly by the lungs and kidneys. The changes
thus produced are, to a great extent, identical with those which would
take place if the fat and flesh were consumed in a fire; and the animal
frame may, in a certain sense, be compared to a furnace, in which, by
the daily consumption of a certain quantity of fuel and air inhaled in
the process of respiration, its temperature is maintained above that of
the surrounding atmosphere. If the daily supply of fuel, that is of
food, be properly adjusted to the loss by combustion, the weight of the
animal remains constant; if it be reduced below this quantity, it
diminishes; but if it be increased, the stomach either refuses to
digest and assimilate the excess, or it is absorbed and stored up in the
body, increasing both the fat and flesh.
When an animal is fed in such a manner that its weight remains constant,
a balance is produced between the supply of nutriment contained in the
food and the waste of the tissues, the gain from the former exactly
counterpoising the loss occasioned by the latter. If in this state of
matters an additional supply of food be given, this balance is deranged,
and the nutriment being in excess of the loss, the animal gains weight,
and it continues to do this for some time, until it reaches a point at
which a new balance is established, and its weight again becomes
constant; and this is due to the fact that the animal becomes subject to
an additional waste, consequent on the increased weight of matter
accumulated in its tissues. If, after the animal has attained its new
constant weight, the food be a second time increased, a further gain is
obtained, and so on, with every addition to the supply of nutriment,
until at length a certain point is reached, beyond which its weight
cannot be forced. In fact, each successive increase of weight is
obtained at a greater expenditure of food. If, for example, a lean
animal is taken, and its food increased by a given quantity, it will
rapidly attain a certain additional weight, but if another extra supply
of food be given, the increase due to it will be much more slowly
attained, and so on until at length an additional increase can only be
secured by the long-continued consumption of a very large quantity of
food. The great object of the feeder is to obtain the greatest possible
increase with the smallest expenditure of food, and to know the point
beyond which it is no longer economical to attempt to force the process
of fattening. To do this it is necessary first to consider the
composition of the animal itself, then that of its food, and lastly, the
mode in which it may be most economically used.
It has been already observed that the animal tissues are composed of
albuminous or nitrogenous compounds, fat, mineral matters, and water;
but the proportions of these substances have, until lately, been very
imperfectly known. Water is well known to be by far the largest
constituent, and amounts in general to about two-thirds of the entire
weight, and it has been generally supposed that the nitrogenous matters
stood next in point of abundance, but a most important and elaborate
series of experiments by Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert have shewn that they
are greatly exceeded by the fatty matters. The following table contains
a summary of the composition of ten different animals in different
stages of fattening. The first division gives the composition of the
carcass, that is, the portion of the animal usually consumed as human
food; the second that of the offal, consisting of the parts not usually
employed as food; and the third that of the entire animals, including
the contents of the stomach and intestines:--
[Transcriber's note: Column titles are printed vertical, which is not
possible to do here. Therefore they are replaced with a 2-3 character
code, explained here]
Column titles:
MM = Mineral Matter
NC = Nitrogenous Compounds
TDS = Total Dry Substance
CSI = Contents of Stomachs and Intestine in moist state.
Wat = Water
|---------------------------------------------------------------------------
| | ||Per cent in Offal, excluding |
| | Per cent in Carcass || contents of Stomachs and |
| | || Intestines. |
| |------------------------||-----------------------------|
| | MM | NC | Fat| TDS| WAT|| MM | NC | Fat | TDS | WAT |
|-------------------|----|----|----|----|----||-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|
|Fat Calf |4.48|16.6|16.6|37.7|62.3|| 3.41| 17.1| 14.6| 35.1| 64.9|
|Half-fat Ox |5.56|17.8|22.6|46.0|54.0|| 4.05| 20.6| 15.7| 40.4| 59.6|
|Fat Ox |4.56|15.0|34.8|54.4|45.6|| 3.40| 17.5| 26.3| 47.2| 52.8|
|Fat Lamb |3.63|10.9|36.9|51.4|48.6|| 2.45| 18.9| 20.1| 41.5| 58.5|
|Store Sheep |4.36|14.5|23.8|42.7|57.3|| 2.19| 18.0| 16.1| 36.3| 63.7|
|Half-fat old Sheep |4.13|14.9|31.3|50.3|49.7|| 2.72| 17.7| 18.5| 38.9| 61.1|
|Fat Sheep |3.45|11.5|45.4|60.3|39.7|| 2.32| 16.1| 26.4| 44.8| 55.2|
|Extra fat Sheep |2.77| 9.1|55.1|67.0|33.0|| 3.64| 16.8| 34.5| 54.9| 45.1|
|Store Pig |2.57|14.0|28.1|44.7|55.3|| 3.07| 14.0| 15.0| 32.1| 67.9|
|Fat Pig |1.40|10.5|49.5|61.4|38.6|| 2.97| 14.8| 22.8| 40.6| 59.4|
|-------------------|----|----|----|----|----||-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|
|Mean of all |3.69|13.5|34.4|51.6|48.4|| 3.02| 17.2| 21.0| 41.2| 58.8|
|-------------------|----|----|----|----|----||-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|
|Mean of 8, viz, the| | | | | || | | | | |
| half-fat, fat, and|3.75|13.3|36.5|53.6|46.4|| 3.12| 17.4| 22.4| 42.9| 57.1|
| very fat animals | | | | | || | | | | |
|-------------------|----|----|----|----|----||-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|
|Mean of 6, viz., | | | | | || | | | | |
| of the fat and |3.38|12.3|39.7|55.4|44.6|| 3.03| 16.9| 24.1| 44.0| 56.0|
| very fat animals| | | | | || | | | | |
|-------------------|----|----|----|----|----||-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|
|--------------------------------------------------|
| | |
| | Per cent in Entire Animal.|
| | |
| |------------------------------|
| | MM | NC | Fat| TDS| CSI | WAT|
|-------------------|----|----|----|----|-----|----|
|Fat Calf |3.80|15.2|14.8|33.8| 3.17|63.0|
|Half-fat Ox |4.66|16.6|19.1|40.3| 8.19|51.5|
|Fat Ox |3.92|14.5|30.1|48.5| 5.98|45.5|
|Fat Lamb |2.94|12.3|28.5|43.7| 8.54|47.8|
|Store Sheep |3.16|14.8|18.7|36.7| 6.00|57.3|
|Half-fat old Sheep |3.17|14.0|23.5|40.7| 9.05|50.2|
|Fat Sheep |2.81|12.2|35.6|50.6| 6.02|43.4|
