3. Recognition of equality, one with another, of all independent
states.
Chief principles.
As regards the first oL these principles see STATE. From the principle
of independence it follows that every state has a right to change its
form of government and to enjoy the free exercise oL its internal
energies. This is subject only to the limitation that in the exercise of
this right other states or their subjects shall not be molested or
otherwise suffer. The equality of all independent states entitles them
to respect by other states of all the forms of ceremonial and to the
same treatment by others, where their interests are identical, whether
they are strong or weak. This principle has often been violated, but it
is, nevertheless, acknowledged wherever possible, as in diplomatic
conferences relating to all matters of an economic, hygienic, industrial
or social character. Even at the Conference of Algeciras, though the
powers immediately concerned from a political point of view were only
Great Britain, France, Germany and Spain, the following were also
represented as having economic interests in Morocco, Austria-Hungary,
Italy, Russia, Belgium, Holland, Portugal and Sweden.
High sea.
Ships on the high sea being regarded as detached portions of the
national territory, there is also the derived principle of the freedom
of the high sea, of the independence and equality upon it of the ships
of all nations, subject only to due respect being paid to the
independence and equality of all others and to such conventional
restrictions as states may impose upon themselves (see TERRITORIAL
WATERS). This principle is re-enunciated in the preamble to the
Convention of 1907 on the laying of automatic submarine contact mines
(see PEACE CONFERENCES).
The right to arbitration.
The Hague Conventions are based on these principles, to which there is a
tendency to add another, viz. the right to arbitration in certain cases.
This principle is set out more or less tentatively, it is true, but it
is being completed by separate treaties of compulsory arbitration in
connexion with the cases referred to. It is enunciated in the following
article of the Convention of 1907 for the pacific settlement of
International disputes:--
"In questions of a legal nature, and especially in the interpretation
or application of International Conventions, arbitration is recognized
by the contracting powers as the most effective, and, at the same
time, the most equitable means of arranging disputes which diplomacy
has failed to settle. Consequently, it is desirable that, in disputes
regarding the above-mentioned questions, the contracting powers
should, if need be, have recourse to arbitration, in so far as
circumstances permit" (Art. 28).
The principle of arbitration has also been adopted in reference to the
recovery of contract debts under the following article of the
"Convention respecting the limitation of the employment of force for the
recovery of contract debts":--
"The contracting powers agree not to have recourse to armed force for
the recovery of contract debts claimed from the government of one
country by the government of another country as being due to its
subjects or citizens. This undertaking is, however, not applicable
when the debtor state refuses or neglects to reply to an offer of
arbitration, or, after accepting the offer, renders the settlement of
the _Compromis_ impossible, or, after the arbitration, fails to comply
with the award" (Art. 1).
The codification of International Law itself, begun at the Hague and
London Conferences, is an admission of the binding character of the
primary principles set out above.
Restriction of effect of fictions.
One of the chief tendencies of contemporary reform is also to restrict
the effect of fictions and reduce rights to the limits of their
practical application. Between two alternatives, the one to assert
rights which cannot possibly be maintained by force such as claims to
dominion over portions of the high sea (see HIGH SEA, TERRITORIAL
WATERS), "paper blockades" (see BLOCKADE) and fictitious occupations of
territory (see OCCUPATION), and the other to require actual physical
assertion, a medium course is growing up, viz. that of recognizing
potential assertion, that is assertion limited to physical
possibilities.[16] With the aid of the Institute oL International Law,
the International Law Association and other reforming agencies (see
PEACE), expert opinion in these matters is becoming homogeneous
throughout the civilized world, and the ground is being prepared for a
clearer understanding of these fundamental principles by the statesmen
and state officials who have to apply them in practice.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The following are works on international law, diplomacy
and treaty relations, from the beginning of the 19th century until
1910. Many of the older authors have been omitted to permit the
inclusion of more recent writers.
Alcorta, _Tratado de derecho internacional_ (Buenos Aires, 1878); D.
