[1] See Winckler in Schrader's _Keilinschr. Bibl._ v. (Berlin, &c.,
1896).
[2] A nearly complete text has been made from these with the help of
a squeeze taken before its destruction. See the handbooks mentioned
below.
[3] Published with other fragments in the _Jew. Quart. Review_, xvi.
1.
[4] _Zeitsch. f. Aegypt. Spr._ (1879). These were the first specimens
found. See also Erman and Krebs, _Aus den Papyrus d. kgl. Mus._ p.
290 (Berlin, 1899).
[5] _Mittheilungen ... Rainer_, i. 38 (Wien, 1886).
[6] Those in France were collected by Schwab in _Nouvelles archives_,
xii. 3. See also Chwolson, _Corpus Inscr. Hebr._ (St Petersburg,
1882).
[7] These have been collected by J. H. Stevenson, _Babyl. and Assyr.
Contracts_ (New York, 1902). A more complete collection has been
prepared by Professor A. T. Clay.
[8] For the literature see Kalinka, _Tituli Lyciae_, No. 152 (Vienna,
1901).
[9] _Repertoire d'epigr. sem._, No. 438.
[10] So Bacher in _J. Q. R._ xix. 441.
[11] In _Mem. Acad. inscr._ 1^(re) ser. xi. 297. See also _Rep.
d'epigr. sem._, for some smaller fragments, Nos. 244-248.
[12] Sayce and Cowley, _Aramaic Papyri_ (London, 1906).
[13] Sachau, "Drei aram. Papyrusurkunden" _Abh. d. kgl. Preuss.
Akad._ (Berlin, 1907).
[14] See _P.S.B.A._ (1907), p. 260.
[15] See Lidzbarski, _Ephemeris_, ii. 247.
[16] _J.Q.R._ xvi. 7.
[17] ed. E. O. Winstedt (Cambr. 1909), p. 154.
[18] A view revived by C. Forster, even after Beer, in _The
Israelitish Authorship of the Sinaitic Inscriptions_ (London, 1856)
and other works.
[19] The cross and other Christian symbols often found with the
inscriptions have been added later by pilgrims.--_C.I.S._ ii. 1, p.
352.
[20] _Reise in Syrien_ (Leipzig, 1883).
[21] _Inscriptions sem. de la Syrie, &c._ i. (Paris, 1907).
[22] J. H. Mordtmann, "Beitr. zur Minaischen Epigraphik," in
_Semitistische Studien_, 12 (Weimar, 1897).
[23] In Bent's _Sacred City of the Ethiopians_ (London, 1893).
[24] _Revue semitique_ (1901).
[25] _Journ. As._ x., xvii., xix.
[26] _Zur Entzifferung d. Safa-Inschr._ (Leipzig, 1901).
[27] It may be remarked that there are about twelve different views
regarding the date of Kanishka and the origin of the Vikrama era.
Some writers hold that Kanishka began to reign in A.D. 78: one writer
would place his initial date about A.D. 123: others would place it in
A.D. 278. The view maintained by the present writer was held at one
time by Sir A. Cunningham; and, as some others have already begun to
recognize, evidence is now steadily accumulating in support of the
correctness of it.
[28] The legends on coins form part of numismatics, though closely
connected with inscriptions.
[29] The amphorae which conveyed the wine and other products of
various localities have imprinted on their handles the name of the
magistrate and other marks of the place and date. Large collections
have been made of them, and they repay inquiry. See Dumont,
_Inscriptions ceramiques_ (1872); Paul Becker, _Henkelinschriften_
(Leipzig, pt. i. 1862, pt. ii. 1863); Hiller v. Gaertringen, _I.G._
xii. 1065-1441.
[30] e.g. Treaty between Elis and the Heraeans, about 550-500 B.C.,
from Olympia (Boeckh, _C.I.G._ 11, Hicks, 29, and others in
Dittenberger-Purgold, _Inschr. v. Olympia_, 1-43); a similar bronze
treaty from the Locri Ozolae (Dittenberger, _I.G._ ix. 334); bronze
plate from Dodona, recording the victory of Athens over the
Lacedaemonians in a sea-fight, probably 429 B.C. (Dittenberger,
_Syll._ 2. 30).
[31] See Wunsch _I.G._ iii., App.; Audollent, _Defixionum Tabellae_
(1904).
[32] See Karapanos, _Dodone et ses ruines_; Hoffman, Gr. _Dial.
Inschr._ 1558-1598.
[33] What was done by Themistocles under stress of public necessity
(Thucyd. i. 93) was done by others with less justification elsewhere;
and from Byzantine times onward Greek temples and inscriptions were
found convenient quarries.
[34] It appears from Cicero, _De Legibus_, ii. 26, 27, that the size
of Athenian gravestones was limited by law.
[35] An index to the four volumes was long wanting; it was at length
completed and appeared in 1877.
[36] See E. Hubner, _Uber mechanische Copieen von Inschriften_
(Berlin, 1881).
[37] Compare De Rossi, _Bullettino dell' instituto archeologico_
(1871), p. 1 sq.
[38] His works have been published by the French government in
several volumes 4to (Paris, 1862 sqq.).
[39] For other details of numerical notation, fractions, &c., see the
manuals of metrology.
[40] On the system of Roman nomenclature and the abbreviations
employed in it see Cagnat's textbook, and for more detail Mommsen in
_Romische Forschungen_, i. 1 seq., and in _Hermes_, iii. (1869), p.
70, W. Schulze, _Zur Geschichte lateinischen Eigennamen_ (Berlin,
1904); on the _cognomina_ (but only those occurring in ancient
literature), Ellendt, _De cognomine et agnomine Romano_ (Konigsberg,
1853), and on the local _cognomina_ of the Roman patriciate, Mommsen,
_Rom. Forsch_, ii. 290 seq.; on the _nomina gentilicia_, Hubner
(_Ephem. epigr._ ii. 25 seq.). The indexes to Orelli, Wilmanns, and
the volumes of the _Corpus_ may also be consulted.
[41] This observation, applied to a large number of monuments, gave
rise to many of the splendid epigraphical labours of Borghesi (see
e.g. his dissertation upon the inscription of the consul L.
Burbuleius, _[OE]uvres_, iv. 103 sq.).
[42] The character of an _elogium_ is assumed in a special way by the
inscriptions on triumphal arches, such as that of Augustus on the
arch of Susa in Piedmont, dating from the year 745 (9 B.C.) (_C.I.L._
v. 7231; Orel. 626), and the similar one on the _tropaea Augusti_
(_la Turbia_) (_C.I.L._ v. 7817) of the year 747 (7 B.C.), which
Pliny also (_Hist. Nat._ iii. S 136) records, and those of the other
emperors at Rome, of which only that of Claudius, the conqueror of
Britain (_C.I.L._ vi. 920, 921; Orel. 715; Wil. 899), with the
statues of himself and his family, need be mentioned.
[43] See the important work of R. Lanciani, _Commentari di Frontino
intorno le acque e gli acquedotti, &c._ (Rome, 1880).
INSECT, the anglicized form of the Late Lat. _insectum_, used by Pliny
in his _Natural History_ as the equivalent of the Gr. [Greek: entomon].
Aristotle had included in one class "Entoma" the six-legged arthropods
which form the modern zoological class of the Hexapoda or Insecta,
besides the Arachnida, the centipedes and the millipedes. The word was
introduced to English readers in a translation (1601) of Pliny's
_Natural History_ by Philemon Holland, who defined "insects" as "little
vermine or smal creatures which have (as it were) a cut or division
betwene their heads and bodies, as pismires, flies, grashoppers, under
which are comprehended earthworms, caterpilers, &c." Few zoological
terms have been more loosely used both by scientific and popular
writers. The definition just quoted might include all animals belonging
to the groups of the Arthropoda and Annelida, and U. Aldrovandi in _De
animalibus insectis_ (1602) almost contemporaneously distinguished
between "terrestrial insects," including woodlice, earthworms and slugs,
and "aquatic insects," comprising annelids and starfishes. Perhaps the
widest meaning ever attached to the word was that of R.A.F. de Reaumur,
who "would willingly refer to the class of insects all animals whose
form would not allow them to be placed in the class of ordinary
quadrupeds, in that of birds, or in that of fishes. The size of an
animal should not suffice to exclude it from the number of insects.... A
crocodile would be a terrible insect; I should have no difficulty,
however, in giving it that name. All reptiles belong to the class of
insects, for the same reasons that earthworms belong to it."
The class Insecta of Linnaeus (1758) was co-extensive with the
Arthropoda of modern zoologists. The general practice for many years
past among naturalists has been to restrict the terms "Insecta" and
"insect" to the class of Arthropods with three pairs of legs in the
adult condition: bees, flies, moths, bugs, grasshoppers, springtails are
"insects," but not spiders, centipedes nor crabs, far less earthworms,
and still less slugs, starfishes or coral polyps.
For a general account of the structure, development and relationships
of insects, see ARTHROPODA and HEXAPODA, while details of the form,
habits and classification of insects will be found in articles on the
various orders or groups of orders (APTERA, COLEOPTERA, DIPTERIA,
HEMIPTERA, HYMENOPTERA, LEPIDOPTERA, NEUROPTERA, ORTHOPTERA,
THYSANOPTERA), and in special articles on the more familiar divisions
(ANT, BEE, DRAGON-FLY, EARWIG, &c.). The history of the study of
insects is sketched under ENTOMOLOGY. (G. H. C.)
INSECTIVORA, an order of non-volant placental mammals of small size,
with a dentition adapted to an insect-diet. In nearly all cases these
creatures are nocturnal, and the majority are terrestrial, many
burrowing in the ground, although a few are arboreal and others aquatic.