|Extra fat Sheep |2.90|10.9|45.8|59.6| 5.18|35.2|
|Store Pig |2.67|13.7|23.3|39.7| 5.22|55.1|
|Fat Pig |1.65|10.9|42.2|54.7| 3.97|41.3|
|-------------------|----|----|----|----|-----|----|
|Mean of all |3.17|13.9|28.2|44.9| 6.13|49.0|
|-------------------|----|----|----|----|-----|----|
|Mean of 8, viz, the| | | | | | |
| half-fat, fat, and|3.23|13.3|29.9|46.4| 6.26|47.3|
| very fat animals | | | | | | |
|-------------------|----|----|----|----|-----|----|
|Mean of 6, viz., | | | | | | |
| of the fat and |3.00|12.7|32.8|48.5| 5.48|46.0|
| very fat animals| | | | | | |
|-------------------|----|----|----|----|-----|----|
From this table it appears that, in the carcass, the proportion of fat
is, in general, even in lean animals, much greater than that of
nitrogenous compounds. In one case only, that of the fat calf, are they
equal. But in the lean sheep there is more than one and a half times as
much fat as nitrogenous matters, in the half fat sheep twice, in the fat
sheep four times, and in the very fat sheep about six times as much. As
a general result of the analyses it may be stated, that in the carcass
of an ox in good condition, the quantity of fat will be from two to
nearly three times as great as that of the so called albuminous
compounds; in a sheep three or four times, and in the pig four or five
times as great. In the offal, including the hide, intestines, and other
parts not usually consumed as food, the proportion is very
different,--the quantity of fat being much smaller, and that of
nitrogenous compounds considerably larger.
Taking a general average of the whole, the following may be assumed as
representing approximately the general composition of a lean and a fat
animal:--
Lean. Fat.
Mineral matters 5 3
Nitrogenous compounds 15 12.5
Fat 24 33
Water 56 48.5
--- -----
100 100.0
The data given in the preceding table, coupled with a knowledge of the
relative weights of the lean and fat animals, enable us to ascertain the
composition of the _increase_ during the fattening process. It is
obvious, from the material diminution of the per centage of water, that
the matters deposited in the tissues must contain a much larger
proportion of dry matters than the whole body; and the reduced per
centage of nitrogenous matters shews that the fat must also greatly
preponderate. This is still more distinctly illustrated by the following
table, giving the per centage composition of the increase in fattening
oxen, sheep, and pigs:--
------------------------------------------------
| Mineral | Nitrogenous | Fat. | Water. |
| Matters. | Compounds. | | |
------------------------------------------------
Oxen | 1.47 | 7.69 | 66.2 | 24.6 |
Sheep | 2.34 | 7.13 | 70.4 | 20.1 |
Pigs | 0.06 | 6.44 | 71.5 | 22.0 |
------------------------------------------------
Hence it may be stated in round numbers, that for every pound of
nitrogenous matters added to the weight of a fattening animal, it will
gain ten pounds of fat, and three of water. These are the proportions
over the whole period of fattening, but it is probable that during the
last few weeks of the process the ratio of fat to nitrogenous matters is
still higher.
In considering the composition of the food of animals, it will be
readily admitted that the milk, the nutriment supplied by nature for the
maintenance of the young animal, must afford special instruction as to
its requirements during the early stages of existence, and indicate, at
least, some of the points to be attended to under the altered conditions
of mature life. The following table gives the average composition of the
milk of the most important farm animals:--
Cow. Ewe. Goat.
Caseine 3.4 4.50 4.02
Butter 3.6 4.20 3.32
Sugar of milk 6.0 5.00 5.28
Ash 0.2 0.68 0.58
Water 86.8 85.62 86.80
------ ------ ------
100.00 100.00 100.00
In examining these, and all other analyses of food, it is necessary to
draw a distinction between the flesh-forming and the respiratory
elements; the former including the nitrogenous compounds which are used
in the production of flesh, the latter, the non-nitrogenous substances
which produce fat and support the process of respiration. The former,
however much they may differ in name, are nearly or altogether identical
in chemical composition, the latter embracing two great classes--the
fats which exist in the body and the saccharine compounds, including the
different kinds of sugar and starch which are not found in the animal
tissues. It was at one time supposed that these substances were entirely
consumed in the respiratory process, and eliminated by the lungs in the
form of carbonic acid and water, but it has been clearly shewn that they
may be and often are converted into fat, and accumulated in the system.
Careful experiments on bees have demonstrated that when fed on sugar
they continue to produce wax, which is a species of fat, and animals
retain their health and become fat, even when their food contains
scarcely any oil. There is, however, an important difference between
these two classes of substances as regards their fat-producing effect. A
pound of fat contained in the food is capable of producing the same
quantity within the animal; but the case is different with starch and
sugar, the most trustworthy experiments shewing that two and a half
pounds of these substances are necessary for that purpose. Hence we talk
of the fat equivalent of sugar, by which is meant the amount of fat it
is capable of producing, and which is obtained by dividing its quantity
by 2.5. Applying this principle to the analyses of the milk, it appears
that the relative proportions of the two great classes of nutritive
substances stand thus:--
Flesh Respiratory, expressed in
forming their fat equivalent
Cow 3.4 6.0
Ewe 4.5 6.2
Goat 4.0 5.4
Taking the general average, it may be stated, that for every pound of
flesh-forming elements contained in the food of the sucking animal, it
consumes respiratory compounds capable of producing one and a half
pounds of fat, and this does not differ materially from the ratio
subsisting between these substances in the lean animal. When the young
animal is weaned, it obtains a food in which the ratio of nitrogenous to
respiratory elements is maintained nearly unchanged; but the latter, in
place of containing a large amount of fatty matters, is in many cases
nearly devoid of these substances, and consists almost exclusively of
starch and sugar, mixed most commonly with a considerable quantity of
woody fibre.