Anzilotti, _Teoria generale della responsabilita dello Stato nel
diritto internazionale_ (Florence, 1902); Arendt, _Le Droit public et
la neutralite de la Belgique_ (Brussels, 1845); Nagao Ariga, _La
Guerre russo-japonaise, au point de vue continental et le droit
international_ (Paris, 1908), _La Guerre sino-japonaise au point de
vue du droit international_ (Paris, 1896); Sir Sherston Baker, _First
Steps in International Law_ (London, 1899); Barboux, _Jurisprudence du
conseil des prises pendant la guerre franco-allemande_ (1872); Sir T.
Barclay, _Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy_ (London,
1907); T. Baty, _International Law_ (London, 1909); Bello, _Principios
de derecho internacional_, 2nd ed. by Silva (Madrid, 1884); Norman
Bentwich, _The Law of Private Property in War with a Chapter on
Conquest_ (London, 1907); Bergbohm, _Staats-Vertrage und-Gesetze als
Quellen des Volkerrechts_ (Leipzig, 1877); T. M. Bernard, _Four
Lectures on Subjects connected with Diplomacy_ (London, 1868);
Bluntschli, _Das moderne Volkerrecht der civilisirten Staaten als
Rechtsbuch dargestellt_ (Nordlingen, 1868), trans. into French by
Lardy (_Le Droit international codifie_) (Paris, 2nd ed., 1874), _Die
Bedeutung und die Fortschritte des modernen Volkerrechts_ (2nd ed.,
Berlin, 1873); De Boeck, _Le Droit de la propriete ennemie privee sous
pavillon ennemi_ (Paris, 1882); Henri Bonfils, _Manuel de droit
international public_ (1894, 4th ed., by Fauchille, 1904); Percy
Bordwell, _The Law of War between Belligerents--a History and
Commentary_ (Chicago, 1908); Bornemann, _Forelaesninger over den
positive folkeret_ (Copenhagen, 1866); Brusa, _Del modierno diritto
internazionale pubblico_ (Florence, 1876); De Burgh, _Elements of
Maritime International Law_ (London, 1868); Aug. von Bulmerincq,
_Praxis, Theorie und Codification des Volkerrechts_ (Leipzig, 1874),
_Das Volkerrecht_ (1887); Montagu Burrows, _History of the Foreign
Policy of Great Britain_ (London, 1897); Charles Henry Butler, _The
Treaty-making Power of the United States_ (2 vols., New York, 1902);
Carlos Calvo, _Le Droit international_ (5th ed., 6 vols., Paris,
1896); Cauchy, _Le Droit maritime international considere dans ses
origines et ses rapports avec les progres de la civilisation_ (2
vols., Paris, 1862), _Du respect de la propriete privee dans la guerre
maritime_ (Paris, 1866); Carnazza-Amari, _Trattato di diritto
internazionale de pace_ (2 vols., 1867-1875); Pitt Cobbett, _Cases and
Opinions on International Law and various points of English Law
connected therewith_ (London, 1st ed. 1885, 2nd ed. 1892, 3rd ed.