They have plantigrade or partially plantigrade feet, that is to say,
they apply the whole or the greater portion of the soles to the ground
when walking; and there are generally five toes, each terminating in a
claw, and the first never being opposable to the others in either the
fore or hind limb. A full series of differentiated teeth, including
temporary or deciduous milk-molars, is developed, and the cheek-teeth
have distinct roots and are crowned with sharp cusps, which in some
instances are three in number and arranged in a triangle. Very
frequently the number of the teeth is the typical forty-four, arranged
as _i._ 3/3, _c._ 1/1, _p._ 4/4, _m._ 3/3, but occasionally there is a
fourth pair of molars, while the incisors may be reduced to two pairs
above and one below, and the canine is frequently like an incisor or a
premolar. The skull is of a primitive type, often with vacuities on the
palate, as in marsupials, with a small brain-chamber, and the tympanic
bone generally ring-like instead of forming a bladder-shaped bulla;
except in the African _Potamogale_, clavicles, or collar-bones, are
always present; the humerus generally has a perforation on the inner
side of its lower extremity; and a centrale bone is usually present in
the carpus. In the brain the smooth hemispheres are so short as to leave
the cerebellum and sometimes even the corpora quadrigemina exposed. The
uterus is two-horned; the placenta, so far as known, is deciduate and
discoidal; the testes are abdominal or inguinal; and the teats usually
numerous. The body in several instances is covered with sharp spines in
place of hair.
The great majority of the Insectivora are nocturnal in their habits, and
their whole structure indicates an extremely low grade of organisation,
fully as low as that of marsupials. It is noteworthy that the dentition
in several of the groups approximates to that of the extinct mammals of
the Jurassic epoch (see MARSUPIALIA), and exhibits more or less
distinctly the primitive tritubercular type. Although the past history
of the group is very imperfectly known, it seems probable that the
Insectivora are nearly related to the original primitive mammalian
stock. Indeed, it has been stated that were it not for the apparently
advanced type of placenta, they might easily be regarded as the little
modified descendants of the ancestors of most other mammals. Probably
they are in some way related to the creodont carnivores (see CREODONTA),
but if, as has been suggested, the latter are akin to the primitive
ungulates, the connexion would seem to be less close than has been
sometimes supposed.
Representatives of this order are found throughout the temperate and
tropical parts of both hemispheres, with the exception of South America
(where only a few shrews have effected an entrance from the north) and
Australia, and exhibit much variety both in organization and in habit.
The greater number are cursorial, but some (_Talpa_, _Chrysochloris_,
_Oryzorictes_) are burrowing, others (_Limnogale_, _Potamogale_,
_Nectogale_, _Myogale_) aquatic, and some (_Tupaiidae_) arboreal. To the
great majority the term insectivorous is applicable, although
_Potamogale_ is said to feed on fish, and the moles live chiefly on
worms. Notwithstanding the nature of their food, much variety prevails
in the form and number of the teeth, and while in many cases the
division into incisors, canines, premolars and molars may be readily
traced, in others, forming the great majority of the species, such as
the shrews, this is difficult.
In most cases the brain-cavity is of small relative capacity, and in no
instance is the brain-case elevated to any considerable extent above the
face-line. The facial part of the skull is generally much produced, and
the premaxillary and nasal bones well developed; but the cheek, or
zygomatic arch, is usually slender or deficient, the latter being the
case in most of the species, and post-orbital processes of the frontals
are found only in the _Tupaiidae_ and _Macroscelididae_. The number of
dorsal vertebrae varies from 13 in _Tupaia_ to 19 in _Centetes_, of
lumbar from 3 in _Chrysochloris_ to 6 in _Talpa_ and _Sorex_, and of
caudal from the rudimentary vertebrae of _Centetes_ to the 40 or more
well-developed ones of _Microgale_.
The breast-bone, or sternum, is variable, but generally narrow, bilobate
in front and divided into segments. The shoulder-girdle presents extreme
adaptive modifications in the mole, in relation to the use of the
fore-limbs in burrowing; but in the golden moles the fore-arm and
fore-foot alone become specially modified. In _Macroscelides_ the bones
of the fore-arm are united at their lower ends, but in all other
Insectivora the radius and ulna are distinct. The fore-foot has
generally five digits; but in _Rhynchocyon_ and in one species of
_Oryzorictes_ the first toe is absent, and in the moles it is extremely
modified. The femur has, in most species, a prominent ridge below the
greater trochanter presenting the characters of a third trochanter. In
_Tupaia_, _Centetes_, _Hemicentetes_, _Ericulus_ and _Solenodon_ the
tibia and fibula are distinct, but in most other genera united. The
hind-foot consists usually of five digits (rarely four by reduction of
the first), and in some, as in the leaping species (Macroscelides,
_Rhynchocyon_), the tarsal bones are elongated. The form of the pelvis,
and especially of the symphysis pubis, varies within certain limits, so
that while in the _Tupaiidae_ and _Macroscelididae_ there is a long
symphysis, in the _Erinaceidae_, _Centetidae_ and _Potamogalidae_ it is
short, and in the _Soricidae_, _Talpidae_ and _Chrysochloridae_ there is
none.
Owing to the similarity in the character of the food, the truly
insectivorous species, forming more than nine-tenths of the order,
present little variety in the structure of the digestive organs. The
stomach is a simple, thin-walled sac; sometimes as in _Centetes_, with
the pyloric and oesophageal openings close together; the intestinal
canal has much the same calibre throughout, and varies from three (in
the shrews) to twelve times (in the hedgehogs) the length of the head
and body. In the arboreal _Tupaia_ and the allied _Macroscelididae_,
which probably feed on vegetable substances as well as insects most of
the species possess a caecum. The liver is deeply divided into lobes,
the right and left lateral being cut off by deep fissures; both the
caudate and Spigelian lobes are generally well developed, and the
gall-bladder, usually large and globular, is placed on the middle of the
posterior surface of the right central lobe.
All the members of the order appear to be highly prolific, the number of
young varying from two to eight in the hedgehog, and from twelve to
twenty-one in the tenrec. The position of the milk-glands and the number
of teats vary greatly. In _Solenodon_ there is a single pair of
post-inguinal teats, but in most species these organs range from the
thorax to the abdomen, varying from two pairs in _Gymnura_ to twelve in
the tenrec. In the golden moles the thoracic and inguinal teats are
lodged in deep cut-shaped depressions.
Scent-glands exist in many species. In most shrews they occur on the
sides of the body at a short distance behind the axilla, and their
exudation is probably protective, as few carnivorous animals will eat
their dead bodies. In both species of _Gymnura_ and in _Potamogale_
large pouches are situated on each side of the rectum, and discharge
their secretions by ducts, opening in the first-named genus in front of
and in the latter within the margin of the vent. In the tenrec similarly
situated glands discharge by pores opening at the bottom of deep pits.
The skin is thin, but in many species lined with well-developed muscles,
which are probably more developed in hedgehogs than in any other
mammals. In this family and in the tenrec most of the species are
protected by spines implanted in the skin-muscle, or panniculus
carnosus.
Tree-Shrews.
The Insectivora may be divided into two groups, according to the
degree of development of the union between the two halves of the
pelvis. The first group is characterized by the full development of
this union, both pubis and ischium entering into the symphysis. The
tympanum remains as a ring within an auditory bulla; the orbit is
either surrounded by bone, or separated from the hinder part of the
skull by a post-orbital process of the frontal; the upper molars have
broad 5-cusped crowns with a W-shaped pattern; and the intestine is
generally furnished with a caecum. The first family of this group is
the _Tupaiidae_, represented by the tree-shrews, or tupaias, of the
Indo-Malay countries, characterized by the complete bony ring round
the eye-socket, the freedom of the fibula from the tibia in the
hind-limb, and the absence of any marked elongation of the tarsus. The
dental formula is _i._ 2/3, _c._ 1/1, _p._ 3/3, _m._ 3/3, total 38. In
appearance and habits tree-shrews are extremely like squirrels,
although they differ, of course, _in toto_ as regards their dentition.
A large number of species are included as the typical genus _Tupaia_,
which ranges from north-eastern India to the great Malay Islands. In
these animals the tail has a fringe of long hairs on opposite sides
throughout its length. In the pen-tailed, tree-shrew (_Ptilocercus
lowii_), fig. 1, the only representative of its genus, and a native of
Sumatra, Borneo and the Malay Peninsula, the fringes of long hair are
confined to the terminal third of the tail. There are also differences
in the skulls of the two genera. A third genus, _Urogale_, represented
by _U. cylindrura_ of the mountains of Mindanao, in the Philippines,
and _U. everetti_, of Borneo, has been established for the
round-tailed tupaias, in which the tail is uniformly short-haired, and
the second upper incisor and the lower canines are unusually large,
the third lower incisor being proportionately small, and also erect,
while the second upper incisor resembles a canine. (See TREE-SHREW.)
[Illustration: FIG. 1. Pen-tailed Tree-Shrew (_Ptilocercus lowii_).]
In Africa the tupaias are apparently represented by the
jumping-shrews, or elephant-shrews (so called from their elongated
muzzles), constituting the family _Macroscelididae_. From the
_Tupaiidae_ the members of this family are readily distinguished by
the fact that the socket of the eye, in place of having a complete
bony ring, is separated from the hinder part of the skull merely by a
post-orbital process of the frontal bone, and also by the more or less
marked elongation of the tarsus or lower portion of the hind-limb;
another feature being the union of the lower ends of the tibia and
fibula. As indicated by one of their names, the members of the group
leap after the fashion of gerbils, or jerboas, and hence walk much
more on their toes than the majority of the order. In the typical
genus _Macroscelides_, which ranges all over Africa and has numerous
specific representatives, the dental formula is _i._ 3/3, _c._ 1/1,
_p._ 4/4, _m._ 2/(2 or 3), total 40 or 42; while there are five toes
to each foot, and the lower ends of the radius and ulna are united. In
_Petrodromus_ (fig. 2) of East Africa, there are only four front-toes,
and the hairs on the lower part of the tail form stiff bristles, with
swollen tips; the dental formula being the same as that of those
species of _Macroscelides_ as have only two lower molars. A further
reduction of the number of the digits takes place in the long-nosed
jumping-shrews of the genus _Rhynchocyon_, which are larger animals
with a much longer snout, only four toes to each foot, and a dental
formula of _i._ (1 or 0)/3, _c._ 1/1, _p._ 4/4, _m._ 2/2, total 36 or
34. Some of the species, all of which are East African, differ from
the members of the typical genus by the deep rufous brown instead of
olive-grey colour of their coat. (See JUMPING-SHREW.)
In the second group, which includes all the other members of the
order, the pelvic symphysis is either lacking or formed merely by the
epiphyses of the pubes; the orbit and temporal region of the skull are
confluent; and, except in the _Talpidae_ and _Chrysochloridae_, the
tympanum is ring-like, the tympanic cavity being formed by the
alisphenoid and basisphenoid bones. The upper molars are triconodont,
being either of the typical or a modified form of what is known as
the tritubercular sectorial type. There is no caecum.