A very large number of analyses of different kinds of cattle food have
been made by chemists, but our information regarding them is still in
some respects imperfect. The quantity of nitrogenous compounds and of
oil has been accurately ascertained in almost all, but the amount of
starch, sugar, and woody fibre is still imperfectly determined in many
substances. This is due partly to the fact that the nitrogenous and
fatty matters were formerly believed to be of the highest importance,
and might be used as the measure of the nutritive value of food to the
exclusion of its other constituents, and partly also to the imperfect
nature of the processes in use for obtaining the amounts of woody fibre,
starch, and sugar. These difficulties have now, to a certain extent,
been overcome, and the quantity of fibre and of respiratory elements has
been ascertained, and is introduced, so far as is known, in the
subjoined table:--
TABLE giving the Composition of the Principal Varieties of Cattle Food.
_Note._--Where a blank occurs in the oil column, the quantity of that
substance is so small as to be unimportant. When the respiratory
elements and fibre have not been separated, the sum of the two is given.
+----------------------------+--------+------+--------+-------+------+-------+
| |Nitro- | Oil. | Respir-| Fibre.| Ash. | Water.|
| | genous | | tory | | | |
| |Com- | | Com- | | | |
| | pounds.| | pounds.| | | |
+----------------------------+--------+------+--------+-------+------+-------+
|Decorticated earth-nut cake | 44.00 | 8.86| 19.34 | 5.13 | 14.05| 8.62 |
|Decorticated cotton cake | 41.25 | 16.05| 16.45 | 8.92 | 8.05| 9.28 |
|Poppy cake | 34.03 | 11.04| 23.25 | 11.33 | 13.79| 6.56 |
|Teel or sesamum cake | 31.93 | 12.86| 21.92 | 9.06 | 13.85| 10.38 |
|Rape cake | 29.75 | 8.63| 38.72 | 7.30 | 8.65| 6.95 |
|Dotter cake | 29.00 | 7.99| 27.04 | 16.12 | 12.59| 7.26 |
|Tares, home-grown | 28.57 | 1.30| 58.64 | 2.50| 8.99 |
|Linseed cake | 28.53 | 12.47| 35.78 | 6.32 | 6.11| 10.79 |
|Ruebsen cake | 26.87 | 11.00| 31.47 | 16.95 | 8.00| 5.71 |
|Tares, foreign | 26.73 | 1.59| 53.04 | 2.84| 15.80 |
|Earth-nut cake (entire seed)| 26.71 | 12.75| 45.69 | 3.29| 11.56 |
|Niger cake | 25.74 | 6.58| 42.18 | 11.15 | 8.12| 6.23 |
|Beans (65 lbs. per bushel) | 24.70 | 1.59| 54.51 | 3.36| 15.84 |
|Lentils | 24.57 | 1.51| 58.82 | 2.79| 12.31 |
|Linseed | 24.44 | 34.00| 30.73 | 3.33| 7.50 |
|Grey peas | 24.25 | 3.30| 57.99 | 2.52| 11.94 |
|Foreign beans | 23.49 | 1.51| 59.67 | 3.14| 12.21 |
|Cotton cake (with husk) | 22.94 | 6.07| 36.52 | 16.99 | 6.02| 11.46 |
|Pea-nut cake | 22.25 | 7.62| 30.25 | 26.97 | 3.71| 9.20 |
|Sunflower cake | 21.68 | 8.94| 19.05 | 33.00 | 9.33| 8.00 |
|Hempseed cake | 21.47 | 7.90| 22.48 | 25.16 | 15.79| 7.21 |
|Kidney beans | 20.06 | 1.22| 62.16 | 3.56| 13.00 |
|Maple peas | 19.43 | 1.72| 63.18 | 2.04| 13.63 |
|Madia sativa (seed) | 18.41 | 36.55| 34.59 | 4.13| 6.32 |
|Clover hay (mean of | | | | | | |
|different species of clover)| 15.81 | 3.18| 34.42 | 22.47 | 7.59| 16.53 |
|Rye | 14.20 | ...| 81.51 | 2.47 | 1.82| 14.66 |
|Bran | 13.80 | 5.56| 61.67 | 6.11| 12.85 |
|Oats | 11.85 | 5.89| 57.45 | 9.00 | 2.72| 13.09 |
|Fine barley dust | 11.49 | 2.92| 71.41 | 2.67| 11.51 |
|Wheat | 11.48 | ...| 73.52 | 0.68 | 0.82| 13.50 |
|Bere | 10.25 | ...| 62.85 | 10.08 | 2.60| 14.22 |
|Hay (mean of different | | | | | | |
| grasses) | 9.40 | 2.56| 38.54 | 29.14 | 5.84| 14.30 |
|Barley | 8.69 | ...| 64.52 | 9.67 | 2.82| 14.30 |
|Coarse barley dust | 8.46 | 3.47| 69.73 | 7.31| 11.03 |
|Rice dust | 8.08 | 2.95| 69.22 | 8.12| 11.63 |
|Oat dust | 6.92 | 3.21| 72.86 | 7.70| 9.31 |
|Winter bean straw | 5.71 | ...| 67.50 | 6.39| 20.40 |
|Carob bean | 3.11 | 0.41| 62.51 | 18.60 | 2.80| 12.57 |
|Potato | 2.81 | ...| 17.30 | 1.07 | 1.13| 77.69 |
|Carrot | 1.87 | ...| 7.91 | 3.07 | 1.11| 86.04 |
|Wheat straw | 1.79 | ...| 31.06 | 45.45 | 7.47| 14.23 |
|Barley straw | 1.68 | ...| 39.98 | 39.80 | 4.24| 14.30 |
|Oat straw | 1.63 | ...| 37.86 | 43.60 | 4.95| 12.06 |
|Mangold-wurzel | 1.54 | ...| 8.60 | 1.12 | 0.96| 87.78 |
|Cabbage | 1.31 | ...| 4.53 | 1.05| 93.11 |
|Turnips | 1.27 | 0.20| 4.07 | 1.08 | 1.71| 91.47 |
+----------------------------+--------+------+--------+-------+------+-------+
It is at once obvious that in many of these descriptions of food the
ratio of the flesh to the fat-forming constituents differ very widely
from that existing in the milk, and this becomes still more apparent
when the latter are represented in their fat equivalent, as is done for
a few of them in the following table:--
Flesh Respiratory, expressed
forming, in their fat equivalent,
Decorticated earth-nut cake 44.0 16.6
Linseed cake 28.5 26.7
Tares 26.73 18.8
Clover hay 15.81 16.8
Oats 11.85 28.8
Hay (mean of grasses) 9.40 17.9
Potato 2.81 6.9
Wheat straw 1.79 12.4
Turnip 1.27 1.8
It is especially note-worthy that those varieties of food, which common
experience has shewn to promote the fattening of stock to the greatest
extent, contain in many instances the smallest quantity of respiratory
or fat-forming elements relatively to their nitrogenous compounds. This
is especially the case with the different kinds of oil cake, the
leguminous seeds, clover, hay, and turnips. On the other hand, in the
grains the ratio is nearly that of one to three, or similar to that
found in fat cattle; while in the straw, the excess of the respiratory
elements is extremely great.