1909) (part I, "Peace"); Miguel Cruchaga, _Nociones de derecho
internacional_ (1899, 2nd ed. 1902); Cogordan, _La Nationalite au
point de vue des rapports internationaux_ (Paris, 1879); de Courcy,
_Reforme internationale du droit maritime_ (Paris, 1863); R. T. Crane,
_State in Constitutional and International Law_ (1907); Creasy, _First
Platform of International Law_ (London, 1876); G. B. Davis, _Outlines
of International Law, with an Account of its origin and sources, and
of its historical development_ (New York, 1887); _Elements of
International Law, with an account of its origin, sources and
historical development_ (new and revised edition, New York and London,
1900); de Clercq, _Recueil des traites, conventions et actes
diplomatiques conclus par la France avec les puissances etrangeres,
publies sous les auspices du min. des aff. etrangeres_ (Paris, 21
vols.); Descamps, _L'Evolution de la neutralite en droit
international_ (Brussels, 1898); F. Despagnet, _Cours de droit
international public_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1899), _La Diplomatie de la
Troisieme Republique et le droit des gens_ (Paris, 1904); Professor
Giulio Diena, _Principi di diritto internazionale_ (Naples, 1908);
Dufraisse, _Histoire du droit de guerre et de paix_ (Paris, 1867);
Jacques Dumas, _Les Sanctions de l'arbitrage international_ (Paris,
1905); E. Duplessix, _La Loi des nations, projet de code de droit
international public_ (Paris, 1906); _L'Organisation internationale_
(Paris, 1909); Charles Dupuis, _Les Tarifs douaniers et les traites de
commerce_ (Paris, 1895); _Le Principe d'equilibre et le concert
europeen de la paix de Westphalie a l'acte d'Algesiras_ (Paris, 1909);
Eden, _Law of Nature and of Nations, Policy of Europe_ (London, 1823);
Ed. Engelhardt. _Du regime conventionnel des fleuves internationaux_
(Paris, 1879); Paul Errera, _Das Staatsrecht des Konigsreichs Belgien_
(Tubingen, 1909); T. H. S. Escott, _The Story of British Diplomacy;
Its Makers and Movements_ (London, 1908); Fauchille, _La Diplomatie
francaise et la ligue des neutres de 1780_ (1776-1783) (Paris, 1893);
_Du blocus maritime_ (Paris, 1882); Ferguson, _A Manual of
International Law_ (2 vols., London, 1884); David Dudley Field,
_Outlines of an International Code_ (New York and London, 2nd ed.,
1876); Fiore, _Trattado di diritto internazionale pubblico_ (3rd ed.,
Turin, 1888), _Nouveau Droit international public_ (3 vols., Paris,
1885); _Le Droit international codifie et sa sanction
juridique--traduit de l'italien par A. Chretien_ (Paris, 1889);
Funck-Brentano et Sorel, _Precis du droit des gens_ (Paris, 1877, new
ed. 1894); Fusinato, _Il Principio della scuola italiana nel diritto
internazional pubblico_ (Macerata, 1884); Francois Gairal, _Le
Protectorat international_ (Paris, 1896); E. M. Gallaudet,
_International Law_ (New York, 1886); Guillaume de Garden, _Histoire
generale des traites de paix, et autres transactions principales,
entre toutes les puissances de l'Europe depuis la paix de Westphalie_
(14 vols., Paris, 1848-1859); Gareis, _Institutionen des Volkerrechts_
(1888, 2nd ed., 1901); L. Gessner, _Zur Reform des Kriegseerechts_
(Berlin, 1875), _Le Droit des neutres sur mer_ (2nd ed., Berlin,
1876), Guelle, _Droit international. La guerre continentale et les
personnes_ (Paris, 1879); Gueronniere, _Le Droit public de l'Europe
moderne_ (Paris, 1876); Guesalaga, _Derecho diplomatico y consular_
(Buenos Aires, 1900); Hagerup, "La Neutralite permanente" (_Revue
generale du droit international public_) (Paris, 1905); W. E. Hall, _A
Treatise on International Law_ (6th ed., edited by J. B. Atlay,
Oxford, 1909); _Foreign Powers and Jurisdiction of the British Crown_
(London, 1894); H. W. Halleck, _International Law_ (Philadelphia,
1866, edit. by Sir Sherston Baker, 4th ed., 2 vols., London 1908); A.
B. Hart, _Foundations of American Foreign Policy_ (New York, 1901);
Hartmann, _Institutionen des praktischen Volkerrechts in
Friedenszeiten_ (1887); L. B. Hautefeuille, _Quelques questions de
droit international maritime a propos de la guerre d'Amerique_
(Leipzig and Paris, 1861); _Droits et devoirs des nations neutres_ (3
vols., 3rd ed., Paris, 1868); _Questions de droit maritime
international_ (Paris, 1868); _Histoire des origines, des progres et
des variations du droit maritime international_ (Paris, 1858, 2nd ed.
