BYZANTINE AND SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE
The term Byzantine has been given to the style of architecture which was
the outcome of the fusion of the best building traditions of the East
and of the West, the former contributing the distinctive structural
feature of the dome, with the minor details of richness of colouring and
lavishness of decoration, the latter dignified symmetry of proportion
and scientific solidity of construction.
It was in Byzantium, when in 330 the first Christian Emperor chose it
as his headquarters, and its name was changed in his honour to
Constantinople, that the union which was to be so prolific of results
took place. Unfortunately however none of the churches erected under the
auspices of Constantine in the new capital have been preserved, the sole
relic of his reign, so far as architecture is concerned, being the
foundations of the apse of a church, now replaced by a considerably
later building, in which he had the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem
enclosed. The oldest existing church in Constantinople is a basilica of
the Roman type dating from 463, with nothing distinctive of the new
style about it, but there is historical evidence that the noble S.
Sophia, in which that style reached its fullest development, was
preceded in Constantinople by other grand buildings of a similar type,
including one dedicated to the Holy Apostles which was cruciform in plan
and had five domes.
[Illustration: S. Sophia, Constantinople]
The most distinctive peculiarity of Byzantine architecture is the
roofing over of square spaces with the aid of the pendentive, a clever
expedient already explained, that was carried to great perfection by the
builders of Constantinople and those who elsewhere followed their
example. Previously employed in comparatively small structures, it now
became the fundamental principle for the roofing over of spaces of a
great variety of extent, groups of domes and semi-domes, in many cases
supplemented by tapering towers rising with imposing effect from massive
outer walls. The long aisles and nave of the Roman and early Christian
basilicas were replaced by a more or less square plan, lofty piers
spanned by arches upholding the central cupola, whilst the galleries
above the aisles rested on slender columns such as were also employed to
rail off the sanctuary and narthex from the main body of the building.
The whole of the interior, which was lighted from windows in the dome,
was most profusely decorated, the walls having dados or slabs of
different coloured marbles supplemented by mosaics, with which every
portion of the domes, semi-domes, and pendentives were also covered,
whilst the columns, in many cases of variegated marble, had beautifully
carved capitals of an infinite variety of design.
It is customary to divide the history of the development of Byzantine
architecture into two distinct periods, the first extending from the 4th
to the close of the 6th century, the second from the 8th to the 13th
century, there having been a pause between them during which no
buildings of any importance were erected owing to the wars which
convulsed alike the East and the West. As already stated, no actual
buildings belonging to the earlier portion of the first period remain,
but there exist in S. Vitale at Ravenna and still more in S. Sophia at
Constantinople unique examples of the golden age of Byzantine
architecture, the inspiring influence of which was felt throughout the
whole of Europe and the greater part of Asia. The former church, begun
about 526, is of octagonal plan, each division, except that containing
the choir, with an apse of its own, and though the interior has been
greatly spoiled by restoration, the general effect of the vaulted
roofing, marble casing of the walls, and mosaics of the eastern end is
extremely fine. San Vitale is, however, altogether excelled by the
world-famous S. Sophia, now the chief mosque of Constantinople, which
occupies the site of a basilica built under Constantine, that was burnt
down early in the reign of Justinian. The latter emperor at once ordered
the erection of its successor, appointing as architects Anthemios of
Thralles and Isodoros of Miletus.
Begun in 532 and completed in 537, S. Sophia is of very simple yet most
dignified external appearance, so symmetrical is the grouping of its
many domes and semi-domes, whilst the interior, though it has none of
the rich colouring usual in oriental buildings, is unsurpassed in the
harmony of its structural details, all of which lead up, as it were, to
the huge central dome, the lower portion of which is pierced with a
series of small windows throwing a flood of light upon the vast circular
space below. The general plan is square, but a fine narthex consisting
of two spacious halls one above the other projects slightly beyond the
actual church at the western end. The nave, which is 106 feet wide by
225 long, has a semicircular apse with small recesses opening out of it
at either end, and is separated from the aisles by rows of closely set
columns with ornate capitals, spanned by arches upholding two-storied
arcaded galleries, roofed in by semi-domes, except at the northern and
southern ends, which have walls with numerous small windows. One large
western window illuminates the nave, and there is also a double circle
of lights round the apse, the galleries, and the narthex.
Other interesting early Byzantine buildings are the Baptistery at
Kalat-Seman and the church of S. George at Ezra, both in Syria, each of
which is of square plan with an octagonal central space, the latter
having the comparatively unusual feature of a dome upheld by what is
known as a drum, that is to say a low vertical wall instead of
pendentives. The church of S. Sergius at Constantinople, contemporaneous
with S. Sophia, is specially noteworthy on account of the introduction
in it of a classic entablature, combined with distinctive Byzantine
features, with which may be named the much-restored S. Lorenzo at Milan
and the church of the Virgin at Misitra, the ancient Sparta.