These facts appear at first sight to be completely at variance with the
composition of the increase of fattening animals, as ascertained by
Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert already referred to, and which have shewn that
for every pound of nitrogenous compounds, nearly ten pounds of fat are
stored within the animal; and it might be supposed that those kinds of
food which contain the largest relative amount of respiratory elements
ought to fatten most rapidly, and should be selected by the farmer in
preference to oil-cakes and similar substances. But there are other
matters to be considered, dependent on the complex nature of the changes
attending the absorption and assimilation of the food. It must be
particularly borne in mind that only a small proportion of the food
consumed is stored up within the body, and goes to increase the weight
of the animal. Even in the case of the milk, in which economy in the
supply of nutritive matters has been most clearly attended to by nature,
a considerable proportion escapes assimilation, and in the adult animal
a large amount of the food passes off with the excretions. The justice
of this position is apparent when it is remembered that an ox will go on
day after day consuming from a hundred weight to a hundred weight and a
half of turnips, three or four pounds of bean-meal or oil-cake, and a
considerable quantity of straw, although its daily increase in live
weight may not exceed a couple of pounds. And in this direction a very
fertile field of inquiry lies open to the agricultural experimenter; for
it would be most important to determine whether there are not some
substances from which the nutritive matters may not be more easily
assimilated than from others, and what proportion of each is absorbable
under ordinary circumstances. On this point no information has yet been
obtained applicable to individual feeding substances, but the
experiments of Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert have shewn the quantity of the
total food, and of each of its constituents, stored up in the fattening
animal, and a summary of their results is contained in the following
Table:--
TABLE shewing the Amount of each Class of Constituents, stored in the
increase, for 100 consumed in the Food.
+------+---------+-------------+------+------------+
| | Mineral | Nitrogenous | | Total Dry |
| | Matters | Compounds. | Fat. | Substance. |
+------+---------+-------------+------+------------+
|Sheep | 3.27 | 4.41 | 9.4 | 8.06 |
|Pigs | 0.58 | 7.34 | 21.2 | 17.3 |
+------+---------+-------------+------+------------+
Hence it appears that the pig makes a better use of its food than the
sheep, retaining twice as much of its solid constituents within the
body, from which may be deduced the important practical conclusion, that
the former must be fattened at a much smaller cost than the latter.
Looking at the individual constituents, it appears that, in the sheep,
less than one-twentieth of the nitrogenous compounds, and one-tenth of
the non-nitrogenous substances contained in the food, remain in the
body; and a knowledge of these facts tends to modify the conclusions
which might be drawn from the composition of the increase in the
fattening animal. Its influence may be best illustrated by a particular
example. If, for instance, the increase in a sheep contained its
nitrogenous and respiratory elements in the ratio of 1 to 10, it would
be totally incorrect to supply these substances in the food in the same
proportions. On the contrary, it would be necessary at the very least to
double the proportion of the former, because one-tenth of the
fat-forming elements are absorbed, and only one-twentieth of the
nitrogenous.
On further consideration, also, it seems unquestionable that the
quantity of the nutritive elements stored up must depend to a large
extent on the nature of the food and the particular state in which they
exist in it. It is probable, or at least possible, that some kinds of
food may contain their nitrogenous constituents in an easily assimilable
state, and their respiratory elements in a nearly indigestible
condition, or _vice versa_, and under these circumstances their
nutritive value would be below that indicated by analysis; but these
points can only be determined by elaborate and long continued feeding
experiments. It is well known, however, that the mechanical state of the
food has a most important influence on its nutritive value. Thus, for
example, the presence of a large quantity of woody fibre protects the
nutritive substances from assimilation, and seeds with hard husks pass
unchanged through the animal, although, so far as their composition
alone is concerned, they may be highly nutritive; and the loss of a
certain quantity of many varieties of food in this way is familiar to
every one.
The proper adjustment of the relative quantities of the great groups of
nutritive elements in the food is a matter the importance of which
cannot be over-rated, for it is in fact the foundation of successful and
economical feeding; and this will be readily understood if we consider
what would be the result of giving to an animal a supply of food
containing a large quantity of nitrogenous and a deficiency of
fat-forming compounds. In such circumstances, the animal must either
languish for want of the latter, or it is forced to supply the defect by
an increased consumption of food, in doing which it must take into the
system a larger quantity of nitrogenous compounds than would otherwise
have been requisite, and in this way the other elements, which are
present in abundance, are wasted, and the theoretical and practical
value of a food so constituted may be very different, and it is only
when the proportions of the different groups are properly attended to
that the most economical result can be obtained. It can scarcely be said
that the experiments yet made by feeders enable us to fix the most
suitable proportion in which those substances can be employed, although
experience has led them to the use of mixtures which are in most cases
theoretically correct; thus they combine oil-cakes or turnips with
straw, which is poor nitrogenous, and rich in fat-forming elements; and
in general it will be found that where different kinds of food are
mixed, the deficiencies of the one are counterbalanced by the other, and
though this has hitherto been done empirically, it cannot be doubted
that as our knowledge advances it will more and more be determined by
reference to the composition of the food.