1869); Heffter, _Das europaische Volkerrecht der Gegenwart_ (Berlin,
1855, trans. into French by Bergson, _Le Droit international de
l'Europe_, 4th ed., enlarged and annotated by Geffcken, Berlin and
Paris, 1883); Amos E. Hershey, _The International Law and Diplomacy of
the Russo-Japanese War_ (New York, 1906); Hertslet's _Commercial
Treaties_ (24 vols., London, 1840-1907); Sir Edward Hertslet, _Map of
Europe by Treaty, showing the territorial changes since the general
Peace of 1814-1891_ (4 vols., London, 1875-1891); _Map of Africa by
Treaty (1778-1895)_ (3 vols., London, 1896), Index to British and
Foreign State Papers, vols. 1 to 63 (1879); A. Pearce Higgins, _The
Hague Peace Conferences and other International Conferences concerning
the Laws and Usages of War_ (Cambridge, 1909); Historicus (Sir William
Harcourt), _Letters on some Questions of International Law_ (1863);
Albert E. Hogan, _Pacific Blockade_; T. E. Holland, _The Elements of
Jurisprudence_ (London, 1880, 10th ed., Oxford, 1906), _Studies in
International Law_ (Oxford, 1898), _The Laws of War on Land_ (Oxford,
1908), _Letters to The Times upon War and Neutrality_ (1881-1909) with
some commentary (London, 1909), _British Admiralty Manual of the Law
of Prize_ (1888); G. F. W. Holls, _The Peace Conference at The Hague_
(New York, 1900); Holtzendorff, _Handbuch des Volkerrechts_ (4 vols.,
Hamburg, 1885-1889); J. Hosack, _On the Rise and Growth of the Law of
Nations from the earliest Times to the Treaty of Utrecht_ (London,
1882); Huber, _Die Staaten-Succession, volkerrechtliche und
staatsrechtliche Praxis im 19. Jahrhundert_ (Leipzig, 1898);
International American Conference, _Plan of Arbitration for the
settlement of disputes between the American Republics, Report and
Recommendations_ (Washington, 1890); International American
Conference, _Report and Recommendations concerning a Uniform Code of
International Law_ (Washington, 1890); Joseph Imbart Latour, _La Mer
territoriale_ (Paris, 1889); Atherley Jones, _Commerce in War_
(London, 1907); Kaltenborn, _Critik des Volkerrechts_ (Leipzig, 1847),
_Zur Geschichte des Natur- und Volkerrechts_ (Leipzig, 1848); L.
Kamarowsky, _Le Tribunal international_ (trans. into French by Serge
de Westman, Paris, 1887); Wilhelm Kaufmann, _The Egyptian State Debt
and its Relation to International Law_ (London, 1892); _Die
Rechtskraft des internationalen Rechtes_ (Stuttgart, 1899); Kennedy,
_Influence of Christianity on International Law_ (Cambridge, 1856);
James Kent, _Commentary on International Law_ (rev. with notes and
cases by J. T. Abdy, 2nd ed. rev., London, 1877); Kleen, _De la
contrebande de guerre_ (Paris, 1893), _Lois et usages de la
neutralite_ (2 vols., Paris, 1898-1900), _Krigets historia ur
folkrattelig Synpunkt_ (Stockholm, 1906), _Kodificerad Handbok i
Krigets Lagar till lands och till Sjos_ (Stockholm, 1909); Otto
Krauske, _Die Entwickelung der standigen Diplomatie vom 15ten
Jahrhundert bis zu den Beschlussen von 1815 und 1818_ (Leipzig, 1885);
Jean Lagorgette, _Le Role de la guerre. Etude de la sociologie
generale_ (Paris, 1905); Lammasch, _Fortbildung des Volkerrechts durch
die Haager Conferenz_ (Munich, 1900); Alma Latifi, _Effects of War on
Property, being Studies in International Law and Policy_ (London,
1909); Francois Laurent, _Histoire du droit des gens et des relations
internationales_, continued at vol. iv. under title of _Etudes de
l'histoire de l'humanite_ (18 vols., Brussels, 1861-1880); Laveleye,
_Du respect de la propriete privee en temps de guerre_ (Brussels,
1875); T. J. Lawrence, _Essays on Disputed Questions of Modern
International Law_ (Cambridge, 1884), _The Principles of International
Law_ (London, 1895, 3rd ed. 1900), _Handbook of Public International
Law_ (4th ed., London, 1898), _War and Neutrality in the Far East_
(London, 1904); Emile Lefevre, _Reorganisation du consulat francais a
l'etranger_ (Paris, 1883); Ernest Lehr, _La Nationalite dans les
principaux etats du globe_ (Paris, 1909); Ernest Lemonon, _La Seconde
Conference de la paix_ (Paris, 1908, an exhaustive volume in 790 pp.);
de Leval, _De la protection diplomatique des nationaux a l'etranger_
(Brussels, 1907); Leone Levi, _The Law of Nature and Nations as
affected by Divine Law_ (London, 1855), _International Law, with
Materials for a Code of International Law_ (London, 1888); Liszt, _Das
Volkerrecht_ (1898, 6th ed., 1910); Lorimer, _The Institutes of the
Law of Nations_ (2 vols., London, 1883); Lueder, _Der neueste
Codificationsversuch auf dem Gebiete des Volkerrechts_ (1874); Theo.