To the second period of Byzantine Architecture belong not only several
fine buildings in Constantinople, but others in Greece, Asia Minor, the
North of Italy, and elsewhere, all of which, though they have the
leading structural features of the style, are distinguished by certain
minor local characteristics. The most noteworthy in the capital are the
now secularised church of S. Irene, founded by Constantine and rebuilt
considerably later, and the church of the Chora monastery, specially
remarkable for its beautiful mosaics, whilst in Greece the Churches of
S. Nicodemus at Athens and that of Daphni not far from it, with the two
monastic churches at Stiris and the churches of S. Sophia and S. Elias,
at Salonika, are all thoroughly Byzantine, bearing a close resemblance
to each other. They are all, however, excelled by the great Cathedral of
S. Marco at Venice, which rivals even S. Sophia in the exquisite beauty
of the interior and excels it in the ornate richness of the exterior.
Founded early in the 9th century, S. Marco was partially destroyed in
978 and rebuilt soon afterwards in the original style, that of a
basilica without transepts, but in the second half of the 11th century
it was completely transformed by additions converting it into a
cruciform building, roofed over by five domes of the same size, and with
five arcaded porches at the western end that form one of the grandest
facades in the world. Numerous columns of many covered marbles uphold
graceful arches, the spandrels, or triangular spaces between them filled
in with gleaming mosaics, and above them rise other arches that contrast
well with tapering towers supported on slender pilasters to which the
domes beyond form an admirable background. Within the church to which
this magnificent narthex gives entrance, an infinite variety of
harmonious details combine to produce an entrancing effect: one charming
vista succeeding another, the whole flooded with light from a vast
number of windows, there being no less than eighty in the domes alone.
Mosaics of different dates and greatly varying aesthetic merit completely
clothe the surfaces of the vaulting, the capitals of the columns--many
of which, by the way, are purely decorative, upholding no arches--are
elaborately carved, and the flooring is of marble, slabs of considerable
size being set in patterns of tesserae.
In the various countries which fell under the influence of the followers
of Mahommed a style of architecture was evolved that had marked
affinities with the Byzantine, the first mosques having been designed,
it is supposed, by Christian architects of Oriental origin, who retained
the square or circular ground-plan of early churches, though they
modified the interior to suit the requirements of the new religion,
introducing, for instance, a central tank for ablutions. Mosques
intended for worship only, generally had flat roofs, the use of the dome
being at first distinctive of a burial place, but as it very soon became
usual to inter in mosques, the dome came to be quoted as a distinctive
feature of them. By degrees simple unadorned mosques were replaced by
vast buildings with many arcaded courts entered from ornate lateral
doorways, whilst certain characteristic features were introduced, of
which the chief were the stalactite vaulting, the name of which explains
itself, the horse-shoe arch, and the minaret, the last named a turret of
several stories gradually decreasing in circumference, each with a
balcony of its own from which the mueddin calls the faithful to prayer.
Pointed arches were also constantly employed as well as the form known
as cusped, that is to say one with a triangular projection springing
from the inner curve. A minor but most significant characteristic of
Saracenic architecture is the elaborate surface decoration in which
geometrical designs, letters, &c., are interwoven with consummate skill,
but in which no figures of animals are ever introduced, the
representation of life being strictly forbidden by the Koran.
Although Arabia was the birthplace of the founder of Islam, there are
few Saracenic buildings of importance in it. The so-called great Mosque
at Mecca, which has been a goal of pilgrimage from all points of the
Mahommedan world for so many centuries, has been since its foundation
completely rebuilt, not assuming its present form until the middle of
the 16th century. It has little that can be called architectural style
about it, consisting as it does of an arcaded enclosure in the centre of
which is the Kaaba, a heathen shrine that existed long before the time
of Mohammed, the whole surrounded by a wall with several gateways and
minarets.
[Illustration: Section of Mosque el Aksah at Jerusalem]
In Jerusalem various characteristic buildings bear witness to the
prevalence of the Mahommedan faith in the Holy City of the Christians,
including the 7th century Mosque el Aksah, originally a Christian church
transformed into what it now is by Calif Omar, and the 8th century
shrine erroneously named after him, also known as the Dome of the Rock,
both of which rise from the site of the Jewish Temple. The latter is of
octagonal plan, and, though its details are of a somewhat hybrid
character, many of the columns having been filched from other buildings,
whilst the decorations of the great dome and of the exterior were added
in the 16th century, is of very singular charm on account of the
symmetry of its proportions and the richness of its colouring, the walls
being cased in Persian tiles and the windows filled with stained glass.
It appears to have been in Egypt that Saracenic architecture, strictly
so-called, first attained to the structural dignity and appropriateness
of ornamentation that were to distinguish it in Persia, Spain, and
India. In the 7th century Mosque of Amru and that of Ibn Touloun, dating
from the 9th century, both at Cairo, the earlier phases of the style can
be studied, whilst the later development is illustrated in the same city
by the 13th century Mosque of Kalaoon, the 14th century Mosque of Sultan
Hassan, that has the rare feature in a Mahommedan building of a
cruciform plan, the contemporaneous Mosque of Sultin Barkook, and the
small 15th century Mosque of Kait-Bey, the last specially noteworthy on
account of its beautiful internal decoration and its graceful minaret.