Although the presence of a sufficient quantity of nutritive compounds in
the food is necessarily the fundamental matter for consideration, its
bulk is scarcely less important. The function of digestion requires that
the food shall properly fill the stomach, and however large the supply
of nutritive matters may be, their effect is imperfectly brought out if
the food is too small in bulk, and it actually may become more valuable
if diluted with woody fibre, or some other inert substance. At first
sight this may appear at variance with the observations already made as
to the effects of woody fibre in protecting the nutritive matters from
absorption; but practically there are two opposite evils to be contended
against, a food having too small a bulk, or one containing so large a
proportion of inert substances as to become disadvantageously
voluminous. The most favourable condition lies between the two extremes,
and the natural food of all herbivorous animals is diluted with a
certain amount of woody fibre. When these are replaced by substances
containing a large quantity of nutritive matters in a small bulk, the
result is that the natural instinct of the animal causes it to continue
feeding until the stomach is properly distended, and it consequently
consumes a much larger quantity of food than it is capable of digesting,
and a more or less considerable quantity passes unchanged through the
intestines, and is lost. On the other hand, if the food be too bulky,
the sense of repletion causes the animal to cease eating long before it
has obtained a sufficient supply of nutritive matter. It is most
necessary, therefore, to study the mixture of different kinds of food,
so as to obtain a proper relation between the bulk and the nutritive
matters contained in the mixture; and on examining the nature of the
mixed foods most in vogue among feeders, it will be found that a very
bulky food is usually conjoined with another of opposite qualities.
Hence it is that turnips, the most voluminous of all foods, are used
along with oil-cake and bean-meal, and if from any circumstances it
becomes necessary to replace a large amount of the former by either of
the latter substances, the deficient bulk must be replaced by hay or
straw.
It has been already remarked that there are three great purposes to
which the food consumed is appropriated; the increase of weight of the
animal--the object the feeder has in view and desires to promote--the
supplying the waste of the tissues, and the process of respiration, both
of which are sources of loss of food, and which it must necessarily be
his aim to diminish as much as possible. The circumstances which must be
attended to in order to do this are sufficiently well understood. It has
been clearly established that the natural heat of the animal is
sustained by the consumption of a certain quantity of its food in the
respiratory process, during which it undergoes exactly the same changes
as those which occur during combustion. It has further been observed,
that the temperature of the body remains unchanged, whatever be that of
the surrounding air; and it is obvious that if it is to continue the
same in winter as in summer, a larger quantity of fuel (_i. e._ food)
must be consumed for this purpose, just as a room requires more fire to
keep it warm in winter than in summer, and hence it naturally follows,
that if the animal be kept in a warm locality the food is economized. It
may also be inferred that, if it were possible, consistently with the
health of the animal, to keep it in a room artificially heated to the
temperature of its own body, this source of waste of food would be
entirely removed. It is not possible, however, to do this, because a
limit is set to it by physiological laws, which cannot be infringed with
impunity; but the housing of cattle, so as to diminish this waste as far
as possible, is a point in regard to the propriety of which theory and
practice are at one.
The old feeders kept their cattle in large open courts, where they were
exposed to every vicissitude of the weather, but as intelligence
advanced, we find them substituting, first hammels, and then stalls, in
which the animals are kept during the whole time of fattening at an
equable temperature. The effect of this is necessarily to introduce a
considerable economy of the food required to sustain the animal heat;
but it also produces a saving in another way, for it diminishes the
waste of the tissues.
It has been ascertained by accurate experiments made chiefly on man,
that muscular exertion is one of the most important causes of the waste
of the tissues, and of increased respiratory activity. We cannot move a
limb without producing a corresponding consumption of matters already
laid up within the body; and it has also been found, that the difference
in the quantity of carbonic acid expired during rest and active
exertion, is very large. The inference to be drawn from this is, that
when it is sought to fatten an animal rapidly, every effort must be made
to restrain muscular motion so far as compatible with health. Hence, the
peculiar advantage of stall-feeding, in which the animal is confined to
one spot, and the more thoroughly it can be kept still, the greater will
be the economy of food. This is gained by darkening the house, and
excluding all persons, except when their presence is indispensable.
An extension of the same principle has led to the use of food
artificially heated, but it is doubtful whether the advantages derived
from it are commensurate to the increased expense of the process; at
least opinions differ among the best informed practical men on this
subject.
Many other matters, besides these mentioned, exercise an important
influence on the feeding of stock, such as the general health of the
animal, the breed, etc. These are subjects, however, which bear more
directly on practical agriculture, and need not be discussed here.
The judicious feeder will not only give due weight to the principles
already discussed in all he does, but he must take into consideration
the extent to which they are liable to be modified in particular cases.
He must also attend to the cost of different kinds of food, and the
value of the manure produced by them, subjects of much importance in a
practical point of view, and which must influence him greatly in choice
of the particular substances he supplies to his cattle.
INDEX.
Acid, apocrenic, 21.
Carbonic, 10, 15, 20, 37, 57, 115.
Cerotic, 48.
Crenic, 21.
Geic, 21.
Hippuric, 168.
Humic, 21.
Lactic, 168.
Margaric, 47.
Nitric, 11, 17, 30, 33, 38, 62, 112.
Oleic, 47.
Pectic, 46.
Phosphoric, 73, 90.
Stearic, 47.
Sulphuric, 182, 237.
Ulmic, 21.
Uric, 168.
Adulteration of guano, 211.
Agricultural Chemistry Association of Scotland, 6.
Air, influence of, on germination, 55.
In the pores of soils, 115.
Albite, 86.
Albumen, 48.