Lyman, _Diplomacy of the United States_ (Boston, 1828); Mackintosh,
_Discourse on the Study of the Law of Nature and Nations_ (2nd ed.,
London, 1828); Sir Henry S. Maine, _International Law_ (London, 1888);
Terenzio Mamiani, _Des traites de 1815 et d'un nouveau droit europeen,
traduit par Leonce Lehmann_ (Paris, 1862); Mancini, _Diritto
internazionale_ (Naples, 1873); Manning, _Commentaries on the Law of
Nations_ (London, 1839, 2nd ed., by Sheldon Amos, 1875); Mariotti, _Du
droit des gens en temps de guerre_ (Paris, 1883); C. de Martens,
_Causes celebres du droit des gens_ (Leipzig, 5 vols., 1858-1861); G.
F. de Martens, _Recueil de traites des puissances et etats de
l'Europe_ (1761, continued under other editors down to present time),
_Cours diplomatique, ou tableau des relations exterieures des
puissances de l'Europe, tant entre qu'avec etats dans les diverses
parties du globe_ (Berlin, 1801, 3 v. o), _Precis du droit des gens
modernes de l'Europe. Augmente des notes de Pinheiro-Ferreira, avec
bibliographie par C. Verge_ (2 vols., Paris, 1864), _Law of Nations_,
trans. by W. Cobbett (London, 1829); F. de Martens, _Le Droit
international actuel des peuples civilises_, trans, by Leo (_Traite de
droit international_) (3 vols., Paris, 1883); Edwin Maxey,
_International Law_ (St Louis, 1909); A. Merignhac, _Traite de droit
public international_, vol. i., "Les Prolegomenes," "Les Theories
generales," vol. ii., "Le Droit de la paix" (Paris, 1905-1907),
_Traite theorique et pratique de l'arbitrage international_ (Paris,
1895); _La Conference international de la paix_ (Paris, 1900);
Christian Meurer, _Die Haager Friedenskonferenz_ (2 vols., 1905-1907);
Masse, _Le Droit commercial dans ses rapports avec le droit des gens_
(4 vols., Paris, 1844-1848); Mohl, _Encyclopadie der
Staatswissenschaften, Staatsrecht, Volkerrecht und Politik_ (3 vols.,
1860-1869); John Bassett Moore, _History and Digest of the
International Arbitrations to which the United States has been a
Party_ (6 vols., Washington, 1898, official), "Asylum in Legations and
Consulates and in Vessels" (_Political Science Quarterly_, vol. vii.,
Nos. 1, 2 and 3, New York, 1902); _Digest of International Law_, as
embodied in diplomatic discussions, treaties and other international
agreements, international awards, the decisions of municipal courts
and the writings of jurists and especially in documents published and
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United States, the opinions of the Attorneys-General and the decisions
of courts, federal and state (8 vols., Washington, government printing
office, 1906); Morin, _Lois relatives a la guerre selon le droit des
gens modernes. Droit public et droit criminel des pays civilises_
(Paris, 1872); Negrin, _Derecho maritimo internacional_ (Madrid,
1873); Neumann, _Grundriss des heutigen europaischen Volkerrechtes_
(Vienna, 1856, 3rd ed., 1885, trans, into French by Riedmatten,
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_Fortbildung des Verfahrens in volkerrechtlichen Streitigkeiten_
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Paris, 1904-1906); _Le Droit de la guerre et les precurseurs de
Grotius_ (Paris, 1882); _Les Theories politiques et le droit
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Paris, 2nd ed., 1899); _Etudes de droit international et de droit
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le droit des gens et le college des docteurs en droit civil_