Moles.
The first representatives of this group are the moles, or _Talpidae_,
in which the lower ends of the tibia and fibula are united (fig. 3, t,
fb), there is a descent of the testes, the tympanum forms a
bladder-like bulla, the zygomatic, or cheek-arch, although slender, is
complete, there is no pelvic symphysis, the upper molars are
five-cusped, and the first upper incisor is simple, and the lower
vertical. In habits the majority of the family are burrowing, but a
few are aquatic; and all feed on animal substances. The distribution
is limited to the temperate regions of Europe, Asia and North America.
Throughout the family the eyes are minute, and in some species are
covered with skin; the ears are short and hidden in the fur; and the
fore-limbs are generally more or less modified for digging.
[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Peter's Jumping-Shrew (_Petrodromus
tetradactylus_).]
The true moles of the genus _Talpa_ are the typical representatives of
the first subfamily, or _Talpinae_, in which the clavicle (fig. 3,
cl.) and humerus (h) are very short and broad, while there is an
additional sickle-like bone (fc) on the inner side of the fore-foot.
In Talpa itself the first upper incisor is but little larger than the
second, the fore-foot is very broad, and the dental formula is _i._
2/2, _c._ 1/(1 or 0), _p._ 3/3, 3/4, or 4/4, _m._ 3/3. There are about
a dozen species, all confined to the Old World. The variation in the
dental formula of some of the best known of these is as follows:--
_i._ 3/3, _c._ 1/0, _p._ 4/4, _m._ 3/3 X 2 (_T. wogura_, _robusta_).
_i._ 3/3, _c._ 1/1, _p._ 4/4, _m._ 3/3 X 2 (_T. europaea_, _caeca_,
_romana_, _longirostris_, _micrura_).
_i._ 3/3, _c._ 1/1, _p._ 3/4, _m._ 3/3 X 2 (_T. leucura_, _leptura_).
_i._ 3/3, _c._ 1/1, _p._ 3/3, _m._ 3/3 X 2 (_T. moschata_).
Except in _T. europaea_, the eyes are covered by a membrane. In _T.
micrura_ the short tail is concealed by the fur. _T. europaea_ extends
from England to Japan.
_T. caeca_ and _T. romana_ are found south of the Alps, the remaining
species are all Asiatic, two only--_T. micrura_ and _T.
leucura_--occurring south of the Himalaya.
The genus may be split up into subgenera corresponding with the above
table; these subdivisions being sometimes accorded full generic rank.
For instance the Japanese _T. wogura_ and the Siberian _T. robusta_
are often referred to under the ill-sounding titles of _Mogera wogura_
and _M. robusta_.
Referring more fully to the European species, it may be mentioned that
the mole exhibits in its organization perfect adaptation to its mode
of life. In the structure of the skeleton striking departures from the
typical mammalian forms are noticeable. The first sternal bone is so
much produced as to extend forward as far as a vertical line from the
second cervical vertebra, carrying with it the very short almost
quadrate clavicles, which are articulated with its anterior extremity
and externally with the humeri, being also connected ligamentously
with the scapula. The fore-limbs are thus brought opposite the sides
of the neck, and from this position a threefold advantage is
derived:--in the first place, as this is the narrowest part of the
body, they add little to the width, which, if increased, would lessen
the power of movement in a confined space; secondly this position
allows of a longer fore-limb than would otherwise be possible, and so
increases its lever power; and, thirdly, although the entire limb is
relatively short, its anterior position enables the animal, when
burrowing, to thrust the claws so far forward as to be in a line with
the end of the muzzle, the importance of which is evident.
Posteriorly, we find the hind-limbs removed out of the way by
approximation of the hip-joints to the centre line of the body. This
is effected by inward curvature of the innominate bones at the
acetabulum to such an extent that they almost meet in the centre,
while the pubic bones are widely separated behind. The shortness of
the fore-limb is due to the humerus, which, like the clavicle, is so
reduced in length as to present the appearance of a flattened X-shaped
bone, with prominent ridges and deep depressions for the attachments
of powerful muscles. Its upper extremity presents two rounded
prominences; the smaller, the true head of the bone, articulates as
usual with the scapula; the larger, which is the external tuberosity
rounded off, forms a separate joint with the end of the clavicle. This
double articulation gives the rigidity necessary to support the great
lateral pressure sustained by the fore-limb in excavating. The bones
of the fore-leg are normal, but those of the fore-foot are flattened
and laterally expanded. The great width of the fore-foot is also
partly due to the presence of a peculiar bone on the inner side of the
palm and articulating with the wrist.
[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Skeleton of Mole (_Talpa europaea_) (lower jaw
removed to show base of skull).
c, Calcaneum.
c.h, Clavicular articulation of the humerus.
cl, Clavicle.
e.c, External condyle of humerus.
f, Femur.
fb, Fibula.
fc, Falciform bone (radial sesamoid).
h, Humerus.
i.c, Internal condyle of humerus.
il, Left iliac bone.
i.p, Ramus of the ilium and pubis.
is, Ischium.
l.d, Ridge of insertion of latissimus dorsi muscle.
l.t, Lesser trochanter.
m, Manubrium sterni.
o, Fourth hypapophysial sesamoid ossicle.
ol, Olecranon.
p, Pubic bone widely separated from that of the opposite side.
pa, Patella.
p.m, Ridge for insertion of pectoralis major muscle.
pt, Pectineal eminence.
r, Radius.
rb, First rib.
s, Plantar sesamoid ossicle corresponding to the radial sesamoid
(os falciform) in the manus.
sc, Scapula.
s.h, Scapular articulation of the humerus.
t, Tibia.
u, Ulna.]
The muscles acting on these modified limbs are homologous with those
of cursorial insectivora, differing only in their relative
development. The tendon of the biceps traverses a long bony tunnel,
formed by the expansion of the margin of the bicipital groove for the
insertion of the pectoralis major muscle; the anterior division of the
latter muscle is unconnected with the sternum, extending across as a
band between the humeri, and co-ordinating the motions of the
fore-limbs. The teres major and latissimus dorsi muscles are of
immense size, inserted into the prominent ridge below the pectoral
attachment, and are the principal agents in the excavating action of
the limb. The cervical muscles connecting the slender scapulae, and
through them the fore-limbs, with the centre line of the neck and with
the occiput are large, and the ligamentum nuchae between them is
ossified. The latter condition appears to be due to the prolongation
forwards of the sternum, preventing flexion of the head downwards; and
accordingly, the normal office of the ligament being lost, it
ossifies, and affords a fixed point for the origins of the
superficial cervical muscles.
The skull is long, with slender zygomatic arches; the nasal bones are
strong and early become united, and in front of them the nostrils are
continued forwards in tubes formed of thick cartilage, the septum
between which becomes partially or wholly ossified beneath. There are
7 cervical, 13 dorsal, 6 lumbar, 6 sacral and 10-12 caudal vertebrae;
of the dorsal and lumbar there may be one more or less. The sacral
vertebrae are united by their expanded and compressed spinous
processes, and all the others, with the exception of the cervical, are
closely and solidly articulated together, so as to support the
powerful propulsive and fossorial actions of the limbs. The upper
incisors are simple chisel-edged teeth; the canine is long and
two-rooted; then follow three subequal conical premolars, and a
fourth, much larger, and like a canine; these are succeeded by three
molars with W-shaped cusps. In the lower jaw the three incisors on
each side are slightly smaller, and slant more forwards; close behind
them is a tooth which, though like them, must, from its position in
front of the upper canine, be considered as the canine; behind it, but
separated by an interval, is a large double-rooted conical tooth, the
first premolar; the three following premolars are like the
corresponding teeth above, but smaller, and are succeeded, as above,
by the three molars. See MOLE.
[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Russian Desman (_Myogale moschata_).]
In the other members of the _Talpinae_, which are North American, the
first upper incisor is much taller than the second. They include the
curious star-nosed mole (_Condylura cristata_), which has the typical
series of 44 teeth and a series of fleshy appendages round the
extremity of the snout; the species known as _Scapanus townsendi_ and
_Parascalops americanus_, each representing a genus by itself, and
characterized by the absence of nasal appendages and the presence of
only two pairs of lower incisors; and, finally, _Scalops aquaticus_,
in which the dentition is further reduced by the loss of the lower
canine, the total number of teeth thus being forty.
Forming a transition to the subfamily _Myogalinae_, in which the
clavicle and humerus are typically of normal form, and there is no
sickle-shaped bone in the fore-foot, is the Chinese mole (_Scaptonyx
piscicauda_), characterized by having the clavicle and humerus of the
true mole-type, but the foot like that of the under-mentioned
_Urotrichus_. The relative proportions of the first and second upper
incisors are also as in _Talpa_, but there are only two pairs of lower
incisors.
Among the more typical _Myogalinae_, mention may be made of _Dymecodon
pilirostris_, from Japan, representing a genus by itself; nearly
allied to which are the shrew-moles, as represented by the small and
long-tailed _Urotrichus_ of Japan, with incisors 2/1 and premolars
4/3, and _U. (Neurotrichus) gibbsi_ of North America, in which the
premolars are 3/4. A still more interesting form is the Tibetan
_Uropsilus soricipes_, a non-burrowing species, with the external
appearance of a shrew combined with the skull of a mole, the feet
being much narrower than in _Urotrichus_, and the dental formula _i._
2/1, _c._ 1/1, _p._ 3/3, _m._ 3/3.
The typical representatives of the subfamily are the two European
desmans, _Myogale moschata_ and _M. pyrenaica_, which are aquatic in
habits and have the feet webbed and the full series of 44 teeth. The
former is by far the largest member of the whole family, its total
length being about 16 in. Its long proboscis-like snout projects far
beyond the margin of the upper lip; the toes are webbed as far as the
bases of the claws; and the long scaly tail is laterally flattened,
forming a powerful instrument of propulsion when swimming. This
species inhabits the banks of streams and lakes in south-east Russia,
where its food consists of various aquatic insects. _M. pyrenaica_,
living in a similar manner in the Pyrenees, is much smaller, has a
cylindrical tail, and a relatively long snout.
Shrews.