Albuminous constituents of plants and animals, 48.
Algoa Bay guano, 208.
Alkaline salts, value of, 260.
Alumina, 73, 86, 103.
Ammonia, absorption of, by plants, 29, 38.
Absorption of, by soils, 123.
Carbonate of, 29.
Composition of, 12.
Decomposition of, by plants, 61.
Presence in dew, 17.
" rain, 17.
Production of, 12.
Properties of, 12.
Proportion of, in air, 16, 20.
Proportion of, in drain water, 112.
Proportion of, in soils, 107.
Sulphate of, 29, 227.
Sulphomuriate of, 227.
Urate of, 205.
Valuation of, 259.
Ammoniacal liquor, 229.
Amylaceous constituents of plants, 40.
Angamos guano, 207, 210.
Animal charcoal, 224.
Manures, 204.
Animals, composition of, 281.
Nitrogenous constituents of, 48, 281.
Apatite, 235.
Ascension Island guano, 208.
Augite, 89.
Australian guano, 207.
Avenine, 50.
Barks, amount of ash in, 66.
Barley, 286.
Barrenness of soils, 109.
Basalt, 92.
Beans, 286.
Bere, 286.
Biphosphate of lime, 237, 260.
Bird Island guano, 208.
Blood as a manure, 220.
Bone ash, 234.
Bone oil, 229.
Bones as a manure, 223.
Dissolved, 237.
Box-feeding, 183.
Bolivian guano, 207, 210.
Bran, 197, 286.
Burning, improvement of soils by, 146.
Cabbage, 286.
Cane sugar, 43.
Carbon, properties of, 10.
Proportion of, in plants, 10.
Carbonate of ammonia, 29.
Lime, 96, 247.
Magnesia, 96.
Potash, 232.
Soda, 232.
Carbonic acid, absorption of, by plants, 37.
Decomposition of, by plants, 57.
Evolution of, by plants, 58.
How obtained, 10.
Properties, 10.
Proportion of, in air, 15, 20.
Carburetted hydrogen, 19.
Calcium, sulphuret of, 252.
Caramel, 44.
Carrot, 286.
Caseine, 50, 283.
Castor cake, 195.
Cattle food, composition of, 286.
Cellulose, 40.
Cerine, 48.
Cerotic acid, 48.
Chaff, 197.
Chalk, 96, 245.
Charcoal, animal, 224.
Chilian guano, 207.
China-clay, 87.
Chloride of potassium, 73, 102.
Sodium, 73, 232.
Manganese, 182.
Clay, 87.
Absorbent action of, 121.
Composition of, 95.
Source of, 88, 94.
Clay-slate, 95.
Classification of plants, 81.
Coprolites, 98, 235.
Coral sand, 246.
Cotton cake, 195, 286.
Crenic acid, 21.
Crops, Mineral matters in, 270.
Nitrogen in different, 270.
Rotation of, 81, 266.
Deep Ploughing, effects of, 144.
Dew, ammonia in, 17.
Nitric acid in, 19.
Dextrine, 43.
Diastase, 43, 53, 55.
Diorite, 92.
Dissolved bones, 237.
Dolerite, 92.
Dotter cake, 286.
Drainage water, analyses of, 112.
Draining, 138.
Dung, composition of, 170.
Dung heaps, management of, 179.
Earth-nut cake, 286.
Emulsine, 50.
Exhaustion of soils, 81.
Farm stock, feeding of, 276.
Farm-yard manure, 166, 172.
Application of, 186.
Fat, amount of, in animals, 281.
Fatty acids, 47.
Matters, 46.
Feeding cakes, 286.
Feeding of farm stock, 276.
Felspar, 86.
Decomposition of, 88.
Fermentation of manure, 184.
Fire-clay, 95.
Fish manure, 221.
Flesh as a manure, 220.
Fog, ammonia in, 17.
Nitric acid in, 19.
Food, cattle, 286.
Fruits, amount of ash in, 66.
Gas Lime, 252.
Geic acid, 21.
Germination, 54.
Gluten, 49.
Glutin, 49.
Glycerine, 47.
Gneiss, 91.
Granite, 91.
Grape sugar, 44.
Greenstone, 92.
Green manuring, 198.
Guano, 204.
Adulteration of, 211.
Application of, 214.
Average composition of, 207.
Fish, 222.
Peruvian, characters of, 209.
Phospho-Peruvian, 243.
Sombrero Island, 236.
Hair, 218.
Hay, 286.
Heat, evolution of, by plants, 60.
Hempseed cake, 286.
Hippuric acid, 168.
Horn, 218.
Hornblende, 89.
Humic acid, 21.
Humin, 22.
Humus, 21, 98, 133.
Hydrogen, 10.
Ichaboe Guano, 207.
Indian guano, 208.
Inorganic constituents of plants, 9, 34.
Inorganic constituents;
Absorption by plants, 38.
Proportion in plants, 64.
Inorganic constituents of soils, 85.
Inuline, 43.
Iodine in plants, 76.
Iron, protoxide of, in soils, 107.
Sulphate of, 182.
Sulphuret of, in subsoils, 135.
Kaolin, 87.
Kooria Mooria guano, 207.
Labradorite, 86.
Lactic acid, 168.
Latham Island guano, 207.
Leaves, amount of ash in, 65.
As a manure, 202.
Legumine, 50.
Lichen starch, 42.
Light, influence of, on plants, 57.
Lime, action of, on soils, 248.
As a manure, 245.
Bicarbonate of, 122.
Carbonate of, 96.
Biphosphate of, 237, 260.
Humate of, 125
Phosphate of, 96, 233, 258.
Sulphate of, 96, 253, 260.
Lime-plants, 82.
Limestone, 96.
Linseed cake, 195.
Liquid manure, 166, 187.
Madia Sativa, 286.
Magnesia, carbonate of, 96.
Sulphate of, 182, 233.
Magnesian limestone, 96.
Malt-dust, 197.
Manganese in plants, 73.
Oxide of, 73, 87.
Chloride of, 182.
Mangold-wurzel, 286.