(Brussels, 1910); Marquis de Olivart, _Trattato y notas de derecho
internacional publico_ (2 vols., 1887, 4th ed., 1903); Luigi Olivi,
_Di alcune odierne tendenze del diritto internazionale_ (Venice,
1907); Onezimo, _Discurso sobre la historia del derecho internacional_
(Buenos Aires, 1872); Oppenheim, _System des Volkerrechts_ (Frankfort,
1845); L. Oppenheim, _International Law_, vol. i. "Peace," vol. ii.
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Discussion in Conversation Classes_ (Cambridge, 1909; solutions are
not given); _Gerechtigkeit und Gesetz_ (Basel, 1895); Ortolan, _Regles
internationales et diplomatie de la mer_ (4th ed., Paris, 1864);
Paiva, _Elementos de direito des gentes_ (Coimbra, 1864); Pando,
_Elementos de derecho internacional_ (Madrid, 1843, 2nd ed., 1852);
Pardessus, _Us. et coutumes de mer_ (Paris, 1847); Paroldo, _Saggio di
codificazione del diritto internazionale_ (Turin, 1851); Perels, _Das
internationale Seerecht der Gegenwart_ (Berlin, 1882-1903; transl.
Arendt, _Manuel de droit maritime international_ (Paris, 1884);
Perez-Gomar, _Curso de derecho de gentes_ (Montevideo, 1864-1866);
Pertille, _Elementi di diritto internazionale nel seculo XIX._ (Naples
1877), _Trattato di diritto internazionale_ (1881); Sir R. Phillimore,
_Commentaries upon International Law_ (4 vols., 3rd ed., London,
1879-1889); Coleman Phillipson, _Effect of War on Contracts_ (London,
1909), _Studies in International Law_ (London, 1908); Robert
Piedelievre, _Precis de droit international public_ (2 vols.,
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and English Law on the High Seas and beyond the Realm_ (2 vols.,
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Sir Frederick Pollock, "The Monroe Doctrine" (_Nineteenth Century_,
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public europeen et americain_ (7 vols., Paris, 1885-1897); Quaritsch,
_Compendium der europaischen Volkerrechts_ (Berlin, 1873); Carman F.
Randolph, _The Law and Policy of Annexation with special reference to
the Philippines together with Observations on the Status of Cuba_
(London, New York and Bombay, 1901), "Notes on the Foreign Policy of
the United States suggested by the War with Spain" (New York, 1898,
pamphlet), W. F. Reddaway, _The Monroe Doctrine_ (Cambridge, 1898);
Reddie, _Inquiries in International Law_ (London, 1842); _Maritime
International Law_ (Edinburgh, 1844-1845), Emil Reich, _Foundations of
Modern Europe_ (London, 1904); Renault, _Introduction a l'etude du
droit international_ (Paris, 1879); Riquelme, _Elementos de derecho
publico internacional_ (Madrid, 1849); A. Rivier, _Principes du droit
des gens_ (2 vols., Paris, 1896); Saalfeld, _Grundriss eines Systems
des europaischen Volkerrechts_ (Gottingen, 1809); C. Salomon,
_L'Occupation des territoires sans maitre, etude de droit
international_ (Paris, 1889); Sanchez, _Elementos de derecho
internacional publico_ (Madrid, 1866); Eugene Schuyler, _American
Diplomacy and Furtherance of Commerce_ (New York, 1886); James Brown
Scott, _Cases on International Law_ (Boston, 1902), _The Hague Peace
Conference of 1899 and 1907_ (2 vols., Baltimore, 1909); R. F. Seijas,
_El Derecho internacional hispano-americano, publico y privado_ (6
vols., Caracas, 1884); Senior, _Law of Nations, &c._ (London, 1865);
Sheldon Amos, _Lectures on International Law_ (London, 1874); Sierra,
_Lecciones de derecho maritime internacional_ (Mexico, 1854); F. E.