The Shrew-mice, or, shortly, shrews (_Soricidae_), are closely related
to the _Talpidae_, with which they are connected by means of some of
the subfamily _Myogalinae_. They are, however, distinguished by the
ring-like tympanic, the incompleteness of the zygomatic arch, the
tubercular-sectorial type of upper molar, the two-cusped first upper
incisor, and the forward direction of the corresponding lower tooth.
As a rule they are terrestrial, but a few are aquatic.
[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Skull and Dentition of a Shrew-mouse
(_Sorex-verae-pacis_); i, first incisors; c in the upper jaw is the
canine; and p-m the three premolars, behind which are the three
molars; in the lower jaw c is the second incisor, and p the single
premolar.]
The dentition (fig. 5) is characteristic, and affords one of the chief
means of classifying this exceedingly difficult group of mammals.
There are no lower canines, and always six functional teeth on each
side of the lower jaw, but in some rare instances an additional
rudimentary tooth is squeezed in between two of the others. The first
pair of teeth in each jaw differ from the rest; in the upper jaw they
are hooked and have a more or less pronounced basal cusp; in the lower
jaw they are long and project horizontally forwards, sometimes with an
upward curve at the tip. Behind the first upper incisor comes a
variable number of small teeth, of which, when all are developed, the
first two are incisors, the third the canine, and the next two
premolars; behind these, again, are four larger teeth, of which the
front one is the last premolar, while the other three are molars. Thus
we have in the typical genus _Sorex_ (fig. 5) the dental formula _i._
3/2, _c._ 1/0, _p._ 3/1, _m._ 3/3, total 32, or twenty upper and
twelve lower teeth. The lower formula, as already stated, is constant,
but the number of the upper series varies from the above maximum of
twenty to a minimum of fourteen in _Diplomesodon_ and _Anurosorex_, in
which the formula is _i._ 2, _c._ 1, _p._ 1, _m._ 3. From the relation
of the fourth upper tooth to the premaxillo-maxillary suture it has
been supposed that shrews, like many polyprotodont marsupials, have
four pairs of upper incisors; but this is improbable, and the formula
is accordingly here taken to follow the ordinary placental type.
Shrews may be divided into two sections, according as to whether the
teeth are tipped with brownish or reddish or are wholly white, the
former group constituting the _Soricinae_ and the latter the
_Crocidurinae_.
In the red-tipped group is the typical genus _Sorex_, which ranges
over Europe and Asia north of the Himalaya Mountains to North America.
There are twenty upper teeth with the formula given above, the ears
are well developed, the tail is long and evenly haired, and the
aperture of the generative organs in at least one of the sexes is
distinct from the vent. The common shrew-mouse (_Sorex araneus_) has a
distribution co-extensive with that of the genus in the Old World, and
the North American _S. richardsoni_ can scarcely be regarded as more
than a local race. A few species, such as _Sorex hydrodomus_ of Alaska
and _S. palustris_ of the United States, have fringes of long hairs on
the feet, and are aquatic in habit. The latter has been made the type
of the genus _Neosorex_, but such a distinction, according to Dr J. E.
Dobson, is unnecessary. The same authority likewise rejects the
separation of the North American _S. bendirei_ as _Atophyrax_,
remarking that this species is an inhabitant of marshy land, and
appears to present many characters intermediate between _S. palustris_
and the terrestrial species of the genus, differing from the former in
the absence of well-defined fringes to the digits, but agreeing with
it closely in dentition, in the large size of the infra-orbital
foramen, and in the remarkable shortness of the angular process of the
lower jaw. In India and Burma the place of _Sorex_ is taken by
_Soriculus_, in which the upper teeth are generally 18, although
rarely 20, and the generative organs have an opening in common with
the vent after the fashion of the monotreme mammals. The latter
feature occurs in the North American _Blarina_, which is characterized
by the truncation of the upper part of the ear and the short tail, the
number of upper teeth being 20 or 18. Another American genus,
_Notiosorex_, in which the ear is well developed and the tail medium,
has only 16 upper teeth. From all the rest of the red-toothed group
the water-shrew, _Neomys_ (or _Crossopus_) _fodiens_, of Europe and
northern Asia, differs by the fringe of long hairs on the lower
surface of the tail; the number of upper teeth being 18.
In the white-toothed, or crocidurine, group, the small African genus
_Myosorex_, which has either 18 or 20 upper teeth, includes
long-tailed and large-eared species in which the aperture of the
generative organs and the vent, although close together, are yet
distinct. In the musk-shrews (_Crocidura_), on the other hand, which
are common to Europe, Asia and Africa, the reproductive organs and the
alimentary canal discharge into a common cloaca, the long tail is
sparsely covered with long and short hairs, there are anal glands
secreting a strong musky fluid, and the number of upper teeth is 16 or
18. _Diplomesodon pulchellus_ of the Kirghiz steppes, has, on the
other hand, only 14 upper teeth, and is further characterized by the
moderately long tail and the hairy soles of the hind-feet. Another
genus is represented by the Tibetan _Anurosorex squamipes_, which has
the same dental formula, but a mole-like form, rudimentary tail and
scaly hind-soles. Lastly, we have two Asiatic mountain aquatic
species, _Chimarrogale himalayaca_ of the Himalayas and _Nectogale
elegans_ of Tibet, which have fringed tails like the European
water-shrew, and 16 upper teeth, the former characterized by the small
but perfect external ears, and the latter (fig. 6) by the absence of
the ears and presence of adhesive disks on the feet.
It will be seen that the red- and the white-toothed series have
parallel representative forms, which may indicate that the division of
the family into the two groups is one based rather on convenience than
on essential differences. See SHREW.
From the shrews, the hedgehogs and gymnuras, or rat-shrews,
collectively forming the family _Erinaceidae_, differ structurally by
the broader ring made by the tympanic, the complete zygomatic arch,
the five-cusped broad upper molars, and the presence of a short pubic
symphysis. At the present day they are an exclusively Old World group.
[Illustration: FIG. 6.--The Tibetan Water-shrew (_Nectogale
elegans_).]
Hedgehogs.
The typical group, or _Erinaceinae_, is represented only by the
hedgehogs, with the one genus _Erinaceus_, easily recognized by their
spiny coats, and further characterized by the rudimentary tail, the
presence of vacuities in the palate, and the broad pelvis. Hedgehogs
(_Erinaceus_) have the dental formula i. 2/2, c. 1/1, p. 3/2, m. 3/3,
and are represented by over a score of species, distributed throughout
Europe, Africa and the greater part of Asia, but unknown in
Madagascar, Ceylon, Burma, Siam, the Malay countries, and, of course,
Australia. All the species resemble one another in the armour of
spines covering the upper surface and sides of the body; and all
possess the power of rolling themselves up into the form of a ball
protected on all sides by these spines, the skin of the back being
brought downwards and inwards over the head and tail so as to include
the limbs by the action of special muscles.
Curiously enough the European hedgehog (_E. europaeus_) is the most
aberrant species, differing from all the rest in the peculiarly-shaped
and single-rooted third upper incisor and first premolar (fig. 7, A),
and in its very coarse harsh fur. The dentition of the long-eared
Indian _E. grayi_ (fig. 7, B) may, on the other hand, be considered
characteristic of all the other species, the only important
differences being found in the variable size and position of the
second upper premolar, which is very small, external and deciduous in
the Indian _E. micropus_ and _E. pictus_. The former species, limited
to South India, is further distinguished by the absence of the jugal
bone. Of African species, _E. diadematus_, with long frontal spines,
is probably the commonest, and _E. albiventris_ has been made the type
of a separate genus on account of the total absence of the first
front-toe. See HEDGEHOG.
Rat-shrew.
The members of the second subfamily, _Gymnurinae_, are more or less
rat-like animals, confined to the Malay countries, and easily
distinguished from the hedgehogs by the absence of spines among the
fur and the well-developed tail. They also lack vacuities in the
palate, and have a long and narrow pelvis. The typical representative
of the family is the greater rat-shrew, or greater gymnura (_Gymnura
rafflesi_) a creature which may be compared to a giant shrew, and
whose colour is partly black and partly white, although a uniformly
pale-coloured race. (_G. r. alba_) inhabits Borneo. In common with the
next genus, it has the full series of 44 teeth; and its range extends
from Tenasserim and the Malay Peninsula to Sumatra and Borneo, the
island individuals being stated to be considerably larger than those
from the mainland. In this species the length of the tail is about
three-fourths that of the head and body; but in the lesser rat-shrew
(_Hylomys suillus_), ranging from Burma and the Malay Peninsula to
Java and Sumatra, the former dimension is only about one-sixth of the
latter. In the Philippines the group is represented by _Podogymnura
truei_, distinguished from the other genera by the great elongation of
the hind-foot, the tail being likewise long. There are only three
pairs of premolars in each jaw.
[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Fore-part of Skulls of Common Hedgehog
(_Erinaceus europaeus_), A, and Gray's Hedgehog (_E. grayi_), B, much
enlarged.]
[Illustration: FIG. 8.--The Insectivorous Otter (_Potagmogale
velox_).]
Insectivorous Otter.
In the remaining families of the Insectivora the tibia and fibula may
be either separated or united at the lower end; there is no descent of
the testes, except in _Solenodon_; a short symphysis is formed by the
junction of the pubic epiphyses; and the upper molars are generally
small, and triangular, with three cusps arranged in a V. The first
family, _Potamogalidae_, is represented by the otter-like _Potamogale
velox_ of the rivers of West Africa (fig. 8), distinguished from all
other members of the order by the absence of clavicles. The tibia and
fibula are united interiorly, the skull has a ring-like tympanic, no
zygomatic arch, and the upper molars are of the tuberculo-sectorial
type, with broader crowns than in the following families. The dental
formula is i. 3/3, c. 1/1, p. 3/3, m. 3/3, total 40. This animal
inhabits the banks of streams in west equatorial Africa, and its whole
structure indicates an aquatic life. It is nearly 2 ft. in length, the
tail measuring about half. The long cylindrical body is continued
uninterruptedly into the thick laterally compressed tail, the legs are
very short, and the toes are not webbed, progression through the water
depending wholly on the action of the powerful tail, while the limbs
are folded inwards and backwards. The muzzle is broad and flat, and
the nostrils are protected by valves. The fur is dark brown above,
the extremities of the hairs on the back being of a metallic violet
hue by reflected light, beneath whitish.
Tenrec.
In the remaining groups the upper molars form narrow V's of the true
tritubercular type. The family, _Centetidae_, represented by the
tenrec and a number of allied animals from Madagascar, is specially
characterized by the ring-like tympanic, and the absence of a
zygomatic arch and of any constriction of the skull behind the orbits,
and the presence of teats on the breast as well as the abdomen. In the
more typical members of the family the tibia and fibula are separate,
and, as in hedgehogs, spines are mingled with the fur. The true or
great tenrec (_Centetes ecaudatus_), alone representing the typical
genus, has the dental formula _i._ (3 or 2)/3, _c._ 1/1, _p._ 3/3, m.
(3 or 4)/(3 or 4), total 38, 40, 42 or 44. The fourth lower molar,
when developed, does not appear till late in life. Of the long and
sharp canines, the tips of the lower pair are received into pits in
the upper jaw (fig. 9). The creature grows to a length of aoout a
foot. The young have strong white spines arranged in longitudinal
lines along the back, but these are lost in the adult which has only a
crest of long rigid hairs on the nape of the neck. The lesser tenrecs,
_Hemicentetes semispinosus_ and _H. nigriceps_, are distinguished by
the persistence of the third upper incisor and the form of the skull.
The two species are much smaller than the great tenrec, and spines are
retained in the adult on the body. The hedgehog-tenrec, _Ericulus
setosus_, has the whole upper surface, and even the short tail,
densely covered with close-set spines. The facial bones are much
shorter than in the preceding genera, and the first upper incisors are
elongated; while there are only two pairs of incisors in each jaw.
Judging from the slight development of the cutaneous muscles compared
with those of the hedgehog, it would seem that these creatures cannot
roll themselves completely into balls in hedgehog-fashion. A second
species of this genus, _Ericulus (Echinops) telfairi_, has two, in
place of three, pairs of molars, thus reducing the total number of
teeth to 32. Moreover, the zygomatic arches of the skull are reduced
to mere threads. Here should perhaps be placed _Geogale aurita_, a
small long-tailed Malagasy insectivore, with 34 teeth, and no spines;
the tibia and fibula being separate. It has been classed in the
_Potamogalidae_, but from its habitat such a reference is improbable.
The absence of spines may entitle it to separation from the
_Centetinae_, so that it should perhaps be regarded as representing a
subfamily, _Geogalinae_, by itself.
[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Skull of the Tenrec (_Centeles ecaudatus_),
somewhat reduced.]
[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Skull of the Lesser Tenrec (_Hemicentetes
spinosus_).]
The absence of spines coupled with the union of the tibia and fibula
form the leading characteristics of the subfamily _Oryzorictinae_,
typified by the rice-tenrecs _Oryzorictes_, of which there are several
species. These creatures, which excavate burrows in the rice-fields of
Madagascar, are somewhat mole-like in appearance, but have tails of
considerable length. In the typical _O. hova_ the fore-feet are
five-toed, but in _O. tetradactylus_ the number of front digits is
reduced to four. The long-tailed tenrecs (_Microgale_) are represented
by fully half-a-dozen species with tails of great length; that
appendage in the typical _M. longicaudata_ being more than double the
length of the head and body, and containing no fewer than forty-seven
vertebrae. The teeth are generally similar to those of _Centetes_, but
are not spaced in front; their number being _i._ 3/3, _c._ 1/1, _p._
3/3, _m._, 3/3, total 40, or the same as in _Oryzorictes_. Finally,
_Limnogale mergulus_, a creature about the size of a black rat, has
webbed toes and a laterally compressed tail, evidently adapted for
swimming. See TENREC.
[Illustration: FIG. 11.--_Solenodon cubanus._]
Solenodon.
All the foregoing are natives of Madagascar. It has been suggested
however, that two remarkable West Indian insectivores, namely
_Solendon cubanus_ of Cuba (fig. 11) and _S. paradoxus_ of Hayti,
should be regarded as representing merely a subfamily of _Centetidae_.
It is true that the main features distinguishing these strange
creatures from the Malagasy representatives of that family are the
constriction of the skull behind the orbits, the descent of the testes
into the perineum, and the post-inguinal position of the teats, and
that none of these are of very great importance. But the geographical
positions of the two groups are so widely sundered that it seems
preferable to await further evidence before definitely assigning the
two to a single family; and the family _Solenodontidae_ may
accordingly be retained for the West Indian animals. Solenodons, which
look like huge long-nosed, parti-coloured rats, have the tibia and
fibula separate, and the same dental formula as _Microgale_. Each of
the two species (which differ in colour and the quality of the fur)
has a long cylindrical snout, an elongated naked tall, feet formed for
running, and the body clothed with long, coarse fur. The position of
the teats on the buttocks is unique among Insectivora. The first upper
incisors are much enlarged, and like the other incisors, canines and
premolars, closely resemble the corresponding teeth of _Myogale_; the
second lower incisors are much larger than the upper ones, and
hollowed out on the inner side.
[Illustration: FIG. 12.--A Golden Mole (_Chrysochloris obtusirostris_)
reduced.]
Golden Mole.
The last family, _Chrysochloridae_, is represented by the golden moles
of South and East Africa, which differ from the _Centetidae_ and
_Solenodontidae_ by the development of a bulla to the tympanic, and
the presence of a zygomatic arch to the skull; the tibia and fibula
being separate, and the symphysis of the pelvis formed merely by
ligament. The skull is not constricted across the orbits. The teats,
which are placed both on the breast and in the groin, are situated in
shallow depressions. The ears are buried in the fur, and the eyes
concealed beneath the skin; the feet are four-toed and provided with
powerful claws for burrowing in the fashion of the mole, but it is
interesting to note that the skeleton is modified for the same purpose
in a manner quite different from that obtaining in the latter animal.
These animals derive their name from the metallic iridescence of the
fur of most of the species. In the more typical species the dental
formula is the same as in _Microgale_, that is to say, there are 40
teeth. In other species, which it has been proposed to separate as
_Amblysomus_, there are, however, only 36 teeth, owing to the absence
of the last pair of molars. The group is evidently nearly related to
the _Centetidae_--most nearly perhaps to the _Oryzorictinae_.
_Fossil Insectivora._
Some years ago Dr F. Ameghino, of Buenos Aires, described from the
Tertiary formation of Santa Cruz, in Patagonia, the remains of an
insectivore under the name of _Necrolestes_. The occurrence of a
member of the Insectivora in these beds is remarkable, since this
group is represented at the present day in South America only by a
shrew or two which have wandered from the north. Dr Ameghino expressed
his belief that the extinct Patagonian insectivore was nearly related
to the golden moles, and although this opinion appears to have been
withdrawn, Professor W. B. Scott states that he is convinced of the
close affinity existing between _Necrolestes_ and _Chrysochloris_.
Although this view may not be accepted, it must be remembered that it
represents the opinion of a palaeontologist who has had better
opportunities than most of his fellow-workers of forming a trustworthy
judgment. So convinced is Dr Scott of the closeness of the
relationship between _Necrolestes_ and the golden moles that he
regards it as rendering probable the former existence of a direct
land-connexion between Africa and South America. There is no reason,
he says, to suppose that the track of migration could have been by way
of Europe and North America, for no trace of the group has been found
anywhere north of the equator. This supposed connexion between Africa
and South America in Tertiary times has often been suggested, and is
supported by many independent lines of evidence; and the presumed
affinity between the two mammals here referred to adds to the weight
of such evidence.
The discovery in the Oligocene Tertiary deposits of Dakota of the
remains of a species of hedgehog is a fact of great interest, for the
hedgehog-tribe (_Erinaceidae_) is at the present day an exclusively
Old World group. The discovery of the fossil American species, which
has been made the type of a new genus under the name of _Protherix_,
serves to strengthen the view that the northern countries of the
Western and Eastern hemispheres form a single zoological region; and
that formerly there was comparatively free communication between them
in the neighbourhood of Bering Sea, under climatic conditions which
permitted of temperate forms passing from one continent to the other.
As might have been expected, remains of hedgehog-like mammals have
been obtained in the Tertiary deposits of Europe. Among these,
_Palaeoerinaceus_, from the Upper Oligocene of France, seems scarcely
separable from the existing genus. _Necrogymnurus_ (_Neurogymnurus_)
from the Lower Oligocene, of the same country, appears to be allied to
_Hylomys_, which is itself the most generalised of the family, so that
the extinct genus, of which _Caluxotherium_ is a synonym, may
represent the ancestral type of the _Erinaceidae_. The genus
_Galerix_, or _Lanthanotherium_, of the Oligocene, which has the
typical series of 44 teeth, a bony ring round the orbit, and conjoint
tibia and fibula, has been regarded as representing the _Tupaiidae_
and _Macroscelididae_, but is more probably referable to the
_Erinaceidae_, being apparently akin to _Gymnura_. The moles are
represented in the French Oligocene by _Amphidozotherium_ and in the
Miocene by _Talpa_, while in the North American early Tertiary we have
the primitive _Talpavus_. Shrews are also known from the Lower
Oligocene upwards both in the eastern and western hemispheres. Of the
Lower Eocene _Adapisorex_, with the typical 22 lower teeth,
_Adapisoriculus_ and _Orthaspidotherium_, all from France, the
affinities are quite uncertain. The American Oligocene _Leptictis_,
with i. 2, c. 1, p. 4, m. 3 in the upper jaw, and Ictops, with i. 3/2,
c. 1/1, p. 4/4, m. 3/3, may be insectivorous mammals, with affinities
to the creodont Carnivora. It is, indeed, probable that not only is
there a relationship between the Creodonta and the Insectivora, but
also one between the latter and the Marsupialia, so that the marked
similarity between the cheek-teeth of the insectivorous
_Chrysochloris_ and the Marsupial _Notoryctes_ may be due to genetic
relationship. That the bats and the flying-lemur are descendants of
the Insectivora cannot be doubted.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--G. E. Dobson, "Monograph of the Insectivora" (London,
1883-1890); W. Leche, "Zur Morphologie des Zahnsystems der
Insectivoren," _Anatom. Anzeiger_ (xiii. 1 and 514, 1897); C. J.
Forsyth-Major, "Diagnoses of New Mammals from Madagascar." _Ann. Mag.
Nat. Hist._ ser. 6. vol. xviii. pp. 318 and 461 (1896): A. A. Mearns,
"Descriptions of New Mammals from the Philippine Islands," _Proc. U.S.
Museum_ (xxviii. 425, 1905). (R. L.*)
INSECTIVOROUS PLANTS. Insectivorous or, as they are sometimes more
correctly termed, carnivorous plants are, like the parasites, the
climbers, or the succulents, a physiological assemblage belonging to a
number of distinct natural orders. They agree in the extraordinary habit
of adding to the supplies of nitrogenous material afforded them in
common with other plants by the soil and atmosphere, by the capture and
consumption of insects and other small animals. The curious and varied
mechanical arrangements by which these supplies of animal food are
obtained and utilized are described under the headings of the more
important plants.
The best known and most important order of insectivorous
plants--Droseraceae--includes six genera: _Byblis_, _Roridula_,
_Drosera_, _Drosophyllum_, _Aldrovanda_ and _Dionaea_, of which the last
three are monotypic, i.e. include only one species. The Sarraceniaceae
contain the genera _Sarracenia_, _Darlingtonia_, _Heliamphora_, while
the true pitcher plants or Nepenthaceae consist of the single large
genus _Nepenthes_. These three orders are closely allied and form the
series Sarraceniales of the free-petalled section (Choripetalae) of
Dicotyledons. The curious pitcher-plant, _Cephalotus follicularis_,
comprises a separate natural order Cephalotaceae, closely allied to the
Saxifragaceae. Finally the genera _Pinguicula_, _Utricularia_,
_Genlisea_ and _Polypompholix_ belong to the gamopetalous order
Lentibulariaceae.
While the large genus _Drosera_ has an all but world-wide
distribution, its congeners are restricted to well-defined and usually
comparatively small areas. Thus _Drosophyllum_ occurs only in Portugal
and Morocco, _Byblis_ in tropical Australia, and, although
_Aldrovanda_ is found in Queensland, in Bengal and in Europe, a wide
distribution explained by its aquatic habit, _Dionaea_ is restricted
to a few localities in North and South Carolina. _Cephalotus_ occurs
only near Albany in Western Australia, _Heliamphora_ on the Roraima
Mountains in Venezuela, _Darlingtonia_ on the Sierra Nevada of
California, and these three genera too are as yet monotypic; of
_Sarracenia_, however, there are seven known species scattered over
the eastern states of North America. The forty species of _Nepenthes_
are mostly natives of the hotter parts of the Indian Archipelago, but
a few range into Ceylon, Bengal, Cochin China, and some even occur in
tropical Australia on the one hand, and in the Seychelles and
Madagascar on the other. _Pinguicula_ is abundant in the north
temperate zone, and ranges down the Andes as far as Patagonia; the 250
species of _Utricularia_ are mostly aquatic, and some are found in all
save polar regions; their unimportant congeners, _Genlisea_ and
_Polypompholix_, occur in tropical America and south-western Australia
respectively. It is remarkable that all the insectivorous plants agree
in inhabiting damp heaths, bogs, marshes and similar situations where
water is abundant, but where they are not brought into contact with
the plenteous supply of inorganic nitrogenous food as are the roots of
terrestrial plants.
INSEIN, a town of British India, in the Hanthawaddy district of Burma,
10 m. N.W. of Rangoon; pop. (1901) 5350. It is an important railway
centre, containing the principal workshops of the Burma railway company,
also a government engineering school, a reformatory school and the
largest gaol in the province.
INSOMNIA, or deprivation of sleep (Lat. _somnus_), a common and
troublesome feature of most illnesses, both acute and chronic. It may be
due to pain, fever or cerebral excitement, as in _delirium tremens_, or
to organic changes in the brain. The treatment, when failure to sleep
occurs in connexion with a definite illness, is part of the treatment of
that illness. But there is a form of sleeplessness not occurring during
illness to which the term "insomnia" is commonly and conveniently
applied. It must not be confounded with occasional wakefulness caused by
some minor discomfort, such as indigestion, nor with the "bad nights" of
the valetudinarian. Real insomnia consists in the prolonged inability to
obtain sleep sufficient in quantity and quality for the maintenance of
health. It is a condition of modern urban life, and may be regarded as a
malady in itself. It is a potent factor in causing those nervous
breakdowns ascribed to "overwork." It may occur as a sequel to some
exhausting illness, notably influenza, which affects the nervous system
long after convalescence. But it very often occurs without any such
cause. Professional and business men are the most frequent sufferers.
Insomnia is comparatively rare among the poor, who do little or no brain
work. It may be brought on by some exceptional strain, by long-continued
worry, or by sheer overwork. The broad pathology is simple enough. It
has been demonstrated by exact observations that in sleep the blood
leaves the brain automatically. The function is rhythmical, like all the
vital functions, and the mechanism by which it is carried out is no
doubt the vaso-motor system, which controls the contraction and
dilation of the blood-vessels. In sleep the vessels in the brain
automatically contract, but when the brain is working actively a
plentiful supply of blood is required, and the vessels are dilated. If
the activity is carried to great excess the vessels become engorged, the
mechanism does not act and sleep is banished. In insomnia this condition
has become fixed.
When a breakdown has happened or is pending the only treatment is
complete rest, combined, if possible, with change of air and scene; but
if the mischief has gone far it will take very long to repair, and may
never be repaired at all. In no matter of health is the importance of
"taking it early" more pronounced. Delay is the worst economy. A few
days' holiday at the commencement of trouble may save months or years of
enforced idleness. Sea-air sometimes acts like a charm. But if it is
impossible to give up work and leave worry behind, even for a short
time, sleep should be carefully wooed by every possible means. In the
first place, plenty of time should be devoted to it, and no chance
should be missed. That is to say, the night should not be curtailed at
either end, and if sleepiness approaches in the daytime, as it often
does, it should be encouraged. It is better to lie still at night and
try to sleep than to give way to restlessness, and a few minutes
snatched in the daytime, when somnolence offers the opportunity, has a
restorative effect out of all proportion to the time occupied. Then all
accidental causes of disturbance should be avoided. Lights and sounds
should be excluded, comfort studied and digestion attended to. Fresh air
is a great help. As much time should be spent out of doors as possible,
and exercise, even to the point of fatigue, may be found helpful. But
this requires watching: in some cases bodily exhaustion aggravates the
malady. A little food (e.g. a glass of hot milk) immediately before
going to bed is useful in inducing sleep, and persons who are apt to
wake in the night and lie awake for hours may obtain relief by the same
means. Hypnotic drugs, which have greatly multiplied of late years,
should only be taken under medical advice. The real end to aim at is the
restoration of the natural function, and the substitution of artificial
sleep, which differs in character and effect; tends rather to prevent
than to promote that end. It is often possible to induce sleep by
rhythmic breathing.
INSPIRATION (Lat. _inspirare_, breathe upon or into), strictly the act
of drawing physical breath into the lungs as opposed to "expiration."
Metaphorically the term is used generally of analogous mental phenomena;
thus we speak of a sudden spontaneous idea as an "inspiration." The term
is specially used in theology for the condition of being directly under
divine influence, as the equivalent of the Greek [Greek: theopneustia]
(the adjective [Greek: theopneustos] is used of the Holy Scriptures in 2
Timothy iii. 16). Similar in meaning is [Greek: enthousiasmos],
enthusiasm (from [Greek: enthousiazo] from [Greek: entheos]). Possession
by the divine spirit ([Greek: pneuma]) was regarded as necessarily
accompanied by intense stimulation of the emotions. The possibility of a
human being becoming the habitation and organ of a divinity is generally
assumed in the lower religions. In the popular religion of China some of
the priests, the _Wu_, claim to be able to take up into their body a god
or a spirit, and thereby to give oracles. In wild frenzy they rush about
half naked with hair hanging loose, wounding themselves with swords,
knives, daggers, and uttering all kinds of sounds, which are then
interpreted by people who claim to be able to understand such divine
speech. The Maoris at the initiation of the young men into the tribal
mysteries sing a song, called "breath," to the mystic wind by which they
believe their god makes his presence known. An Australian woman claimed
to have heard the descent of the god as a rushing wind. In some savage
tribes blood is drunk to induce the frenzy of inspiration; music and
dancing are widely employed for the same purpose. Dionysus, the god of
wine in Greece, was also the god of inspiration; and in their orgies the
worshippers believed themselves to enter into real union with the deity.
In Delphi the Pythia, the priestess who delivered the oracles, was
intoxicated by the vapour which rose from a well, through a small hole
in the ground. As the oracles were often enigmatic, they were
interpreted by a _prophet_. In Rome the inspiration of Numa was derived
from the nymph Egeria; and great value was attached to the books of the
Cumaean Sibyl. In Arabia the _kahin_ (priest) was recognized as the
channel of divine communication. Inspiration may mean only possession by
the deity, or it may mean further that the person so possessed becomes
the channel through which the deity reveals his word and will. (See J.
A. Macculloch's _Comparative Theology_, chap. xv., 1902).
Prophecy in the Old Testament in its beginnings is similar to the
phenomenon in other religions. Saul and his servant came to Samuel, the
man of God, the seer, with a gift in their hands to inquire their way (1
Sam. ix. 8). The companies of prophets who went about the country in
Samuel's time were enthusiasts for Yahweh and for Israel. When Saul
found himself among them he was possessed by the same spirit (1 Sam. x.
10, 11.). The prophesying in which he took part probably included
violent movements of the body, inarticulate cries, a state of ecstasy or
even frenzy. The phrase "holy spirit" in Acts, as applied to the
Apostolic Church, probably indicates a similar state of religious
exaltation; it was accompanied by speaking with tongues, inarticulate
utterances, which needed interpretation (1 Corinthians xiv. 27). In
every religious revival, when the emotions are deeply stirred, similar
phenomena are met with. Such a movement was Montanism in the 3rd
century. At the Reformation, while Luther was at the Wartburg,
fanaticism broke out, and spread from Wittenberg; prophets went about
declaring the revelations which they had received. The Evangelical
Revival in the 18th century also had its abnormal religious features.
The Revival in Scotland in 1860 was marked by one curious feature--the
Gospel dance--when in their excitement men and women got up and spun
round and round till they were exhausted. Spontaneous praise and prayer
marked the revival in Wales in 1905-1906.
_Prophecy_, as represented by the writings of the prophets, arose out of
this state of religious exaltation, but left behind many of its
features. Yahweh was believed to guide and guard the history of His
chosen people Israel; He controlled the action of the nations that came
in contact with His people, so that, using them as His instruments, He
might accomplish His purpose. The function of the prophets was to
interpret the course of history so as to communicate God's Word and will
in judgment or in mercy. They were divinely endowed for this function by
their inspiration. While these prophets seem to have continued in the
exercise of all their normal faculties, which were stimulated and not
suppressed, yet they do claim a distinctive divine activity in their
consciousness, and distinguish with confidence their own thoughts from
the revealed word. That abnormal psychic states, such as visions and
voices, were sometimes experienced is not improbable; but the usual
prophetic state seems to have been one of withdrawal of attention from
the outer world, absorption of interest in the inner life, devout
communion and intercession with God, and the divine response in a moral
or a spiritual intuition rather than an intellectual ratiocination.
Possession by the Spirit in its external manifestations is ascribed to
Gideon, Jephthah, Samson, Saul, Elijah; but even when the same language
is used of the later prophets, it is probably such an inward state as
has just been described which is to be assumed. A feature inseparable
from this later phase of prophecy is _prediction_. For the warning or
the encouragement of the people the prophet as Jehovah's messenger
declares what He is about to do. Thus the fall of Samaria in 722 B.C.,
the deliverance of Jerusalem in 701, the overthrow of the kingdom of
Judah in 586, the return from exile in 537 were all heralded by
prophecy. This prediction was no shrewd political conjecture, but an
application to existing conditions of the permanent laws of God's
government. The abnormal phenomena of inspiration, the presence and
operation of the Holy Spirit, in the Apostolic Church, have already been
noticed. While Paul does not deny nor depreciate these charisms, as
tongues, miracles, &c., he represents as the more excellent way the
Christian life in faith, hope and love (1 Cor. xii. 31). The New
Testament represents the Christian life as an inspired life. It is
living communion with Christ, and therefore constant possession of the
Holy Spirit. Every Christian in the measure in which he has become a
new creature in Christ is a prophet, because he knows by the
enlightening of God's Spirit "what is the good and acceptable and
perfect will of God" (Romans xii. 2). An occasional state of divine
possession in the other religions becomes in the prophets of Israel a
permanent endowment for a few select agents of God's revelation; but
when that revelation is consummated in Christ, inspiration becomes the
universal privilege of all believers.
While there is much superstition in the view of inspiration found in
many religions, and much imposture in the claims to the possession of
it, yet it would be illogical to conclude that this feature of religion
is altogether human error and not at all divine truth. Man's knowledge
of God is conditional, and therefore limited by his knowledge of the
world and himself, and has accordingly the same imperfection. The
reality of a divine communion and communication with man is not to be
denied because its nature has been imperfectly apprehended. We must
estimate the worth of inspiration by the higher and not the lower
stages, by the vision of an Isaiah or the consecration of a Paul; but at
the same time we must be prepared to recognize its lowly beginnings.
In dealing with the inspiration of the Bible, to which the use of the
term has in the Christian Church been largely restricted, it is
important to remember that inspiration is primarily personal; and that
it assumes varied forms and allows varying degrees.
Other religions besides Christianity possess their sacred scriptures.
The value attached to the Sibylline writings in Rome has already been
mentioned. In Greece, Homer and Hesiod were esteemed as authoritative
exponents of the mythology; a distinction was made between the poet's
own words and the divine element, and what was offensive to reason,
conscience or taste was explained allegorically. Hinduism distinguishes
two classes of sacred writings, the _S'ruti_ (hearing), which were
believed to have been heard by inspired men from a divine source, and
were endowed with supernatural powers, and the _Smriti_ (recollection)
derived from tradition. While the poets of the Rig-Veda, the oldest of
the holy writings, do not claim inspiration, it is ascribed to them in
the highest degree. Some of the Hindu sects--Vaishnavist and
Saivist--regard some of the later writings, as also divine revelation.
In Zoroastrianism, the books of the _Zend-Avesta_ were conceived by
later generations at least as having been eternally formed by Ormuzd,
and revealed at the creation to his prophet Zoroaster, who, however,
guarded the communication carefully in his mind until a very much later
date in the world's history. Ormuzd drove Ahriman back to hell by
reciting one of the holy hymns. Buddhism has its _Tripitaka_ (three
baskets), and the reading, reciting and copying of the sacred scriptures
is one of the surest means of acquiring merit. But as it ignores the
gods, and places Buddha far above them, it does not claim divine
inspiration for its writings. Buddha himself enlightens, but every man
must save himself by walking in the true way which has been shown to
him. Confucianism has its literature of absolute authority on manners,
morals, rites and politics, but its claim does not rest on inspiration.
These writings are revered as preserving the beliefs and customs of
former ages, which are believed to have been more familiar than the
present with the Way of Heaven. For the _Koran_ very extravagant claims
are made by orthodox Islam. Although Mahomet at first feared that his
call to be a prophet was a deception of evil spirits, and wished to take
his own life, yet afterwards he uttered his decisions on most trivial
matters as divine oracles. God preserves the original text of the
_Koran_ in Heaven, and blots out what He wills and leaves what He wills.
By the angel Gabriel God communicated this book word for word to the
prophet, so that the _Koran_ is a faithful copy of the heavenly book.
The angels in heaven read the _Koran_. While the orthodox theology
asserted the eternity of the _Koran_, the Mo'tazilite school denied this
for the reason that the spoken sounds and the written signs in which
alone a revelation could be given must have come to be in time. As Islam
was not altogether independent of Christianity and Judaism, this
doctrine of the _Koran_ was probably intended as a reply to the claims
of Jews and Christians for their holy writings.
The Pentateuch was accepted as authoritative law by the Jewish Church in
444 B.C. About two centuries later the Prophets (including the histories
as well as the prophetic writings proper) were also acknowledged as
sacred scriptures, although of inferior authority to the Law. In the
century before the Christian era the Writings, including Psalms and
Proverbs, were included in the Canon. Palestinian and Hellenistic
Judaism disagreed about the recognition of the books now known as the
Apocrypha. The writers of the New Testament use the Old Testament as
holy scriptures, as an authoritative declaration of the mind and will of
God; but the inaccuracy of many of the quotations, together with the use
of the Greek translation as well as the original Hebrew, forbid our
ascribing to them any theory of verbal inspiration. By the middle of the
2nd century the four Gospels were probably accepted as trustworthy
records of the life of Jesus. The Epistles were accepted as
authoritative in virtue of apostolic authorship. By the end of the 3rd
century the use and approval of the churches had established the present
canon.
The doctrine of the inspiration of these writings in the Jewish and
Christian Church now claims attention. Inspiration is first of all
ascribed to persons to account for abnormal states, or exceptional
powers and gifts; in this doctrine it is transferred to writings, and
its effects in securing for these inerrancy, authority, &c., are
discussed with little regard for the psychic state of the writers.
The New Testament affirms the inspiration of the Old Testament. Jesus
introduced a quotation from the 110th Psalm with the words "David
himself by the Holy Spirit said" (Mark xii. 36), and in appealing to the
law against tradition He used the phrase "God said" (Matt. xv. 4). The
author of the first Gospel describes a prediction as that "which was
spoken by the Lord through the prophet" (Matt. i. 22), and so Peter
refers to "the scripture which the Holy Spirit spake before by the mouth
of David" (Acts i. 16). For Paul as for Peter the utterances of the Old
Testament are "the oracles of God" (Romans iii. 2; 1 Peter iv. 11). The
final appeal is to what is written. God spoke in the prophets (Romans
ix. 25; Hebrews i. 1). The use of [Greek: theopneustos] in regard to the
Scriptures in 2 Timothy iii. 16 has already been noted. The Spirit of
Christ is said to have been in the prophets (1 Peter i. 11); and it is
affirmed that "no prophecy ever came by the will of man; but men spake
from God, being moved by the Holy Spirit" (2 Peter i. 21). The constant
use of the Old Testament in the New confirms this doctrine of
inspiration. Contemporary Jewish thought was in agreement with this view
of the Old Testament. Philo describes Moses as "that purest mind which
received at once the gift of legislation and of prophecy with divinely
inspired wisdom" (_De congr. erud._ c. 24). Josephus again and again
expresses his deep reverence for the holy Scriptures, and his belief
that the authors wrote under the influence of the Spirit of God.
According to Weber the doctrine of the Talmud is that "the holy
scripture came to be through the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, and has
its origin in God Himself, who speaks in it." But the nature of this
inspiration must be more closely defined, and hence have arisen a number
of theories of inspiration.
The first theory is that of _mechanical dictation_, or _verbal
inspiration_. The writers of the books of the Bible were God's pens
rather than His penmen; every word was given them by God. Their
faculties were suppressed that God alone might be active in them. This
conception is found in Plato, "God has given the art of divination, not
to the wisdom, but to the foolishness of man. No man, when in his wits,
attains prophetic truth and inspiration; but when he receives the
inspired word, either his intelligence is enthralled in sleep, or he is
demented by some distemper or possession" (_Timaeus_, 71). Philo
declares that "the understanding that dwells in us is ousted on the
arrival of the Divine Spirit, but is restored to its own dwelling when
that Spirit departs, for it is unlawful that mortal dwell with immortal"
(_Quis rer. div. haeres_, c. 53). Athenagoras adopted this view in
regard to the prophets. "While entranced and deprived of their natural
powers of reason by the influence of the Divine Spirit, they uttered
that which was wrought in them, the spirit using them as its instrument,
as a flute player might blow a flute." Other figures used are these; the
inspired writer was the lyre, and the Holy Spirit the plectrum, or the
writer was the vase, and the Holy Spirit filled it. The extravagances of
Montanism threw some discredit on this conception, and we find Miltiades
writing a treatise with the title _That the Prophet ought not to speak
in Ecstasy_. But Gregory the Great called the writers of Scripture the
_calami_ of the Holy Spirit. After the Reformation the Protestant
Scholastics revived this view. Gerhard, Calovius and Quenstedt agree in
ascribing to the Scriptures absolute infallibility in all matters, and
describe the writers as "amanuenses of God, or Christ," "hands of the
Spirit," "clerks," "secretaries," "manus et Spiritus sive." The _Formula
consensus Helvetica_ probably reaches the extreme statement, when it
declares that the Old Testament was "tum quoad consonas, tum quoad
vocalia, sive puncta ipsa, sive punctorum saltem potestatem, et tum
quoad res, tum quoad verba [Greek: theopneustos]." Seeing that the
vowel-point system was introduced by Jewish scribes centuries after the
books were written, this statement shows how recklessly theory may
override fact. Of this theory, which has now few advocates, it is
sufficient to say that it ignores all the data the Bible itself offers.
On the one hand it is impossible to maintain the inerrancy of the Bible
in matters of science, philosophy, history, and even in doctrine and
morals there is progress; on the other hand the personal
characteristics, the historical circumstances, the individual
differences of the writers are so reproduced in the writings that the
action of the human factor must be frankly and fully recognized as well
as the divine activity.
The second theory is that of _dynamic influence or degrees of
inspiration_. While the Spirit controls and directs, the human
personality is not entirely suppressed. Even Philo recognized that all
portions of Scripture were not equally inspired, and assigned to Moses
the highest degree of inspiration. The Jewish rabbis placed the Law, the
Prophets and the Writings on a descending scale of inspiration. "The
schoolmen followed them, and some distinguished four degrees of
influence: _superintendence_, which saved from positive error;
_elevation_, which imparted loftiness to the thought; _direction_, which
prompted the writer what to insert and what to omit; and _suggestion_,
which inspired both thoughts and words" (M. Dods, _The Bible, its Origin
and Nature_, p. 118, 1905). The co-operation of the divine and the human
factors is recognized in Augustine's saying about the authors:
"Inspiratus a Deo, sed tamen homo." It is interesting to note that
Plutarch had to account for the same human peculiarities and
imperfections in the Pythian responses as the Christian apologist in the
Bible, and he offers a similar explanation. "If she were obliged to
write down, and not to utter the responses, we should not, I suppose,
believe the handwriting to be the god's, and find fault with it, because
it is inferior in point of calligraphy to the imperial rescripts; for
neither is the old woman's voice, nor her diction, nor her metre the
god's; but it is the god alone who presents the visions to this woman,
and kindles light in her soul regarding the future; for this is the
inspiration" (_op. cit._ p. 119). While degrees of inspiration must be
recognized, the distinction must be made objectively, and not
subjectively. We may say that where the revelation is the clearest,
there inspiration is the fullest, that nearness to the perfect
fulfilment in Christ of God's progressive purpose determines the degree
of inspiration; but we cannot formulate any elaborate theory of the
operation of the Spirit from the standpoint of the psychic states of the
writers. While subjectively we cannot separate the divine and the human
spirit in the process, so objectively we cannot distinguish the divine
substance and the human form in the product of inspiration. This theory
neither helps us to explain the origin of the writings nor guides us in
estimating the contents.
The third theory, which is a modification of the second, is that of
_essential inspiration_, which distinguishes _matters of doctrine and
conduct_ as closely related to God's purpose in the Scriptures from the
remaining contents of the Scripture, and claims for the Bible only such
inspiration as was necessary to secure accuracy in regard to these. The
theology and the morality of the Bible are inspired, but not its
history, science, philosophy. This distinction is already anticipated in
Thomas Aquinas' theory of two kinds of inspiration, "the _direct_, which
is to be found where doctrinal and moral truths are directly taught, and
the _indirect_, which appears in historical passages, whence the
doctrinal and moral can only be indirectly evolved by the use of
allegorical interpretation." This view has the support of such names as
Erasmus, Hugo Grotius, Richard Baxter, W. Paley and J. J. I. von
Dollinger. It is to be observed that it lays emphasis on the necessity
of correct views about doctrine and conduct; and this is an
intellectualist standpoint which is not in accord either with the
character or the influence of the Bible. Further, it does not explain
how the same human mind can by divine inspiration obtain infallible
knowledge in some matters, and yet be left prone to err in others. Again
it does not take account of the fact that the teaching of the Old
Testament as regards belief and morals is progressive; and that the
imperfections of the earlier stages of the development are corrected in
the later. That it is an advance on the other theories must be
acknowledged, as from this standpoint errors in history or science are
no difficulties to the believer in the Bible as so inspired. It is
necessary here to add that this emphasis on the infallibility of the
knowledge of doctrine and morals communicated by the Scriptures had as
its legitimate inference in the patristic and medieval period the claim
that the Church alone was the infallible interpreter of the Scriptures.
The fourth theory--that of the Reformers (though not of their
successors, the Protestant scholastics)--might be called that of _vital
inspiration_, as its emphasis is on religious and moral life rather than
on knowledge. While giving to the Scriptures supreme authority in all
matters of faith and doctrine, the Reformers laid stress on the use of
the Bible for edification; it was for them primarily a means of grace
for awakening and nourishing the new life in the hearts of God's people.
By the enlightening work of the Spirit of God the World of God is
discovered in the Scriptures: it is the _testimonium Spiritus Sancti_ in
the soul of the Christian that makes the Bible the power and wisdom of
God unto salvation. By thus laying stress on this redemptive purpose of
the divine revelation, the Reformers were delivered from the bondage of
the letter of Scripture, and could face questions of date and authorship
of the writings frankly and boldly. Hence a pioneer of the higher
criticism in Great Britain, W. Robertson Smith, was able to appeal to
this Reformation doctrine. "If I am asked why I receive Scripture as the
Word of God, and as the only perfect rule of faith and life, I answer
with all the fathers of the Protestant Church, 'Because the Bible is the
only record of the redeeming love of God, because in the Bible alone I
find God drawing near to man in Christ Jesus, and declaring to us in Him
His will for our salvation. And this record I know to be true by the
witness of His Spirit in my heart, whereby I am assured that none other
but God Himself is able to speak such words to my soul'" (in Denney's
_Studies in Theology_, p. 205). The Reformers' application of this
theory to the Bible was necessarily conditioned by the knowledge of
their age; but it is a theory wide enough to leave room for our growing
modern knowledge of the Bible.
Briefly stated, these are the conclusions which our modern knowledge
allows. (1) Inspiration, or the presence and influence of the Divine
Spirit in the soul of man, cannot be limited to the writers of the
Scriptures; but, comparing the Bible with the other sacred literature of
the world, its religious and moral superiority cannot be denied, and we
may, therefore, claim for it as a whole a fuller inspiration. (2) As
different writings in the Bible have more or less important functions in
the progressive divine revelation, we may distinguish degrees of
inspiration. (3) This inspiration is primarily personal, an inward
enlightening and quickening, both religious and moral, of the writer,
finding an expression conditioned by his individual characteristics in
his writing. (4) The purpose of inspiration is practical; the inspired
men are used of God to give guidance in belief and duty by declaring the
word and will of God as bearing on human life. (5) As revelation is
progressive, inspiration does not exclude defects in doctrine and
practice in the earlier stages and their correction in the later stages
of development. (6) As the progressive revelation culminates in Christ,
so He possesses fullest inspiration; and it varies in others according
to the closeness of their contact, and intimacy of their communion with
Him. (7) As the primary function of Christ is redemptive, so the
inspiration of the Bible is directed to make men "wise unto salvation."
(8) It is the presence and influence in the souls of men of the same
Spirit of God as inspired the Scriptures which makes the Bible effective
as a means of grace; and only those who yield themselves to the Spirit
of God have the witness in themselves that the Bible conveys to them the
truth and the grace of God.
In addition to the books mentioned, see: A. B. Bruce, _The Chief End
of Revelation_ (1881); C. A. Briggs, _The Bible, the Church, and the
Reason_ (1892); W. N. Clarke, _The Use of the Scriptures in Theology_
(1906); H. E. Ryle, _The Canon of the Old Testament_ (1892); B. F.
Westcott, _A General Survey of the History of the Canon of the New
Testament_ (7th ed., 1896); W. Sanday, _Inspiration_ (3rd ed., 1896);
A. B. Davidson, article "Prophecy" in Hastings's _Bible Dictionary_,
iv.; A. E. Garvie, "Revelation" in Hastings's _Bible Dictionary_
(extra volume). (A. E. G.*)
INSTALLATION, the action of installing or formally placing some one in
occupation of an office or place. The med. Lat. _installare_ meant
literally "to place in a seat or stall" (_stallum_), and the word, as
now, was particularly used of the ceremonial induction of an
ecclesiastic, such as a canon or prebendary, to his stall in his
cathedral choir. Similarly knights of an order of chivalry are
ceremonially led to their stalls in the chapel of their order. The term
is transferred to any formal establishment in office or position. From a
French use of _installer_ and _installation_, the word is frequently
applied in a transferred sense to the fixing in position and making
ready for use of a mechanical, particularly electrical, apparatus or
plant.
INSTALMENT (for earlier _stallment_ or _estallment_, from Fr. _estaler_,
to fix, arrange; the change is probably due to the influence of the verb
"install"), the payment of a sum of money at stated intervals and in
fixed portions instead of in a lump sum; hence the sums of money as they
fall due at the periods agreed upon. For the system of purchase by
deferred payments or instalments see HIRE-PURCHASE AGREEMENT.
INSTERBURG, a town in the kingdom of Prussia, situated at the point
where the Angerapp and Inster join to form the Pregel, 57 m. E. of
Konigsberg by the railway to Eydtkuhnen, and at the junction of lines to
Memel and Allenstein. Pop. (1900) 27,787. It has four Evangelical
churches, of which the town church is celebrated for its fine wood
carvings, a Roman Catholic church, a synagogue, several schools and a
park. Besides flax-spinning and iron-founding, Insterburg has
manufactures of machinery, shoes, cement, leather and beer, along with a
considerable trade in cereals, vegetables, flax, linseed and wood, while
horse-breeding is extensively carried on in the neighbourhood. Close to
the town lies the demesne of Georgenburg, with an old castle which
formerly belonged to the Teutonic order. Insterburg, the "burg" on the
Inster, was founded in the 14th century by the knights of the Teutonic
order. Having passed to the margraves of Brandenburg, the village which
had sprung up round the castle received civic privileges in 1583. During
the next century it made rapid advances in prosperity, partly owing to
the settlement in it of several Scottish trading families. In 1679 it
was besieged by the Swedes; in 1690 it suffered severely from a fire;
and in 1710-1711 from pestilence.
See Tows, _Urkunden zur Geschichte des Hauptamts Insterburg_ (Inst.,
1895-1897, 3 parts); and _Kurze Chronik der Stadt Insterburg_
(Konigsberg, 1883).