Manures, animal, 204.
Manures, application of, 165, 186.
Fermentation of, 184.
Farm-yard, 166, 172.
Liquid, 166, 187.
Mineral, 226.
Theory of, 156.
Sewage, 191.
Vegetable, 195.
Valuation of, 255.
Manuring, Green, 198.
Principles of, 152.
Maple peas, 286.
Maracaybo guano, 236.
Margaric acid, 47.
Margarine, 46.
Marl, 245.
Mexican guano, 207.
Mica, 88.
Mica slate, 91.
Milk, composition of, 283.
Curding of, 51.
Mineral constituents of plants, 9, 63.
Mineral manures, 226.
Mineral matters in different crops, 270.
In animals, 281.
Moisture, influence of, on germination, 55.
Mucilage, 44.
Natrolite, 90.
New Island guano, 208.
Niger cake, 286.
Night-soil, 217.
Nitrate of potash, 229.
Nitrate of soda, 229, 260.
Nitric acid, absorbtion of, by plants, 30, 38.
Decomposition of, by plants, 62.
In drainage water, 112.
In dew, 19.
In air, 17.
In fog, 19.
Production of, 11, 33.
Nitrification, 11.
Nitrogen, amount in a six-course rotation, 160.
Amount of, in different crops, 270.
Presence in the atmosphere, 11.
Properties of, 11.
Proportion of, in plants, 11.
Nitrogenous constituents of plants, 48, 286.
Nitrogenous constituents of animals, 48, 281.
Oats, 286.
Proportion of ash in, 68, 70.
Oil-cakes, 195, 286.
Oils, sweet principle of, 47.
Oily matters, 46.
Oleic acid, 47.
Oleine, 46.
Oligoclase, 86.
Oolitic limestone, 96.
Organic constituents of plants, 8.
Sources of the, 13, 20.
Organic constituents of soils, 103.
Orthoclase, 86.
Oxide of iron in rocks and soils, 87, 107.
Of manganese, 87.
Oxygen, evolution of, by plants, 58.
Influence of, on germination, 55.
Presence in atmosphere, 12.
Properties of, 12.
Proportion of, in plants, 12.
Pacquico Guano, 207.
Paring, improvement of soils by, 146.
Patagonian guano, 207.
Pea-nut cake, 286.
Peas, 286.
Peat, as a manure, 203.
Peat, use of, in dung-heaps, 184.
Pectic acid, 46.
Pectine, 46.
Peruvian Guano, 205, 207, 209.
Upper, 207, 213.
Phosphate of lime, 96, 233.
Value of, 258.
Phosphates, insoluble, 258.
Soluble, 237, 260.
Phospho-Peruvian guano, 243.
Phosphuretted hydrogen in air, 19.
Pigeons' dung, 216.
Plants, Albuminous constituents of, 48.
Amylaceous constituents of, 40.
Ash of, 64, 73.
Classification of, 81.
Inorganic constituents of, 9, 34, 38, 63.
Oily constituents of, 46.
Organic constituents of, 8.
Proximate constituents of, 40.
Saccharine constituents of, 40.
Poppy cake, 196, 286.
Potash, carbonate of, 232.
Muriate of, 231.
Nitrate of, 229.
Plants, 82.
Salts, 231.
Potato, 286.
Poudrette, 217.
Proximate constituents of plants, 40.
Pyroguanite, 236.
Quartz, 86.
Rainwater, 17, 18.
Rape Cake, 196, 286.
Dust, 195.
Rocks, crystalline, 85.
Composition of, 91.
Disintegration of, 85.
Sedimentary, 86.
Roots of plants, amount of ash in, 65.
Rotation of crops, 81, 266.
Ruebsen cake, 286.
Rye, 286.
Saccharine Constituents of plants, 40.
Saldanha Bay guano, 207.
Salt, common, 232.
Sandstones, 95.
Schuebler's experiments, 127.
Sea Bear Bay guano, 208.
Sea weed, 200, 201.
Seeds, amount of ash in, 64.
Sesamum cake, 286.
Sewage manure, 191.
Shell sand, 246.
Silica plants, 82.
Silicate of potash, 233.
Soda, 233.
Skin, 218.
Soda, carbonate of, 232.
Nitrate of, 229, 260.
Salts, 231.
Silicate of, 233.
Sodium, chloride of, 232.
Soil, the, 20, 83.
Influence on the composition of the ash of plants, 71.
Chemical composition of, 98.
Chemical and physical characters of, 83.
Improvement of, by mechanical means, 137.
Soil, relation of, to heat and moisture, 127.
Soils, absorbent action of, 122.
Air in the pores of, 114.
Analysis, 101, 118.
Barrenness of, 109.
Classification of, 135.
Exhaustion of, 81.
Inorganic constituents of, 85.
Mixing of, 150.
Origin of, 84.
Organic matters in, 103.
Physical characters of, 118, 127.
Sombrero Island guano, 236.
Starch, 41.
Lichen, 42.
Stearic acid, 47.
Stearine, 46.
Stems of plants, ash in, 64.
Straw, amount of ash in, 64.
As a manure, 197.
Sulphate of iron, 182.
Lime, 96, 253, 260.
Magnesia, 182.
Ammonia, 29, 227.
Potash, 231.
Sulphomuriate of ammonia, 227.
Sulphur in plants, 78.
Sulphuret of iron, 135.
Calcium, 252.
Sulphuretted hydrogen, 19.
Sugar, 43.
Of milk, 283.
Subsoil, the, 134.
Ploughing, 143.
Sunflower cake, 286.
Syenite, 91.
Tares, 286.
Teelcake, 286.
Temperature, influence of, on germination, 54.
Thomsonite, 90.
Trap rock, 92.
Tubers, amount of ash in, 65.
Ulmic acid, 21.
Ulmin, 22.
Upper Peruvian guano, 207, 213.
Urate, 216.
Of ammonia, 205.
Urea, 168.
Uric acid, 168, 205.
Urine, composition of, 167.
Human, 168.
Sulphated, 216.
Valuation of manures, 255.