Smith, _International Law_ (London, 1900, "Temple Primers" series),
_International Law as interpreted during the Russo-Japanese War_ (in
collaboration with N. W. Sibley; London, 2nd ed., 1907); Stephen,
_International Law and International Relations_ (London, 1884); Ellery
C. Stowell, _Consular Cases and Opinions from the Decisions of the
English and American Courts and the Opinions of the Attorneys-General_
(Washington, D.C., 1909); Sakuye Takahashi, _Cases on International
Law during the Chino-Japanese War_ (Cambridge, 1900), _International
Law applied to the Russo-Japanese War with the Decisions of the
Japanese Prize Courts_ (London, 1908); H. L. Strisower, "Die
Donaufrage" _Zeitschrift fur das privat. und offentliche Recht der
Gegenwart_ (Vienna, 1884); Hannis Taylor, _Treatise on International
Public Law_ (Chicago, 1901); Tetens, _Droits reciproques des
puissances belligerantes et des puissances neutres sur mer. Principes
du droit de guerre en general_ (Copenhagen, 1805); Tetot, _Repertoire
des traites de paix, de commerce, d'alliance, &c., conventions et
autres actes conclus entre toutes les puissances du globe
principalement depuis la paix de Westphalie jusqu' a nos jours_
(Partie chronologique, 1866, partie alphabetique, 1873, supplement,
1895); Alberto Torres, _Vers la paix. Etudes sur l'etablissement de la
paix generale et sur l'organisation de l'ordre international_ (Rio de
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(Leipzig, 1899); Sir Travers Twiss, _The Law of Nations considered as
Independent Communities_ (2 vols., 2nd ed., London, 1875-1892); von
Ullmann, _Volkerrecht_ (1895; 2nd ed. 1908); Verraes, _Les Lois de la
guerre et la neutralite_ (Brussels, 1906); T. A. Walker, _The Science
of International Law_ (London, 1893), _Manual of Public International
Law_ (London, 1895), _History of the Law of Nations_ (London, 1899);
John Westlake, _Chapters on the Principles of International Law_
(Cambridge, 1894), _International Law_, vol. i. "Peace" (Cambridge,
1904), vol. ii. "War" (1907); Francis Wharton, _Digest of the
International Law of the United States, taken from documents issued by
Presidents and Secretaries of State, from decisions of Federal Courts
and Opinions of Attorneys-General_ (Washington, 1886, 3 vols.,
official), _The Revolutionary Diplomatic Correspondence of the United
States_ (6 vols., Washington, 1889, official); H. Wheaton, _History of
the Law of Nations in Europe and America from the earliest times to
the Treaty of Washington, 1842_ (New York, 1845); _Elements of
International Law_ (1st ed., 1836; edit. Lawrence, 1855; edit. Dana,
1866; edit. Boyd, London, 1880; edit. Abdy, Cambridge, 1888; 3rd Eng.
ed. by Sir Sherston Baker, 1893; 4th Eng. ed. by Atlay, 1904);
Wildman, _Institutes of International Law_ (London, 1849); Theodore D.
Woolsey, _Introduction to the Study of International Law_ (6th ed.,
New York, 1891); Spencer Walpole, _Foreign Relations_ ("English
Citizen" series, London, 1882); Andre Weiss, "Crimes et delits
politiques dans les rapports de l'Autriche et de la Russie" (_Journal
de droit international prive_, Paris, 1883). (T. Ba.)