In Persia the finest mosques are the 13th century one at Tabrez known as
the Blue, and that at Ispahan dating from the 16th century, which has a
grand dome and noble gateways with pointed arches, whilst at Serbistan,
Firanzabad, Ukheithar, Kasir-i-Shirin, and elsewhere in the same country
are remains of palaces and other secular buildings, ranging in date from
the 4th to the 9th century, that give proof of great structural and
decorative skill on the part of the architects who worked for the
fire-worshippers, who, though they required no temples in which to
worship their gods, lavished vast sums on their own homes.
Beautiful as are the relics of Saracenic architecture in Egypt, Syria,
and Persia, they are excelled by many remarkable buildings in Spain,
where, after the conquest of the country by the Moors in the 8th
century, the style reached its fullest development. The most remarkable
examples of it are the Mosque at Cordova, begun in 786 by Abd-el-Rahman
and added to from time to time by his successors, with the result that
it affords an excellent illustration of the modification of details that
took place as time went on; the 12th century Giralda or Tower at
Seville, noteworthy for its fine proportions and effective surface
decoration, the 13th century Alcazar or castle in the same town, and
above all the Palace of the Alhambra, that dominates Granada from a
lofty height above the city, which was begun in 1248 by the Moorish
King, Ibn-l-Ahmar and added to by his successors. Of the original
buildings that, when first completed, must have been one of the grandest
and most finely situated groups in the world, all that now remain are
the towers of the north wall, in one of which is the vast hall of the
Ambassadors, and various colonnaded rooms and porticoes ranged round two
spacious courts, one called that of the Fishpond, the other that of the
Lions. The delicate grace of the columns and arches, with the richness
of their decoration and of every inch of surface, has never been
surpassed either in beauty of design or harmony of colour, whilst the
effects of perspective from the doorways and other points of view are
equally unrivalled. No single detail is superfluous or without its
special meaning in relation to the whole, and even what to the
uninitiated appear mere geometrical designs on the walls, lintels, &c.,
are quotations from the Koran and classic Arabic poetry.
[Illustration: Section of Mosque at Cordoba]
When through the breaking up of the power of the Moors in Spain, the
architecture introduced by them seemed fated to share their decline, a
kind of revival of it took place in Constantinople through the conquest
of that city by the Turks in 1453. Unfortunately however the style made
no real progress there, the mosques and other buildings erected by the
new owners being rather Byzantine than Saracenic, even that known as the
Suleimanyeh, built between 1550-1556, and the Ahmediyeh, dating from
1608-1614, greatly resembling St. Sophia.
In India the mosques and palaces erected by the Mahommedan conquerors
and their successors are even more beautiful and impressive than the
Buddhist and Hindu buildings described in the section on Asiatic
architecture. Their distinctive characteristics, as in Egypt, Persia,
and Spain, are the skilful combination of the dome, the arch and the
minaret, and the lavish surface decoration of the interior, with certain
other peculiarities that were the outcome of local tradition. More
attention was given, for instance, to external appearance, huge
recessed gateways and colonnaded cloisters surmounted by rows of purely
decorative domes on pilasters, being of frequent occurrence. At the same
time, stalactite vaulting was rarely employed, whilst horizontal courses
of corbels or arches in which each stone projects slightly beyond that
on which it rests, were used as supports for the domes instead of
pendentives.
[Illustration: Section of Taj Mahal, Agra]
Among the most noteworthy still-existing examples of Indo-Saracenic
architecture are the early 15th century Jumna Musjid or Great Mosque at
Ahmedabad, that has certain details recalling Hindu post and lintel
structures; the late 15th century Adinah mosque at Gaur, which has 385
domes; the 16th century Jumna Musjid at Bijapur, that has the singular
feature of a central space covered in by a dome upheld by intersecting
arches, set in a number of squares with flat roofs; the Mosque built by
Akbar in the second half of the 16th century at Futtehpore Sikhri, the
gateways of which are specially characteristic; and the remarkable
buildings at Delhi and Agra, erected in the 17th century under the
enlightened Shah Jehan, including in the former city the Jumna Musjid
and the fortified palace, and in the latter the Moti Musjid or Pearl
Mosque, and the Taj Mahal, both exceptionally beautiful, in which the
Saracenic style may justly be said to have reached its culmination,
nothing that can be compared with them having been since produced either
in India or elsewhere. The Taj Mahal, built by the Emperor as a tomb for
himself and his favourite wife, is indeed of dream-like and ethereal
charm, with its well-proportioned domes and minarets, cased, as is the
rest of the exterior, in white marble, and its interior enriched with
mosaics of precious stones.