Vegetable manures, 195.
Vegetation, influence of light on, 57.
Voelcker's analyses of dung, 174.
Warping, 148.
Water, absorption of, by plants, 35.
Decomposition of, by plants, 60.
Exhalation of, by plants, 35.
Rain, 17, 18.
Wax, 48.
Wheat, 286.
Woods, amount of ash in, 65.
Woody fibre, 41.
Wool, 219.
Zeolites, 90.
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* * * * *
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NEW EDITION OF KITTO'S CYCLOPAEDIA.
_In royal 8vo, Volume I. (A to E), pp. 884. Price_ L1: 0: 0.
A THIRD EDITION OF
KITTO'S
_Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature._
Edited by the Rev. WILLIAM LINDSAY ALEXANDER, D.D., with the assistance
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Illustrated by Numerous Engravings on Wood and Steel.
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_List of Contributors._
Beard, J. R., D.D.
Bell, G. M.
Brown, John, D.D., late Professor of Exegetical Theology to the United
Presbyterian Church of Scotland.
Browne, Henry, M.A., Vicar of Pevensey.
Cairns, John, D.D.
Candlish, James S., M.A.
Credner, Karl August, D.D., late Professor of Theology at Giessen.
Davidson, Samuel, D.D., LL.D.
Denham, Joshua Fred., M.A., F.R.S.
Deutsch, Emanuel, of the University of Berlin, M. Ger. Or. Soc., etc.,
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Doran, John William, LL.D., Rector of Beeston, St. Lawrence, Norfolk.
Farrar, Frederic W., M.A., late Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.
Geikie, Archibald, F.R.S.E., F.G.S., of the Geological Survey.
Ginsburg, Christian D.
Goold, William Henry, D.D., Professor of Theology to the Reformed
Presbyterian Church.
Gotch, F. W., D.D., President of the Baptist College, Bristol; Examiner
in Hebrew to the London University.
Gowan, Anthony T., D.D.
Haevernick, Heinrich August Christ., late Professor of Theology at
Koenigsberg.
Holmes, Peter, D.D., F.R.A.S., of Magdalen Hall, Oxford.
Jamieson, Robert, D.D., Minister of St. Paul's, Glasgow.
Jennings, Isaac.
Kitto, John, D.D., F.A.S.
Leathes, Stanley, M.A.
Lyon, William P., B.A.
M'Causland, Dominick, Q.C., LL.D.
Madden, Fred. W., M.R.S.L., Brit. Museum.
Michelson, E., Ph. D. of the University of Heidelberg.
Morren, Nathanael, M.A.
Newman, Francis W., late Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford; Professor of
Latin in the University of London.
Newth, Samuel, M.A., Professor, New College, London.
Nicholson, John, B.A. Oxford; Ph. D. Tuebingen.
Nicholson, W. A., M.D.
Poole, Reg. Stuart, British Museum.
Porter, J. Leslie, M.A., Professor of Sacred Literature, Assembly's
College, Belfast.
Royle, J. F., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S.
Ryland, J. E.
Smith, C. Hamilton, Lieut.-Colonel, K.H. and K.W., F.R.S., F.R.L.S.,
etc.
Smith, John Pye, D.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.
Stebbing, Henry, D.D. of St. John's College, Cambridge.
Tholuck, August, D.D., Professor of Theology in the University of Halle.
Wace, Henry, M.A.
Wright, William, M.A. and LL.D. of Trinity College, Dublin.
* * * * *
EDINBURGH: ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK.
NEW EDITION, 1862.
_In folio, half bound morocco, gilt edges, price_ L3,
_A new edition of_
BLACK'S GENERAL ATLAS OF THE WORLD,
Series of Fifty-six Maps, containing all the Latest Discoveries,
beautifully coloured, and accompanied by an Alphabetical Index of 65,000
Names, forming a ready Key to the places mentioned in the Maps.
_List of Maps in the order in which they occur._
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY, ETC.
1. The World in Hemispheres, with Comparative View of Mountains and Rivers.
2. The World on Mercator's Projection.
3. Physical and Ethnographical Charts of the World.
4. Zoological and Botanical Charts of the World.
5. Isothermal Chart shewing the Temperature of the Earth's Surface.
6. Northern and Southern Celestial Hemisphere.
7. Solar System, Theory of the Seasons, etc.
EUROPE.
8. Europe.
9. England (North Part).
10. ....... (South Part).
11. Scotland (North Part).
12. ........ (South Part).
13. Ireland.
14. France.
15. Switzerland.
16. Holland and Belgium.
17. Railway Map of Central Europe.
18. Germany.
19. Austria.
20. Prussia.
21. Denmark.
22. Sweden and Norway, with Baltic Sea.
23. Russia in Europe.
24. Spain and Portugal.
25. Italy (North).
26. ..... (South).
27. Turkey in Europe.
28. Greece and Ionian Islands.
ASIA.
29. Asia.
30. Turkey in Asia.
31. Palestine.
32. Persia, Afghanistan, and Beloochistan.
33. India.
34. China.
35. Indian Archipelago, and Further India,
including Burmah, Siam, etc.
AFRICA.
36. Africa, with Barth's, Livingstone's, and Burton's Routes.
37. Egypt.
38. South Africa.
AMERICA.
39. North America, with Enlargement of British Columbia.
40. British America and Arctic Regions.
41. Canada East, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, etc.
42. Canada West.
43. United States of America (General Map).
44. The Eastern or Principal States.
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46. Mexico, Central America, etc.
47. West India Islands.
48. South America.
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50. Chili--Argentine Republic, and Bolivia.
51. Brazil, Uruguay, and Guayana.
AUSTRALIA AND ISLANDS OF THE PACIFIC.
52. Australia.
53. New Zealand, Tasmania, and Western Australia.
54. Polynesia and Pacific Ocean.
55. The World as known to the Ancients.
56. The Principal Countries of the Ancient World, with the
Roman and Persian Empires.
_Accompanied by Sketch Maps of the Federal and Confederate States, and
of a portion of Mexico._
* * * * *
EDINBURGH: ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK.