FOOTNOTE:

[1] Quoted by Mr F.S.P. Lely in _The Times_ of November 22, 1906.

EASTERN QUESTION, THE, the expression used in diplomacy from about the

time of the congress of Verona (1822) to comprehend the international

problems involved in the decay of the Turkish empire and its supposed

impending dissolution. The essential questions that are involved are so

old that historians commonly speak of the "Eastern Question" in

reference to events that happened long before the actual phrase was

coined. But, wherever used, it is always the Turkish Question, the

generic term in which subsidiary issues, e.g. the Greek, Armenian or

Macedonian questions, are embraced. That a phrase of so wide and loose a

nature should have been stereotyped in so narrow a sense is simply the

outcome of the conditions under which it was invented. To the European

diplomatists of the first half of the 19th century the Ottoman empire

was still the only East with which they were collectively brought into

contact. The rivalry of Great Britain and Russia in Persia had not yet

raised the question of the Middle East; still less any ambitions of

Germany in the Euphrates valley. The immense and incalculable problems

involved in the rise of Japan, the awakening of China, and their

relations to the European powers and to America--known as the Far

Eastern Question--are comparatively but affairs of yesterday.

The Eastern Question, though its roots are set far back in history--in

the ancient contest between the political and intellectual ideals of

Greece and Asia, and in the perennial rivalry of the powers for the

control of the great trade routes to the East--dates in its modern sense

from the treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji in 1774, which marked the definitive

establishment of Russia as a Black Sea power and formed the basis of her

special claims to interfere in the affairs of the Ottoman empire. The

compact between Napoleon and the emperor Alexander I. at Tilsit (1807)

marked a new phase, which culminated in 1812 in the treaty of Bucharest,

in which Russia definitely appeared as the protector of the Christian

nationalities subject to the Ottoman sultan.

The attitude of the various powers in the Eastern Question was now

defined. Russia, apart from her desire to protect the Orthodox

nationalities subject to the Ottoman power, aimed at owning or

controlling the straits by which alone she could find an outlet to the

Mediterranean and the ocean beyond. Austria, once the champion of Europe

against the Turk, saw in the Russian advance on the Danube a greater

peril than any to be feared from the moribund Ottoman power, and made

the maintenance of the integrity of Turkey a prime object of her policy.

She was thus brought into line with Great Britain, whose traditional

friendship with Turkey was strengthened by the rise of a new power whose

rapid advance threatened the stability of British rule in India. But

though Austria, Great Britain and presently France, were all equally

interested in maintaining the Ottoman empire, the failure of the

congress of Vienna in 1815 to take action in the matter of a guarantee

of Turkey, and the exclusion of the Sultan from the Holy Alliance,

seemed to endorse the claim of Russia to regard the Eastern Question as

"her domestic concern" in which "Europe" had no right to interfere. The

revolt of the Greeks (1821) put this claim to the test; by the treaty of

Adrianople (1829) Russia stipulated for their autonomy as part of the

price of peace, but the powers assembled in conference at London refused

to recognize this settlement, and the establishment of Greece as an

independent kingdom (1832) was really aimed at the pretensions and the

influence of Russia. These reached their high-water mark in the treaty

of Unkiar Skelessi (July 8th, 1832). It was no longer a question of the

partition of Turkey or of a Russian conquest of Constantinople, but of

the deliberate degradation by Russia of the Ottoman empire into a weak

state wholly dependent upon herself. The ten years' crisis (1831-1841)

evoked by the revolt of Mehemet Ali, pasha of Egypt, thus resolved

itself into a diplomatic struggle between Russia and the other powers to

maintain or to recover influence at Constantinople. The Russian

experiment of maintaining the integrity of Turkey while practically

treating her as a vassal state, ended with the compromise of 1841; and

the emperor Nicholas I. reverted to the older idea of expelling the

Turks from Europe. The Eastern Question, however, slumbered until, in

1851, the matter of the Holy Places was raised by Napoleon III.,

involving the whole question of the influence in Ottoman affairs of

France under the capitulations of 1740 and of Russia under the treaty of

1774. The Crimean War followed and in 1856 the treaty of Paris, by which

the powers hoped to stem the tide of Russian advance and establish the

integrity of a reformed Ottoman state. Turkey was now for the first

time solemnly admitted to the European concert. The next critical phase

was opened in 1871, when Russia took advantage of the collapse of France

to denounce the Black Sea clauses of the treaty of 1856. The renewal of

an aggressive policy thus announced to the world soon produced a new

crisis in the Eastern Question, which had meanwhile become complicated

by the growth of Pan-Slav ideals in eastern Europe. In 1875 a rising in

Herzegovina gave evidence of a state of feeling in the Balkan peninsula

which called for the intervention of Europe, if a disastrous war were to

be prevented. But this intervention, embodied in the "Andrassy Note"

(December 1875) and the Berlin memorandum (May 1876), met with the

stubborn opposition of Turkey, where the "young Turks" were beginning to

oppose a Pan-Islamic to the Pan-Slav ideal. The Russo-Turkish War of

1877-78 followed, concluded by the treaty of San Stefano, the terms of

which were modified in Turkey's favour by the congress of Berlin (1878),

which marks the beginning of the later phase of the Eastern Question.

Between Russia and Turkey it interposed, in effect, a barrier of

independent (Rumania, Servia) and quasi-independent (Bulgaria) states,

erected with the counsel and consent of collective Europe. It thus,

while ostensibly weakening, actually tended to strengthen the Ottoman

power of resistance.

The period following the treaty of Berlin is coincident with the reign

of Sultan Abd-ul-Hamid II. The international position of the Ottoman

empire was strengthened by the able, if Machiavellian, statecraft of the

sultan; while the danger of disruption from within was lessened by the

more effective central control made possible by railways, telegraphs,

and the other mechanical improvements borrowed from western

civilization. With the spread of the Pan-Islamic movement, moreover, the

undefined authority of the sultan as caliph of Islam received a fresh

importance even in countries beyond the borders of the Ottoman empire,

while in countries formerly, or nominally still, subject to it, it

caused, and promised to cause, incalculable trouble.

The Eastern Question thus developed, in the latter years of the 19th

century, from that of the problems raised by the impending break-up of a

moribund empire, into the even more complex question of how to deal with

an empire which showed vigorous evidence of life, but of a type of life

which, though on all sides in close touch with modern European

civilization, was incapable of being brought into harmony with it. The

belief in the imminent collapse of the Ottoman dominion was weakened

almost to extinction; so was the belief, which inspired the treaty of

1856, in the capacity of Turkey to reform and develop itself on European

lines. But the Ottoman empire remained, the mistress of vast undeveloped

wealth. The remaining phase of the Eastern Question, if we except the

concerted efforts to impose good government on Macedonia in the

interests of European peace, or the side issues in Egypt and Arabia, was

the rivalry of the progressive nations for the right to exploit this

wealth. In this rivalry Germany, whose interest in Turkey even so late

as the congress of Berlin had been wholly subordinate, took a leading

part, unhampered by the traditional policies or the humanitarian

considerations by which the interests of the older powers were

prejudiced. The motives of German intervention in the Eastern Question

were ostensibly commercial; but the Bagdad railway concession,

postulating for its ultimate success the control of the trade route by

way of the Euphrates valley, involved political issues of the highest

moment and opened up a new and perilous phase of the question of the

Middle East.

This was the position when in 1908 an entirely new situation was created

by the Turkish revolution. As the result of the patient and masterly

organization of the "young Turks," combined with the universal

discontent with the rule of the sultan and the palace _camarilla_, the

impossible seemed to be achieved, and the heterogeneous elements

composing the Ottoman empire to be united in the desire to establish a

unified state on the constitutional model of the West. The result on the

international situation was profound. Great Britain hastened to re-knit

the bonds of her ancient friendship with Turkey; the powers, without

exception, professed their sympathy with the new regime. The

establishment of a united Turkey on a constitutional and nationalist

basis was, however, not slow in producing a fresh complication in the

Eastern Question. Sooner or later the issue was sure to be raised of the

status of those countries, still nominally part of the Ottoman empire,

but in effect independent, like Bulgaria, or subject to another state,

like Bosnia and Herzegovina. The cutting of the Gordian knot by

Austria's annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and by the proclamation

of the independence of Bulgaria, and of Prince Ferdinand's assumption of

the old title of tsar (king), threatened to raise the Eastern Question

once more in its acutest form. The international concert defined in the

treaty of Berlin had been rudely shaken, if not destroyed; the

denunciation by Austria, without consulting her co-signatories, of the

clauses of the treaty affecting herself seemed to invalidate all the

rest; and in the absence of the restraining force of a united concert of

the great powers, free play seemed likely once more to be given to the

rival ambitions of the Balkan nationalities, the situation being

complicated by the necessity for the dominant party in the renovated

Turkish state to maintain its prestige. During the anxious months that

followed the Austrian _coup_, the efforts of diplomacy were directed to

calming the excitement of Servians, Montenegrins and the Young Turks,

and to considering a European conference in which the _fait accompli_

should be regularized in accordance with the accepted canons of

international law. The long delay in announcing the assembly of the

conference proved the extreme difficulty of arriving at any satisfactory

basis of settlement; and though the efforts of the powers succeeded in

salving the wounded pride of the Turks, and restraining the impetuosity

of the Serbs and Montenegrins, warlike preparations on the part of

Austria continued during the winter of 1908-1909, being justified by the

agitation in Servia, Montenegro and the annexed provinces. It was not

till April 1909 (see EUROPE: ad fin.) that the crisis was ended, through

the effectual backing given by Germany to Austria; and Russia, followed

by England and France, gave way and assented to what had been done.

See TURKEY: _History_, where cross-references to the articles on the

various phases of the Eastern Question will be found, together with a

bibliography. See also E. Driault, _La Question d'orient depuis son

origine_ (Paris, 1898), a comprehensive sketch of the whole subject,

including the Middle and Far East. (W. A. P.)

EAST GRINSTEAD, a market town in the East Grinstead parliamentary

division of Sussex, England, 30 m. S. by E. from London by the London,

Brighton & South Coast railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 6094. St

Swithin's church contains, among numerous ancient memorials, one of the

iron memorial slabs (1507) peculiar to certain churches of Sussex, and

recalling the period when iron was extensively worked in the district.

There may be noticed Sackville College (an almshouse founded in 1608),

and St Margaret's home and orphanage, founded by the Rev. John Mason

Neale (1818-1866), warden of Sackville College. Brewing and brick and

tile making are carried on. In the vicinity (near Forest Row station) is

the golf course of the Royal Ashdown Forest Golf Club.

The hundred of East Grinstead (Grenestede, Estgrensted) was in the

possession of the count of Mortain in 1086, but no mention of a vill or

manor of East Grinstead is made in the Domesday Survey. In the reign of

Henry III. the hundred was part of the honour of Aquila, then in the

king's hands. The honour was granted by him to Peter of Savoy, through

whom it passed to his niece Queen Eleanor. In the next reign the king's

mother held the borough of East Grinstead as parcel of the honour of

Aquila. East Grinstead was included in a grant by Edward III. to John of

Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, and it remained part of the duchy of Lancaster

until James I. granted the borough to Sir George Rivers, through whom it

was obtained by the Sackvilles, earls of Dorset. East Grinstead was a

borough by prescription. In the 16th century it was governed by an

alderman, bailiff and constable. It returned two members to parliament

from 1307 until 1832, but was disenfranchised by the Reform Act. In 1285

the king ordered that his market at Grenestede should be held on

Saturday instead of Sunday, and in 1516 the inhabitants of the town were

granted a market each week on Saturday and a fair every year on the eve

of St Andrew and two days following. Charles I. granted the earl of

Dorset a market on Thursday instead of the Saturday market, and fairs on

the 16th of April and the 26th of September every year. Thursday is

still the market-day, and cattle-fairs are now held on the 21st of April

and the 11th of December.

EAST HAM, a municipal borough in the southern parliamentary division of

Essex, England, contiguous to West Ham, and thus forming geographically

part of the eastward extension of London. Pop. (1901) 96,018. Its modern

growth has been very rapid, the population being in the main of the

artisan class. There are some chemical and other factories. The ancient

parish church of St Mary Magdalen retains Norman work in the chancel,

which terminates in an eastern apse. There is a monument for Edmund

Neville who claimed the earldom of Westmorland in the 17th century, and

William Stukeley, the antiquary, was buried in the churchyard. East Ham

was incorporated in 1904, and among its municipal undertakings is a

technical college (1905). The corporation consists of a mayor, 6

aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 33201/2 acres.

EASTHAMPTON, a township of Hampshire county, Mass., U.S.A., in the

Connecticut Valley. Pop. (1900) 5603, of whom 1731 were foreign-born;

(1905) 6808; (1910) 8524. It is served by the Boston & Maine, and the

New York, New Haven & Hartford railways, and by interurban electric

railways. The township is generally level, and is surrounded by high

hills. In Easthampton are a free public library and Williston Seminary;

the latter, one of the oldest and largest preparatory schools in New

England, was founded in 1841 by the gifts of Samuel Williston

(1795-1874) and Emily Graves Williston (1797-1885). Mr and Mrs Williston

built up the industry of covering buttons with cloth, at first doing the

work by hand, then (1827) experimenting with machinery, and in 1848

building a factory for making and covering buttons. As the soil was

fertile and well watered, the township had been agricultural up to this

time. It is now chiefly devoted to manufacturing. Among its products are

cotton goods, especially mercerised goods, for the manufacture of which

it has one of the largest plants in the country; rubber, thread, elastic

fabrics, suspenders and buttons. Parts of Northampton and Southampton

were incorporated as the "district" of Easthampton in 1785; it became a

township in 1809, and in 1841 and 1850 annexed parts of Southampton.

EAST HAMPTON, a township of Suffolk county, New York, in the extreme

S.E. part of Long Island, occupying the peninsula of Montauk, and

bounded on the S. and E. by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the N. by Block

Island Sound, Gardiner's Bay and Peconic Bay. Pop. (1900) 3746; (1905)

4303; (1910) 4722. The township, 25 m. long and 8 m. at its greatest

width from north to south, has an irregular north coast-line and a very

regular south coast-line. The surface is rougher to the west where there

are several large lakes, notably Great Pond, 2 m. long. The scenery is

picturesque and the township is much frequented by artists. Montauk

Lighthouse, on Turtle Hill, was first built in 1795. At Montauk, after

the Spanish-American War, was Camp Wikoff, a large U.S. military camp.

The township is served by the southern division of the Long Island

railway, the terminus of which is Montauk. Other villages of the

township, all summer resorts, are: Promised Land, Amagansett, East

Hampton and Sag Harbor; the last named, only partly in the township, was

incorporated in 1803 and had a population of 1969 in 1900, and 3084 in

1910. Silverware and watch cases are manufactured here. From Sag Harbor,

which is a port of entry, a daily steamer runs to New York city. The

village received many gifts in 1906-1908 from Mrs Russell Sage. Most of

the present township was bought from the Indians (Montauks, Corchaugs

and Shinnecocks) in 1648 for about L30, through the governors of

Connecticut and New Haven, by nine Massachusetts freemen, mostly

inhabitants of Lynn, Massachusetts. With twenty other families they

settled here in 1649, calling the place Maidstone, from the old home of

some of the settlers in Kent; but as early as 1650 the name East Hampton

was used in reference to the earlier settlement of South Hampton. Until

1664, when all Long Island passed to the duke of York, the government

was by town meeting, autonomous and independent except for occasional

appeals to Connecticut. In 1683 Gardiner's Island, settled by Lion

Gardiner in 1639 and so one of the first English settlements in what is

now New York state, was made a part of Long Island and of East Hampton

township. The English settlements in East Hampton were repeatedly

threatened by pirates and privateers, and there are many stories of

treasure buried by Captain Kidd on Gardiner's Island and on Montauk

Point. The Clinton Academy, opened in East Hampton village in 1785, was

long a famous school. Of the church built here in 1653 (first

Congregational and after 1747 Presbyterian in government), Lyman Beecher

was pastor in 1799-1810; and in East Hampton were born his elder

children. Whale fishing was begun in East Hampton in 1675, when four

Indians were engaged by whites in off-shore whaling; but Sag Harbor,

which was first settled in 1730 and was held by the British after the

battle of Long Island as a strategic naval and shipping point, became

the centre of the whaling business. The first successful whaling voyage

was made from Sag Harbor in 1785, and although the Embargo ruined the

fishing for a time, it revived during 1830-1850. Cod and menhaden

fishing, the latter for the manufacture of fish-oil and guano, were

important for a time, but in the second half of the 19th century Sag

Harbor lost its commercial importance.

EAST INDIA COMPANY, an incorporated company for exploiting the trade

with India and the Far East. In the 17th and 18th centuries East India

companies were established by England, Holland, France, Denmark,

Scotland, Spain, Austria and Sweden. By far the most important of these

was the English East India Company, which became the dominant power in

India, and only handed over its functions to the British Government in

1858 (see also DUTCH EAST INDIA COMPANY, OSTEND COMPANY).

English East India Co.

The English East India Company was founded at the end of the 16th

century in order to compete with the Dutch merchants, who had obtained a

practical monopoly of the trade with the Spice Islands, and had raised

the price of pepper from 3s. to 8s. per lb. Queen Elizabeth incorporated

it by royal charter, dated December 31, 1600, under the title of "The

Governor and Company of Merchants of London, trading into the East

Indies." This charter conferred the sole right of trading with the East

Indies, i.e. with all countries lying beyond the Cape of Good Hope or

the Straits of Magellan, upon the company for a term of 15 years.

Unauthorized interlopers were liable to forfeiture of ships and cargo.

There were 125 shareholders in the original East India Company, with a

capital of L72,000: the first governor was Sir Thomas Smythe. The early

voyages of the company, from 1601 to 1612, are distinguished as the

"separate voyages," because the subscribers individually bore the cost

of each voyage and reaped the whole profits, which seldom fell below

100%. After 1612 the voyages were conducted on the joint stock system

for the benefit of the company as a whole. These early voyages, whose

own narratives may be read in Purchas, pushed as far as Japan, and

established friendly relations at the court of the Great Mogul. In

1610-1611 Captain Hippon planted the first English factories on the

mainland of India, at Masulipatam and at Pettapoli in the Bay of Bengal.

The profitable nature of the company's trade had induced James I. to

grant subsidiary licences to private traders; but in 1609 he renewed the

company's charter "for ever," though with a proviso that it might be

revoked on three years' notice if the trade should not prove profitable

to the realm.

English and Dutch disputes.

Meanwhile friction was arising between the English and Dutch East India

Companies. The Dutch traders considered that they had prior rights in

the Far East, and their ascendancy in the Indian Archipelago was indeed

firmly established on the basis of territorial dominion and authority.

In 1613 they made advances to the English company with a suggestion for

co-operation, but the offer was declined, and the next few years were

fertile in disputes between the armed traders of both nations. In 1619

was ratified a "treaty of defence" to prevent disputes between the

English and Dutch companies. When it was proclaimed in the East,

hostilities solemnly ceased for the space of an hour, while the Dutch

and English fleets, dressed out in all their flags and with yards

manned, saluted each other; but the treaty ended in the smoke of that

stately salutation, and perpetual and fruitless contentions between the

Dutch and English companies went on just as before. In 1623 these

disputes culminated in the "massacre of Amboyna," where the Dutch

governor tortured and executed the English residents on a charge of

conspiring to seize the fort. Great and lasting indignation was aroused

in England, but it was not until the time of Cromwell that some

pecuniary reparation was exacted for the heirs of the victims. The

immediate result was that the English company tacitly admitted the Dutch

claims to a monopoly of the trade in the Far East, and confined their

operations to the mainland of India and the adjoining countries.

The East Indiamen.

The necessity of good ships for the East Indian trade had led the

company in 1609 to construct their dockyard at Deptford, from which, as

Monson observes, dates "the increase of great ships in England." Down to

the middle of the 19th century, the famous "East Indiamen" held

unquestioned pre-eminence among the merchant vessels of the world.

Throughout the 17th century they had to be prepared at any moment to

fight not merely Malay pirates, but the armed trading vessels of their

Dutch, French and Portuguese rivals. Many such battles are recorded in

the history of the East India Company, and usually with successful

results.

The acquisition of territory.

It was not until it had been in existence for more than a century that

the English East India Company obtained a practical monopoly of the

Indian trade. In 1635, a year after the Great Mogul had granted it the

liberty of trading throughout Bengal, Charles I. issued a licence to

Courten's rival association, known as "the Assada Merchants," on the

ground that the company had neglected English interests. The piratical

methods of their rivals disgraced the company with the Mogul officials,

and a _modus vivendi_ was only reached in 1649. In 1657 Cromwell renewed

the charter of 1609, providing that the Indian trade should be in the

hands of a single joint stock company. The new company thus formed

bought up the factories, forts and privileges of the old one. It was

further consolidated by the fostering care of Charles II., who granted

it five important charters. From a simple trading company, it grew under

his reign into a great chartered company--to use the modern term--with

the right to acquire territory, coin money, command fortresses and

troops, form alliances, make war and peace, and exercise both civil and

criminal jurisdiction. It is accordingly in 1689, when the three

presidencies of Bengal, Madras and Bombay had lately been established,

that the ruling career of the East India Company begins, with the

passing by its directors of the following resolution for the guidance of

the local governments in India:--"The increase of our revenue is the

subject of our care, as much as our trade; 'tis that must maintain our

force when twenty accidents may interrupt our trade; 'tis that must make

us a nation in India; without that we are but a great number of

interlopers, united by His Majesty's royal charter, fit only to trade

where nobody of power thinks it their interest to prevent us; and upon

this account it is that the wise Dutch, in all their general advices

that we have seen, write ten paragraphs concerning their government,

their civil and military policy, warfare, and the increase of their

revenue, for one paragraph they write concerning trade." From this

moment the history of the transactions of the East India Company becomes

the history of British India (see INDIA: _History_). Here we shall only

trace the later changes in the constitution and powers of the ruling

body itself.

The interlopers.

The great prosperity of the company under the Restoration, and the

immense profits of the Indian trade, attracted a number of private

traders, both outside merchants and dismissed or retired servants of the

company, who came to be known as "interlopers." In 1683 the case of

Thomas Sandys, an interloper, raised the whole question of the royal

prerogative to create a monopoly of the Indian trade. The case was tried

by Judge Jeffreys, who upheld the royal prerogative; but in spite of his

decision the custom of interloping continued and laid the foundation of

many great fortunes. By 1691 the interlopers had formed themselves into

a new society, meeting at Dowgate, and rivalling the old company; the

case was carried before the House of Commons, which declared in 1694

that "all the subjects of England have equal right to trade to the East

Indies unless prohibited by act of parliament." This decision led up to

the act of 1698, which created a new East India Company in consideration

of a loan of two millions to the state. The old company subscribed

L315,000 and became the dominant factor in the new body; while at the

same time it retained its charter for three years, its factories, forts

and assured position in India. The rivalry between the two companies

continued both in England and in India, until they were finally

amalgamated by a tripartite indenture between the companies and Queen

Anne (1702), which was ratified under the Godolphin Award (1708). Under

this award the company was to lend the nation L3,200,000, and its

exclusive privileges were to cease at three years' notice after this

amount had been repaid. But by this time the need for permanence in the

Indian establishment began to be felt, while parliament would not

relinquish its privilege of "milking" the company from time to time. In

1712 an act was passed continuing the privileges of the company even

after their fund should be redeemed; in 1730 the charter was prolonged

until 1766, and in 1742 the term was extended until 1783 in return for

the loan of a million. This million was required for the war with

France, which extended to India and involved the English and French

companies there in long-drawn hostilities, in which the names of Dupleix

and Clive became prominent.

The company and the crown.

So long as the company's chief business was that of trade, it was left

to manage its own affairs. The original charter of Elizabeth had placed

its control in the hands of a governor and a committee of twenty-four,

and this arrangement subsisted in essence down to the time of George

III. The chairman and court of directors in London exercised unchecked

control over their servants in India. But after Clive's brilliant

victory at Plassey (1757) had made the company a ruling power in India,

it was felt to be necessary that the British government should have some

control over the territories thus acquired. Lord North's Regulating Act

(1773) raised the governor of Bengal--Warren Hastings--to the rank of

governor-general, and provided that his nomination, though made by a

court of directors, should in future be subject to the approval of the

crown; in conjunction with a council of four, he was entrusted with the

power of peace and war; a supreme court of judicature was established,

to which the judges were appointed by the crown; and legislative power

was conferred on the governor-general and his council. Next followed

Pitt's India Bill (1784), which created the board of control, as a

department of the English government, to exercise political, military

and financial superintendence over the British possessions in India.

This bill first authorized the historic phrase "governor-general in

council." From this date the direction of Indian policy passed

definitely from the company to the governor-general in India and the

ministry in London. In 1813 Lord Liverpool passed a bill which further

gave the board of control authority over the company's commercial

transactions, and abolished its monopoly of Indian trade, whilst leaving

it the monopoly of the valuable trade with China, chiefly in tea.

Finally, under Earl Grey's act of 1833, the company was deprived of this

monopoly also. Its property was then secured on the Indian possessions,

and its annual dividends of ten guineas per L100 stock were made a

charge upon the Indian revenue. Henceforward the East India Company

ceased to be a trading concern and exercised only administrative

functions. Such a position could not, in the nature of things, be

permanent, and the great cataclysm of the Indian Mutiny was followed by

the entire transference of Indian administration from the company to the

crown, on the 2nd of August 1858.

See _Purchas his Pilgrimes_ (ed. 1905), vols. 2, 3, 4, 5, for the

charter of Elizabeth and the early voyages; Sir W.W. Hunter, _History

of British India_ (1899); Beckles Willson, _Ledger and Sword_ (1903);

Sir George Birdwood, _Report on the Old Records of the India Office_

(1879); _The East India Company's First Letter Book_ (1895), _Letters

Received by the East India Company from its Servants in the East_, ed.

Foster, (1896 ff.). See also the interesting memorial volume _Relics

of the Honourable East India Company_ (ed. Griggs, 1909), letterpress

by Sir G. Birdwood and W. Foster.

EAST INDIES, a name formerly applied vaguely, in its widest sense, to

the whole area of India, Further India and the Malay Archipelago, in

distinction from the West Indies, which, at the time of their discovery,

were taken to be the extreme parts of the Indian region. The term "East

Indies" is still sometimes applied to the Malay Archipelago (q.v.)

alone, and the phrase "Dutch East Indies" is commonly used to denote the

Dutch possessions which constitute the greater part of that archipelago.

The Dutch themselves use the term _Nederlandsch-Indie_.

EASTLAKE, SIR CHARLES LOCK (1793-1865), English painter, was born on the

17th of November 1793 at Plymouth, where his father, a man of uncommon

gifts but of indolent temperament, was solicitor to the admiralty and

judge advocate of the admiralty court. Charles was educated (like Sir

Joshua Reynolds) at the Plympton grammar-school, and in London at the

Charterhouse. Towards 1809, partly through the influence of his

fellow-Devonian Haydon, of whom he became a pupil, he determined to be a

painter; he also studied in the Royal Academy school. In 1813 he

exhibited in the British Institution his first picture, a work of

considerable size, "Christ restoring life to the Daughter of Jairus." In

1814 he was commissioned to copy some of the paintings collected by

Napoleon in the Louvre; he returned to England in 1815, and practised

portrait-painting at Plymouth. Here he saw Napoleon a captive on the

"Bellerophon"; from a boat he made some sketches of the emperor, and he

afterwards painted, from these sketches and from memory, a life-sized

full-length portrait of him (with some of his officers) which was

pronounced a good likeness; it belongs to the marquess of Lansdowne. In

1817 Eastlake went to Italy; in 1819 to Greece; in 1820 back to Italy,

where he remained altogether fourteen years, chiefly in Rome and in

Ferrara.

In 1827 he exhibited at the Royal Academy his picture of the Spartan

Isidas, who (as narrated by Plutarch in the life of Agesilaus), rushing

naked out of his bath, performed prodigies of valour against the Theban

host. This was the first work that attracted much notice to the name of

Eastlake, who in consequence obtained his election as A.R.A.; in 1830,

when he returned to England, he was chosen R.A. In 1850 he succeeded

Shee as president of the Royal Academy, and was knighted. Prior to this,

in 1841, he had been appointed secretary to the royal commission for

decorating the Houses of Parliament, and he retained this post until the

commission was dissolved in 1862. In 1843 he was made keeper of the

National Gallery, a post which he resigned in 1847 in consequence of an

unfortunate purchase that roused much animadversion, a portrait

erroneously ascribed to Holbein; in 1855, director of the same

institution, with more extended powers. During his directorship he

purchased for the gallery 155 pictures, mostly of the Italian schools.

He became also a D.C.L. of Oxford, F.R.S., a chevalier of the Legion of

Honour, and member of various foreign academies.

In 1849 he married Miss Elizabeth Rigby, who had already then become

known as a writer (_Letters from the Baltic_, 1841; _Livonian Tales_,

1846; _The Jewess_, 1848) and as a contributor to the _Quarterly

Review_. Lady Eastlake (1809-1893) had for some years been interested in

art subjects, and after her marriage she naturally devoted more

attention to them, translating Waagen's _Treasures of Art in Great

Britain_ (1854-1857), and completing Mrs Jameson's _History of our Lord

in Works of Art_. In 1865 Sir Charles Eastlake fell ill at Milan; and he

died at Pisa on the 24th of December in the same year. Lady Eastlake,

who survived him for many years, continued to play an active part as a

writer on art (_Five Great Painters_, 1883, &c.), and had a large circle

of friends among the most interesting men and women of the day. In 1880

she published a volume of _Letters from France_ (describing events in

Paris during 1789), written by her father, Edward Rigby (1747-1821), a

distinguished Norwich doctor who was known also for his practical

interest in agriculture, and who is said to have made known the flying

shuttle to Norwich manufacturers.

As a painter, Sir Charles Eastlake was gentle, harmonious, diligent and

correct; lacking fire of invention or of execution; eclectic, without

being exactly imitative; influenced rather by a love of ideal grace and

beauty than by any marked bent of individual power or vigorous

originality. Among his principal works (which were not numerous, 51

being the total exhibited in the Academy) are: 1828, "Pilgrims arriving

in sight of Rome" (repeated in 1835 and 1836, and perhaps on the whole

his _chef-d'oeuvre_); 1829, "Byron's Dream" (in the Tate Gallery); 1834,

the "Escape of Francesco di Carrara" (a duplicate in the Tate Gallery);

1841, "Christ Lamenting over Jerusalem" (ditto); 1843, "Hagar and

Ishmael"; 1845, "Comus"; 1849, "Helena"; 1851, "Ippolita Torelli"; 1853,

"Violante"; 1855, "Beatrice." These female heads, of a refined

semi-ideal quality, with something of Venetian glow of tint, are the

most satisfactory specimens of Eastlake's work to an artist's eye. He

was an accomplished and judicious scholar in matters of art, and

published, in 1840, a translation of Goethe's _Theory of Colours_; in

1847 (his chief literary work) _Materials for a History of

Oil-Painting_, especially valuable as regards the Flemish school; in

1848, _Contributions to the Literature of the Fine Arts_ (a second

series was edited by Lady Eastlake in 1870, and accompanied by a Memoir

from her pen); in 1851 and 1855, translated editions of Kugler's

_History of the Italian School of Painting_, and _Handbook of Painting_

(new edition, by Lady Eastlake, 1874).

See W. Cosmo Monkhouse, _Pictures by Sir Charles Eastlake, with

biographical and critical Sketch_ (1875). (W. M. R.)

EAST LIVERPOOL, a city of Columbiana county, Ohio, U.S.A., on the Ohio

river, about 106 m. S.E. of Cleveland. Pop. (1890) 10,956; (1900)

16,485, of whom 2112 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 20,357. It is

served by the Pennsylvania railway, by river steamboats, and by

interurban electric lines. Next to Trenton, New Jersey, East Liverpool

is the most important place in the United States for the manufacture of

earthenware and pottery, 4859 out of its 5228 wage-earners, or 92.9%,

being employed in this industry in 1905, when $5,373,852 (83.5% of the

value of all its factory products) was the value of the earthenware and

pottery. No other city in the United States is so exclusively devoted to

the manufacture of pottery; in 1908 there were 32 potteries in the city

and its immediate vicinity. The manufacture of white ware, begun in

1872, is the most important branch of the industry--almost half of the

"cream-coloured," white granite ware and semivitreous porcelain produced

in the United States in 1905 (in value, $4,344,468 out of $9,195,703)

being manufactured in East Liverpool. Though there are large clay

deposits in the vicinity, very little of it can be used for crockery,

and most of the clay used in the city's potteries is obtained from other

states; some of it is imported from Europe. After 1872 a large number of

skilled English pottery-workers settled in the city. The city's product

of pottery, terra-cotta and fireclay increased from $2,137,063 to

$4,105,200 from 1890 to 1900, and in the latter year almost equalled

that of Trenton, N.J., the two cities together producing more than half

(50.9%) of the total pottery product of the United States; in 1905 East

Liverpool and Trenton together produced 42.1% of the total value of the

country's pottery product. The municipality owns and operates its

water-works. East Liverpool was settled in 1798, and was incorporated in

1834.

EAST LONDON, a town of the Cape province, South Africa, at the mouth of

the Buffalo river, in 33 deg. 1' S. 27 deg. 55' E., 543 m. E.N.E. of Cape Town

by sea and 666 m. S. of Johannesburg by rail. Pop. (1904) 25,220, of

whom 14,674 were whites. The town is picturesquely situated on both

sides of the river, which is spanned by a combined road and railway

bridge. The railway terminus and business quarter are on the east side

on the top of the cliffs, which rise 150 ft. above the river. In Oxford

Street, the chief thoroughfare, is the town hall, a handsome building

erected in 1898. Higher up a number of churches and a school are

grouped round Vincent Square, a large open space. In consequence of the

excellent sea bathing, and the beauty of the river banks above the town,

East London is the chief seaside holiday resort of the Cape province.

The town is the entrepot of a rich agricultural district, including the

Transkei, Basutoland and the south of Orange Free State, and the port of

the Cape nearest Johannesburg. It ranks third among the ports of the

province. The roadstead is exposed and insecure, but the inner harbour,

constructed at a cost of over L2,000,000, is protected from all winds. A

shifting sand bar lies at the mouth of the river, but the building of

training walls and dredging have increased the minimum depth of water to

22 ft. From the east bank of the Buffalo a pier and from the west bank a

breakwater project into the Indian Ocean, the entrance being 450 ft.

wide, reduced between the training walls to 250 ft. There is extensive

wharf accommodation on both sides of the river, and steamers of over

8000 tons can moor alongside. There is a patent slip capable of taking

vessels of 1000 tons dead weight. An aerial steel ropeway from the river

bank to the town greatly facilitates the delivery of cargo. The imports

are chiefly textiles, hardware and provisions, the exports mainly wool

and mohair. The rateable value of the town in 1908 was L4,108,000, and

the municipal rate 1-5/8 d.

East London owes its foundation to the necessities of the Kaffir war of

1846-1847. The British, requiring a port nearer the scene of war than

those then existing, selected a site at the mouth of the Buffalo river,

and in 1847 the first cargo of military stores was landed. A fort, named

Glamorgan, was built, and the place permanently occupied. Around this

military post grew up the town, known at first as Port Rex. Numbers of

its inhabitants are descendants of German immigrants who settled in the

district in 1857. The prosperity of the town dates from the era of

railway and port development in the last decade of the 19th century. In

1875 the value of the exports was L131,803 and that of the imports

L552,033. In 1904 the value of the exports was L1,165,938 and that of

the imports L4,688,415. In 1907 the exports, notwithstanding a period of

severe trade depression, were valued at L1,475,355, but the imports had

fallen to L3,354,633.

EASTON, a city and the county-seat of Northampton county, Pennsylvania,

U.S.A., at the confluence of the Lehigh river and Bushkill Creek with

the Delaware, about 60 m. N. of Philadelphia. Pop. (1890) 14,481; (1900)

25,238, of whom 2135 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 28,523. Easton is

served by the Central of New Jersey, the Lehigh Valley, the Lehigh &

Hudson River and the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western railways, and is

connected by canals with the anthracite coal region to the north-west

and with Bristol, Pa. A bridge across the Delaware river connects it

with Phillipsburg, New Jersey, which is served by the Pennsylvania

railway. The city is built on rolling ground, commanding pleasant views

of hill and river scenery. Many fine residences overlook city and

country from the hillsides, and a Carnegie library is prominent among

the public buildings. Lafayette College, a Presbyterian institution

opened in 1832, is finely situated on a bluff north of the Bushkill and

Delaware. The college provides the following courses of instruction:

graduate, classical, Latin scientific, general scientific, civil

engineering, electrical engineering, mining engineering and chemical; in

1908 it had 38 instructors and 442 students, 256 of whom were enrolled

in the scientific and engineering courses. Overlooking the Bushkill is

the Easton Cemetery, in which is the grave of George Taylor (1716-1781),

a signer of the Declaration of Independence, with a monument of Italian

marble to his memory. Among the city's manufactures are silk, hosiery

and knit goods, flour, malt liquors, brick, tile, drills, lumber and

planing mill products and organs; in 1905 the value of all the factory

products was $5,654,594, of which $2,290,598, or 40.5%, was the value of

the silk manufactures. Easton is the commercial centre of an important

mining region, which produces, in particular, iron ore, soapstone,

cement, slate and building stone. The municipality owns and operates an

electric-lighting plant. Easton was a garden spot of the Indians, and

here, because they would not negotiate elsewhere, several important

treaties were made between 1756 and 1762 during the French and Indian

War. The place was laid out in 1752, and was made the county-seat of the

newly erected county. It was incorporated as a borough in 1789, received

a new borough charter in 1823, and in 1887 was chartered as a city.

South Easton was annexed in 1898.

EAST ORANGE, a city of Essex county, New Jersey, U.S.A., in the

north-eastern part of the state, adjoining the city of Newark, and about

12 m. W. of New York city. Pop. (1890) 13,282; (1900) 21,506, of whom

3950 were foreign-born and 1420 were negroes; (1910 census) 34,371. It

is served by the Morris & Essex division of the Delaware, Lackawanna &

Western railway and by the Orange branch of the Erie (the former having

four stations--Ampere, Grove Street, East Orange and Brick Church), and

is connected with Newark, Orange and West Orange by electric line. The

city covers an area of about 4 sq. m., and has broad, well-paved

streets, bordered with fine shade trees (under the jurisdiction of a

"Shade Tree Commission"). It is primarily a residential suburb of New

York and Newark, and has many beautiful homes; with Orange, West Orange

and South Orange it forms virtually one community, popularly known as

"the Oranges." The public school system is excellent, and the city has a

Carnegie library (1903), with more than 22,000 volumes in 1907. Among

the principal buildings are several attractive churches, the city hall,

and the club-house of the Woman's Club of Orange. The principal

manufactures of East Orange are electrical machinery, apparatus, and

supplies (the factory of the Crocker-Wheeler Co. being here--in a part

of the city known as "Ampere") and pharmaceutical materials. The total

value of the city's factory products in 1905 was $2,326,552. East Orange

has a fine water-works system, which it owns and operates; the water

supply is obtained from artesian wells at White Oaks Ridge, in the

township of Milburn (about 10 m. from the city hall); thence the water

is pumped to a steel reinforced reservoir (capacity 5,000,000 gallons)

on the mountain back of South Orange. In 1863 the township of East

Orange was separated from the township of Orange, which, in turn, had

been separated from the township of Newark in 1806. An act of the New

Jersey legislature in 1895 created the office of township president,

with power of appointment and veto. Four years later East Orange was

chartered as a city.

See H. Whittemore, _The Founders and Builders of the Oranges_ (Newark,

1896).

EASTPORT, a city and port of entry of Washington county, Maine, U.S.A.,

co-extensive with Moose Island in Passamaquoddy Bay, about 190 m. E.N.E.

of Portland. Pop. (1890) 4908; (1900) 5311 (1554 foreign-born); (1910)

4961. It is served by the Washington County railway, and by steamboat

lines to Boston, Portland and Calais. It is the most eastern city of the

United States, and is separated from the mainland by a narrow channel,

which is spanned by a bridge. The harbour is well protected from the

winds, and the tide, which rises and falls here about 25 ft., prevents

it from being obstructed with ice. The city is built on ground sloping

gently to the water's edge, and commands delightful views of the bay, in

which there are several islands. Its principal industry is the canning

of sardines; there are also clam canneries. Shoes, mustard, decorated

tin, and shooks are manufactured, and fish and lobsters are shipped from

here in the season. The city is the port of entry for the customs

district of Passamaquoddy; in 1908 its imports were valued at $994,961,

and its exports at $1,155,791. Eastport was first settled about 1782 by

fishermen; it became a port of entry in 1790, was incorporated as a town

in 1798, and was chartered as a city in 1893. It was a notorious place

for smuggling under the Embargo Acts of 1807 and 1808. On the 11th of

July 1814, during the war of 1812, it was taken by the British. As the

British government claimed the islands of Passamaquoddy Bay under the

treaty of 1783, the British forces retained possession of Eastport after

the close of the war and held it under martial law until July 1818, when

it was surrendered in accordance with the decision rendered in November

1817 by commissioners appointed under Article IV. of the treaty of Ghent

(1814), this decision awarding Moose Island, Dudley Island and Frederick

Island to the United States and the other islands, including the Island

of Grand Manan in the Bay of Fundy, to Great Britain.

EAST PROVIDENCE, a township of Providence county, Rhode Island, U.S.A.,

on the E. side of Providence river, opposite Providence. Pop. (1890)

8422; (1900) 12,138, of whom 2067 were foreign-born; (1910 census)

15,808. Area, 121/2 sq. m. It is served by the New York, New Haven &

Hartford railway. It has a rolling surface and contains several

villages, one of which, known as Rumford, has important manufactories of

chemicals and electrical supplies. South of this village, along the

river bank, are several attractive summer resorts, Hunt's Mills, Silver

Spring, Riverside, Vanity Fair, Kettle Point and Bullock's Point being

prominent among them. In 1905 the factory products of the township were

valued at $5,035,288. The oyster trade is important. It was within the

present limits of this township that Roger Williams established himself

in the spring of 1636, until he learned that the place was within the

jurisdiction of the Plymouth Colony. About 1644 it was settled by a

company from Weymouth as a part of a town of Rehoboth. In 1812 Rehoboth

was divided, and the west part was made the township of Seekonk.

Finally, in 1861, it was decided that the west part of Seekonk belonged

to Rhode Island, and in the following year that part was incorporated as

the township of East Providence.

EAST PRUSSIA (_Ost-Preussen_), the easternmost province of the kingdom

of Prussia, bounded on the N. by the Baltic, on the E. and S.W. by

Russia and Russian Poland, and on the W. by the Prussian province of

West Prussia. It has an area of 14,284 sq. m., and had, in 1905, a

population of 2,025,741. It shares in the general characteristics of the

great north German plain, but, though low, its surface is by no means

absolutely flat, as the southern half is traversed by a low ridge or

plateau, which attains a height of 1025 ft. at a point near the western

boundary of the province. This plateau, here named the Prussian

Seenplatte, is thickly sprinkled with small lakes, among which is the

Spirding See, 46 sq. m. in extent and the largest inland lake in the

Prussian monarchy. The coast is lined with low dunes or sandhills, in

front of which lie the large littoral lakes or lagoons named the

Frisches Haff and the Kurisches Haff. The first of these receives the

waters of the Nogat and the Pregel, and the other those of the Memel or

Niemen. East Prussia is the coldest part of Germany, its mean annual

temperature being about 44 deg. F., while the mean January temperature of

Tilsit is only 25 deg.. The rainfall is 24 in. per annum. About half the

province is under tillage; 18% is occupied by forests, and about 23% by

meadows and pastures. The most fertile soil is found in the valleys of

the Pregel and the Memel, but the southern slopes of the Baltic plateau

and the district to the north of the Memel consist in great part of

sterile moor, sand and bog. The chief crops are rye, oats and potatoes,

while flax is cultivated in the district of Ermeland, between the

Passarge and the upper Alle. East Prussia is the headquarters of the

horse-breeding of the country, and contains the principal government

stud of Trakehnen; numerous cattle are also fattened on the rich

pastures of the river-valleys. The extensive woods in the south part of

the province harbour a few wolves and lynxes, and the elk is still

preserved in the forest of Ibenhorst, near the Kurisches Haff. The

fisheries in the lakes and haffs are of some importance; but the only

mineral product of note is amber, which is found in the peninsula of

Samland in greater abundance than in any other part of the world.

Manufactures are almost confined to the principal towns, though

linen-weaving is practised as a domestic industry. Commerce is

facilitated by canals connecting the Memel and Pregel and also the

principal lakes, but is somewhat hampered by the heavy dues exacted at

the Russian frontier. A brisk foreign trade is carried on through the

seaports of Koenigsberg, the capital of the province, and Memel, the

exports consisting mainly of timber and grain.

The population of the province was in 1900 1,996,626, and included

1,698,465 Protestants, 269,196 Roman Catholics and 13,877 Jews. The

Roman Catholics are mainly confined to the district of Ermeland, in

which the ordinary proportions of the confessions are completely

reversed. The bulk of the inhabitants are of German blood, but there are

above 400,000 Protestant Poles (Masurians or Masovians) in the south

part of the province, and 175,000 Lithuanians in the north. As in other

provinces where the Polish element is strong, East Prussia is somewhat

below the general average of the kingdom in education. There is a

university at Koenigsberg.

See Lohmeyer, _Geschichte von Ost- und West-Preussen_ (Gotha, 1884);

Bruenneck, _Zur Geschichte des Kirchen-Patronats in Ost- und

West-Preussen_ (Berlin, 1902), and _Ost-Preussen, Land und Volk_

(Stuttgart, 1901-1902).

EASTWICK, EDWARD BACKHOUSE (1814-1883), British Orientalist, was born in

1814, a member of an Anglo-Indian family. Educated at Charterhouse and

at Oxford, he joined the Bombay infantry in 1836, but, owing to his

talent for languages, was soon given a political post. In 1843 he

translated the Persian _Kessahi Sanjan_, or _History of the Arrival of

the Parsees in India_; and he wrote a _Life of Zoroaster_, a _Sindhi_

vocabulary, and various papers in the transactions of the Bombay Asiatic

Society. Compelled by ill-health to return to Europe, he went to

Frankfort, where he learned German and translated Schiller's _Revolt of

the Netherlands_ and Bopp's _Comparative Grammar_. In 1845 he was

appointed professor of Hindustani at Haileybury College. Two years later

he published a Hindustani grammar, and, in subsequent years, a new

edition of the _Gulistan_, with a translation in prose and verse, also

an edition with vocabulary of the Hindi translation by Lallu Lal of

Chatur Chuj Misr's _Prem Sagar_, and translations of the _Bagh-o-Bahar_,

and of the _Anvar-i Suhaili_ of Bidpai. In 1851 he was elected a Fellow

of the Royal Society. In 1857-1858 he edited _The Autobiography of

Lutfullah_. He also edited for the Bible Society the Book of Genesis in

the Dakhani language. From 1860 to 1863 he was in Persia as secretary to

the British Legation, publishing on his return _The Journal of a

Diplomate_. In 1866 he became private secretary to the secretary of

state for India, Lord Cranborne (afterwards marquess of Salisbury), and

in 1867 went, as in 1864, on a government mission to Venezuela. On his

return he wrote, at the request of Charles Dickens, for _All the Year

Round_, "Sketches of Life in a South American Republic." From 1868 to

1874 he was M.P. for Penryn and Falmouth. In 1875 he received the degree

of M.A. with the franchise from the university of Oxford, "as a slight

recognition of distinguished services." At various times he wrote

several of Murray's Indian hand-books. His last work was the

_Kaisarnamah-i-Hind_ ("the lay of the empress"), in two volumes

(1878-1882). He died at Ventnor, Isle of Wight, on the 16th of July

1883.

EATON, DORMAN BRIDGMAN (1823-1899), American lawyer, was born at

Hardwick, Vermont, on the 27th of June 1823. He graduated at the

university of Vermont in 1848 and at the Harvard Law School in 1850, and

in the latter year was admitted to the bar in New York city. There he

became associated in practice with William Kent, the son of the great

chancellor, an edition of whose _Commentaries_ he assisted in editing.

Eaton early became interested in municipal and civil service reform. He

was conspicuous in the fight against Tweed and his followers, by one of

whom he was assaulted; he required a long period of rest, and went to

Europe, where he studied the workings of the civil service in various

countries. From 1873 to 1875 he was a member of the first United States

Civil Service Commission. In 1877, at the request of President Hayes, he

made a careful study of the British civil service, and three years later

published _Civil Service in Great Britain_. He drafted the Pendleton

Civil Service Act of 1883, and later became a member of the new

commission established by it. He resigned in 1885, but was almost

immediately reappointed by President Cleveland, and served until 1886,

editing the 3rd and 4th _Reports_ of the commission. He was an organizer

(1878) of the first society for the furtherance of civil service reform

in New York, of the National Civil Service Reform Association, and of

the National Conference of the Unitarian Church (1865). He died in New

York city on the 23rd of December 1899, leaving $100,000 each to Harvard

and Columbia universities for the establishments of professorships in

government. He was a legal writer and editor, and a frequent contributor

to the leading reviews. In addition to the works mentioned he published

_Should Judges be Elected?_ (1873), _The Independent Movement in New

York_ (1880), _Term and Tenure of Office_ (1882), _The Spoils System and

Civil Service Reform_ (1882), _Problems of Police Legislation_ (1895)

and _The Government of Municipalities_ (1899).

See the privately printed memorial volume, _Dorman B. Eaton_,

1823-1899 (New York, 1900).

EATON, MARGARET O'NEILL (1796-1879), better known as PEGGY O'NEILL, was

the daughter of the keeper of a popular Washington tavern, and was noted

for her beauty, wit and vivacity. About 1823, she married a purser in

the United States navy, John B. Timberlake, who committed suicide while

on service in the Mediterranean in 1828. In the following year she

married John Henry Eaton (1790-1856), a Tennessee politician, at the

time a member of the United States Senate. Senator Eaton was a close

personal friend of President Jackson, who in 1829 appointed him

secretary of war. This sudden elevation of Mrs Eaton into the cabinet

social circle was resented by the wives of several of Jackson's

secretaries, and charges were made against her of improper conduct with

Eaton previous to her marriage to him. The refusal of the wives of the

cabinet members to recognize the wife of his friend angered President

Jackson, and he tried in vain to coerce them. Eventually, and partly for

this reason, he almost completely reorganized his cabinet. The effect of

the incident on the political fortunes of the vice-president, John C.

Calhoun, whose wife was one of the recalcitrants, was perhaps most

important. Partly on this account, Jackson's favour was transferred from

Calhoun to Martin Van Buren, the secretary of state, who had taken

Jackson's side in the quarrel and had shown marked attention to Mrs

Eaton, and whose subsequent elevation to the vice-presidency and

presidency through Jackson's favour is no doubt partly attributable to

this incident. In 1836 Mrs Eaton accompanied her husband to Spain, where

he was United States minister in 1836-1840. After the death of her

husband she married a young Italian dancing-master, Antonio Buchignani,

but soon obtained a divorce from him. She died in Washington on the 8th

of November 1879.

See James Parton's _Life of Andrew Jackson_ (New York, 1860).

EATON, THEOPHILUS (c. 1590-1658), English colonial governor in America,

was born at Stony Stratford, Buckinghamshire, about 1590. He was

educated in Coventry, became a successful merchant, travelled widely

throughout Europe, and for several years was the financial agent of

Charles I. in Denmark. He subsequently settled in London, where he

joined the Puritan congregation of the Rev. John Davenport, whom he had

known since boyhood. The pressure upon the Puritans increasing, Eaton,

who had been one of the original patentees of the Massachusetts Bay

colony in 1629, determined to use his influence and fortune to establish

an independent colony of which his pastor should be the head. In 1637 he

emigrated with Davenport to Massachusetts, and in the following year

(March 1638) he and Davenport founded New Haven. In October 1639 a form

of government was adopted, based on the Mosaic Law, and Eaton was

elected governor, a post which he continued to hold by annual

re-election, first over New Haven alone, and after 1643 over the New

Haven Colony or Jurisdiction, until his death at New Haven on the 7th of

January 1658. His administration was embarrassed by constantly recurring

disputes with the neighbouring Dutch settlements, especially after

Stamford (Conn.) and Southold (Long Island) had entered the New Haven

Jurisdiction, but his prudence and diplomacy prevented an actual

outbreak of hostilities. He was prominent in the affairs of the New

England Confederation, of which he was one of the founders (1643). In

1655 he and Davenport drew up the code of laws, popularly known as the

"Connecticut Blue Laws," which were published in London in 1656 under

the title _New Haven's Settling in New England and some Lawes for

Government published for the Use of that Colony_.

A sketch of his life appears in Cotton Mather's _Magnalia_ (London,

1702); see also J.B. Moore's "Memoir of Theophilus Eaton" in the

_Collections_ of the New York Historical Society, second series, vol.

ii. (New York, 1849).

EATON, WILLIAM (1764-1811), American soldier, was born in Woodstock,

Connecticut, on the 23rd of February 1764. As a boy he served for a

short time in the Continental army. He was a school teacher for several

years, graduated at Dartmouth College in 1790, was clerk of the lower

house of the Vermont legislature in 1791-1792, and in 1792 re-entered

the army as a captain, later serving against the Indians in Ohio and

Georgia. In 1797 he was appointed consul to Tunis, where he arrived in

February 1799. In March 1799, with the consuls to Tripoli and Algiers,

he negotiated alterations in the treaty of 1797 with Tunis. He rendered

great service to Danish merchantmen by buying on credit several Danish

prizes in Tunis and turning them over to their original owners for the

redemption of his notes. In 1803 he quarrelled with the Bey, was ordered

from the country, and returned to the United States to urge American

intervention for the restoration of Ahmet Karamanli to the throne of

Tripoli, arguing that this would impress the Barbary States with the

power of the United States. In 1804 he returned to the Mediterranean as

United States naval agent to the Barbary States with Barron's fleet. On

the 23rd of February 1805 he agreed with Ahmet that the United States

should undertake to re-establish him in Tripoli, that the expenses of

the expedition should be repaid to the United States by Ahmet, and that

Eaton should be general and commander-in-chief of the land forces in

Ahmet's campaign; as the secretary of the navy had given the entire

matter into the hands of Commodore Barron, and as Barron and Tobias Lear

(1762-1816), the United States consul-general at Algiers and a

diplomatic agent to conduct negotiations, had been instructed to

consider the advisability of making arrangements with the existing

government in Tripoli, Eaton far exceeded his authority. On the 8th of

March he started for Derna across the Libyan desert from the Arab's

Tower, 40 m. W. of Alexandria, with a force of about 500 men, including

a few Americans, about 40 Greeks and some Arab cavalry. In the march of

nearly 600 m. the camel-drivers and the Arab chiefs repeatedly mutinied,

and Ahmet Pasha once put himself at the head of the Arabs and ordered

them to attack Eaton. Ahmet more than once wished to give up the

expedition. There were practically no provisions for the latter part of

the march. On the 27th of April with the assistance of three bombarding

cruisers Eaton captured Derna--an exploit commemorated by Whittier's

poem _Derne_. On the 13th of May and on the 10th of June he successfully

withstood the attacks of Tripolitan forces sent to dislodge him. On the

12th of June he abandoned the town upon orders from Commodore Rodgers,

for Lear had made peace (4th June) with Yussuf, the _de facto_ Pasha of

Tripoli. Eaton returned to the United States, and received a grant of

10,000 acres in Maine from the Massachusetts legislature. According to a

deposition which he made in January 1807 he was approached by Aaron Burr

(q.v.), who attempted to enlist him in his "conspiracy," and wished him

to win over the marine corps and to sound Preble and Decatur. As he

received from the government, soon after making this deposition, about

$10,000 to liquidate claims for his expense in Tripoli, which he had

long pressed in vain, his good faith has been doubted. At Burr's trial

at Richmond in 1807 Eaton was one of the witnesses, but his testimony

was unimportant. In May 1807 he was elected a member of the

Massachusetts House of Representatives, and served for one term. He died

on the 1st of June 1811 in Brimfield, Massachusetts.

See the anonymously published _Life of the Late Gen. William Eaton_

(Brookfield, Massachusetts, 1813) by Charles Prentiss; C.C. Felton,

"Life of William Eaton" in Sparks's _Library of American Biography_,

vol. ix. (Boston, 1838); and Gardner W. Allen's _Our Navy and the

Barbary Corsairs_ (Boston, 1905).

EATON, WYATT (1849-1896), American portrait and figure painter, was born

at Philipsburg, Canada, on the 6th of May 1849. He was a pupil of the

schools of the National Academy of Design, New York, and in 1872 went to

Paris, where he studied in the Ecole des Beaux-Arts under J.L. Gerome.

He made the acquaintance of J.F. Millet at Barbizon, and was also

influenced by his friend Jules Bastien-Lepage. After his return to the

United States in 1876 he became a teacher in Cooper Institute and opened

a studio in New York city. He was one of the organizers (and the first

secretary) of the Society of American Artists. Among his portraits are

those of William Cullen Bryant and Timothy Cole, the wood engraver ("The

Man with the Violin"). Eaton died at Newport, Rhode Island, on the 7th

of June 1896.

EAU CLAIRE, a city and the county-seat of Eau Claire county, Wisconsin,

U.S.A., on the Chippewa river, at the mouth of the Eau Claire, about 87

m. E. of St Paul. Pop. (1890) 17,415; (1900) 17,517, of whom 4996 were

foreign-born; (1910 census) 18,310. It is served by the Chicago &

North-Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, and the Wisconsin

Central railways, and is connected by an electric line with Chippewa

Falls (12 m. distant). The city has a Carnegie library with 17,200

volumes in 1908, a Federal building, county court house, normal school

and insane asylum. It has abundant water-power, and is an important

lumber manufacturing centre; among its other manufactures are flour,

wooden-ware, agricultural machinery, saw-mill machinery, logging

locomotives, wood pulp, paper, linen, mattresses, shoes and trunks. The

total value of factory products in 1905 was $3,601,558. The city is the

principal wholesale and jobbing market for the prosperous Chippewa

Valley. Eau Claire was first settled about 1847, and was chartered as a

city in 1872; its growth dates from the development of the north-western

lumber trade in the decade 1870-1880. In 1881 a serious strike

necessitated the calling out of state militia for its suppression and

the protection of property.

EAU DE COLOGNE (Ger. _Koelnisches Wasser_, "Cologne water"), a perfume,

so named from the city of Cologne, where its manufacture was first

established by an Italian, Johann (or Giovanni) Maria Farina

(1685-1766), who settled at Cologne in 1709. The perfume gained a high

reputation by 1766, and Farina associated himself with his nephew, to

whose grandson the secret was ultimately imparted; the original perfume

is still manufactured by members of this family under the name of the

founder. The manufacture is, however, carried on at Cologne, and also in

Italy, by other firms bearing the name Farina, and the scent has become

part of the regular output of perfumers. The discovery has also been

ascribed to a Paul de Feminis, who is supposed to have brought his

recipe from Milan to Cologne, of which he became a citizen in 1690, and

sold the perfume under the name _Eau admirable_, leaving the secret at

his death to his nephew Johann Maria Farina. Certain of the Farinas

claim to use his process. It was originally prepared by making an

alcoholic infusion of certain flowers, pot-herbs, drugs and spices,

distilling and then adding definite quantities of several vegetable

essences. The purity and thorough blending of the ingredients are of the

greatest importance. The original perfume is simulated and even excelled

by artificial preparations. The oils of lemon, bergamot and orange are

employed, together with the oils of neroli and rosemary in the better

class. The common practice consists in dissolving the oils, in certain

definite proportions based on experience, in pure alcohol and

distilling, the distillate being diluted by rose-water.

EAUX-BONNES, a watering-place of south-western France, in the department

of Basses-Pyrenees, 31/2 m. S.E. of the small town of Laruns, the latter

being 24 m. S. of Pau by rail. Pop. (1906) 610. Eaux-Bonnes is situated

at a height of 2460 ft. at the entrance of a fine gorge, overlooking the

confluence of two torrents, the Valentin and the Sourde. The village is

well known for its sulphurous and saline mineral waters (first mentioned

in the middle of the 14th century), which are beneficial in affections

of the throat and lungs. They vary between 50 deg. and 90 deg. F. in

temperature, and are used for drinking and bathing. There are two

thermal establishments, a casino and fine promenades.

The watering-place of LES EAUX-CHAUDES is 5 m. by road south-west of

Eaux-Bonnes, in a wild gorge on the Gave d'Ossau. The springs are

sulphurous, varying in temperature from 52 deg. to 97 deg. F., and are used in

cases of rheumatism, certain maladies of women, &c. The thermal

establishment is a handsome marble building.

There is fine mountain scenery in the neighbourhood of both places, the

Pic de Ger near Eaux-Bonnes, commanding an extensive view. The valley of

Ossau, one of the most beautiful in the Pyrenees, before the Revolution

formed a community which, though dependent on Bearn, had its own legal

organization, manners and costumes, the last of which are still to be

seen on holidays.

EAVES (not a plural form as is sometimes supposed, but singular; O. Eng.

_efes_, in Mid. High Ger. _obse_, Gothic _ubizwa_, a porch; connected

with "over"), in architecture, the projecting edge of a sloping roof,

which overhangs the face of the wall so as to throw off the water.

EAVESDRIP, or EAVESDROP, that width of ground around a house or building

which receives the rain water dropping from the eaves. By an ancient

Saxon law, a landowner was forbidden to erect any building at less than

2 ft. from the boundary of his land, and was thus prevented from

injuring his neighbour's house or property by the dripping of water from

his eaves. The law of Eavesdrip has had its equivalent in the Roman

_stillicidium_, which prohibited building up to the very edge of an

estate.

From the Saxon custom arose the term "eavesdropper," i.e. any one who

stands within "the eavesdrop" of a house, hence one who pries into

others' business or listens to secrets. At common law an eavesdropper

was regarded as a common nuisance, and was presentable at the court

leet, and indictable at the sheriff's tourn and punishable by fine and

finding sureties for good behaviour. Though the offence of eavesdropping

still exists at common law, there is no modern instance of a prosecution

or indictment.

EBBW VALE, an urban district in the western parliamentary division of

Monmouthshire, England, 21 m. N.W. of Newport on the Great Western,

London & North-Western and Rhymney railways. Pop. (1891) 17,312; (1901)

20,994. It lies near the head of the valley of the river Ebbw, at an

elevation of nearly 1000 ft., in a wild and mountainous mining district,

which contains large collieries and important iron and steel works.

EBEL, HERMANN WILHELM (1820-1875), German philologist, was born at

Berlin on the 10th of May 1820. He displayed in his early years a

remarkable capacity for the study of languages, and at the same time a

passionate fondness for music and poetry. At the age of sixteen he

became a student at the university of Berlin, applying himself

especially to philology, and attending the lectures of Boeckh. Music

continued to be the favourite occupation of his leisure hours, and he

pursued the study of it under the direction of Marx. In the spring of

1838 he passed to the university of Halle, and there began to apply

himself to comparative philology under Pott. Returning in the following

year to his native city, he continued this study as a disciple of Bopp.

He took his degree in 1842, and, after spending his year of probation at

the French Gymnasium of Berlin, he resumed with great earnestness his

language studies. About 1847 he began to study Old Persian. In 1852 he

accepted a professorship at the Beheim-Schwarzbach Institution at

Filehne, which post he held for six years. It was during this period

that his studies in the Old Slavic and Celtic languages began. In 1858

he removed to Schneidemuehl, and there he discharged the duties of first

professor for ten years. He was afterwards called to the chair of

comparative philology at the university of Berlin. He died at Misdroy on

the 19th of August 1875. The most important work of Dr Ebel in the field

of Celtic philology is his revised edition of the _Grammatica Celtica_

of Professor Zeuss, completed in 1871. This had been preceded by his

treatises--_De verbi Britannici futuro ac conjunctivo_ (1866), and _De

Zeussii curis positis in Grammatica Celtica_ (1869). He made many

learned contributions to Kuehn's _Zeitschrift fuer vergleichende

Sprachforschung_, and to A. Schleicher's _Beitraege zur vergleichenden

Sprachforschung_; and a selection of these contributions was translated

into English by Sullivan, and published under the title of _Celtic

Studies_ (1863). Ebel contributed the Old Irish section to Schleicher's

_Indogermanische Chrestomathie_ (1869). Among his other works must be

named _Die Lehnwoerter der deutschen Sprache_ (1856).

EBEL, JOHANN GOTTFRIED (1764-1830), the author of the first real

guide-book to Switzerland, was born at Zuellichau (Prussia). He became a

medical man, visited Switzerland for the first time in 1790, and became

so enamoured of it that he spent three years exploring the country and

collecting all kinds of information relating to it. The result was the

publication (Zuerich, 1793) of his _Anleitung auf die nuetzlichste und

genussvollste Art in der Schweitz zu reisen_ (2 vols.), in which he gave

a complete account of the country, the General Information sections

being followed by an alphabetically arranged list of places, with

descriptions. It at once superseded all other works of the kind, and was

the best Swiss guide-book till the appearance of "Murray" (1838). It was

particularly strong on the geological and historical sides. The second

(1804-1805) and third (1809-1810) editions filled four volumes, but the

following (the 8th appeared in 1843) were in a single volume. The work

was translated into French in 1795 (many later editions) and into

English (by 1818). Ebel also published a work (2 vols., Leipzig,

1798-1802) entitled _Schilderungen der Gebirgsvoelker der Schweiz_, which

deals mainly with the pastoral cantons of Glarus and Appenzell. In 1801

he was naturalized a Swiss citizen, and settled down in Zuerich. In 1808

he issued his chief geological work, _Ueber den Bau der Erde im

Alpengebirge_ (Zuerich, 2 vols.). He took an active share in promoting

all that could make his adopted country better known, e.g. Heinrich

Keller's map (1813), the building of a hotel on the Rigi (1816), and the

preparation of a panorama from that point (1823). From 1810 onwards he

lived at Zuerich, with the family of his friend, Conrad Escher von der

Linth (1767-1823), the celebrated engineer. (W. A. B. C.)

EBER, PAUL (1511-1569), German theologian, was born at Kitzingen in

Franconia, and was educated at Nuremberg and Wittenberg, where he became

the close friend of Philip Melanchthon. In 1541 he was appointed

professor of Latin grammar at Wittenberg, and in 1557 professor of the

Old Testament. His range of learning was wide, and he published a

handbook of Jewish history, a historical calendar intended to supersede

the Roman Saints' Calendar, and a revision of the Latin Old Testament.

In the theological conflict of the time he played a large part, doing

what he could to mediate between the extremists. From 1559 to the close

of his life he was superintendent-general of the electorate of Saxony.

He attained some fame as a hymn-writer, his best-known composition being

"Wenn wir in hoechsten Noethen sein." He died at Wittenberg on the 10th of

December 1569.

EBERBACH, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Baden, romantically

situated on the Neckar, at the foot of the Katzenbuckel, 19 m. E. of

Heidelberg by the railway to Wuerzburg. Pop. (1900) 5857. It contains an

Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, a commercial and a technical

school, and, in addition to manufacturing cigars, leather and cutlery,

carries on by water an active trade in timber and wine. Eberbach was

founded in 1227 by the German king Henry VII., who acquired the castle

(the ruins of which overhang the town) from the bishop of Worms. It

became an imperial town and passed later to the Palatinate.

See Wirth, _Geschichte der Stadt Eberbach_ (Stuttgart, 1864).

EBERBACH, a famous Cistercian monastery of Germany, in the Prussian

province of Hesse-Nassau, situated near Hattenheim in the Rheingau, 10

m. N.W. from Wiesbaden. Founded in 1116 by Archbishop Adalbert of Mainz,

as a house of Augustinian canons regular, it was bestowed by him in 1131

upon the Benedictines, but was shortly afterwards repurchased and

conferred upon the Cistercian order. The Romanesque church (consecrated

in 1186) contains numerous interesting monuments and tombs, notable

among them being those of the archbishop of Mainz, Gerlach (d. 1371)

and Adolph II. of Nassau (d. 1475). It was despoiled during the Thirty

Years' War, was secularized in 1803, and now serves as a house of

correction. Its cellars contain some of the finest vintages of the Rhine

wines of the locality.

See Baer, _Diplomatische Geschichte der Abtei Eberbach_ (Wiesb.,

1851-1858 and 1886, 3 vols.), and Schaefer, _Die Abtei Eberbach im

Mittelalter_ (Berlin, 1901).

EBERHARD, surnamed IM BART (_Barbatus_), count and afterwards duke of

Wuerttemberg (1445-1496), was the second son of Louis I., count of

Wuerttemberg-Urach (d. 1450), and succeeded his elder brother Louis II.

in 1457. His uncle Ulrich V., count of Wuerttemberg-Stuttgart (d. 1480),

acted as his guardian, but in 1459, assisted by Frederick I., elector

palatine, he threw off this restraint, and undertook the government of

the district of Urach as Count Eberhard V. He neglected his duties as a

ruler and lived a reckless life until 1468, when he made a pilgrimage to

Jerusalem. He visited Italy, became acquainted with some famous

scholars, and in 1474 married Barbara di Gonzaga, daughter of Lodovico

III., marquis of Mantua, a lady distinguished for her intellectual

qualities. In 1482 he brought about the treaty of Muensingen with his

cousin Eberhard VI., count of Wuerttemberg-Stuttgart. By this treaty the

districts of Urach and Stuttgart into which Wuerttemberg had been divided

in 1437 were again united, and for the future the county was declared

indivisible, and the right of primogeniture established. The treaty led

to some disturbances, but in 1492 the sanction of the nobles was secured

for its provisions. In return for this Eberhard agreed to some

limitations on the power of the count, and so in a sense founded the

constitution of Wuerttemberg. At the diet of Worms in 1495 the emperor

Maximilian I. guaranteed the treaty, confirmed the possessions and

prerogatives of the house of Wuerttemberg, and raised Eberhard to the

rank of duke. Eberhard, although a lover of peace, was one of the

founders of the Swabian League in 1488, and assisted to release

Maximilian, then king of the Romans, from his imprisonment at Bruges in

the same year. He gave charters to the towns of Stuttgart and Tuebingen,

and introduced order into the convents of his land, some of which he

secularized. He took a keen interest in the new learning, founded the

university of Tuebingen in 1476, befriended John Reuchlin, whom he made

his private secretary, welcomed scholars to his court, and is said to

have learned Latin in later life. In 1482 he again visited Italy and

received the Golden Rose from Pope Sixtus IV. He won the esteem of the

emperors Frederick III. and Maximilian I. on account of his wisdom and

fidelity, and his people held him in high regard. His later years were

mainly spent at Stuttgart, but he died at Tuebingen on the 25th of

February 1496, and in 1537 his ashes were placed in the choir of the

Stiftskirche there. Eberhard left no children, and the succession passed

to his cousin Eberhard, who became Duke Eberhard II.

See Roesslin, _Leben Eberhards im Barte_ (Tuebingen, 1793); Bossert,

_Eberhard im Bart_ (Stuttgart, 1884).

EBERHARD, CHRISTIAN AUGUST GOTTLOB (1769-1845), German miscellaneous

writer, was born at Belzig, near Wittenberg, on the 12th of January

1769. He studied theology at Leipzig; but, a story he contributed to a

periodical having proved successful, he devoted himself to literature.

With the exception of _Hannchen und die Kuechlein_ (1822), a narrative

poem in ten parts, and an epic on the Creation, _Der erste Mensch und

die Erde_ (1828), Eberhard's work was ephemeral in character and is now

forgotten. He died at Dresden on the 13th of May 1845.

His collected works (_Gesammelte Schriften_) appeared in 20 volumes in

1830-1831.

EBERHARD, JOHANN AUGUSTUS (1739-1809), German theologian and

philosopher, was born at Halberstadt in Lower Saxony, where his father

was singing-master at the church of St Martin's, and teacher of the

school of the same name. He studied theology at the university of Halle,

and became tutor to the eldest son of the baron von der Horst, to whose

family he attached himself for a number of years. In 1763 he was

appointed con-rector of the school of St Martin's, and second preacher

in the hospital church of the Holy Ghost; but he soon afterwards

resigned these offices and followed his patron to Berlin. There he met

Nicolai and Moses Mendelssohn, with whom he formed a close friendship.

In 1768 he became preacher or chaplain to the workhouse at Berlin and

the neighbouring fishing village of Stralow. Here he wrote his _Neue

Apologie des Socrates_ (1772), a work occasioned by an attack on the

fifteenth chapter of Marmontel's _Belisarius_ made by Peter Hofstede, a

clergyman of Rotterdam, who maintained the patristic view that the

virtues of the noblest pagans were only _splendida peccata_. Eberhard

stated the arguments for the broader view with dignity, acuteness and

learning, but the liberality of the reasoning gave great offence to the

strictly orthodox divines, and is believed to have obstructed his

preferment in the church.

In 1774 he was appointed to the living of Charlottenburg. A second

volume of his _Apologie_ appeared in 1778. In this he not only

endeavoured to obviate some objections which were taken to the former

part, but continued his inquiries into the doctrines of the Christian

religion, religious toleration and the proper rules for interpreting the

Scriptures. In 1778 he accepted the professorship of philosophy at

Halle. As an academical teacher, however, he was unsuccessful. His

powers as an original thinker were not equal to his learning and his

literary gifts, as was shown in his opposition to the philosophy of

Kant. In 1786 he was admitted a member of the Berlin Academy of

Sciences; in 1805 the king of Prussia conferred upon him the honorary

title of a privy-councillor. In 1808 he obtained the degree of doctor in

divinity, which was given him as a reward for his theological writings.

He died on the 6th of January 1809. He was master of the learned

languages, spoke and wrote French with facility and correctness, and

understood English, Italian and Dutch. He possessed a just and

discriminating taste for the fine arts, and was a great lover of music.

Works:--_Neue Apologie des Socrates_, &c. (2 vols., 1772-1778);

_Allgemeine Theorie des Denkens und Empfindens_, &c. (Berlin, 1776),

an essay which gained the prize assigned by the Royal Society of

Berlin for that year; _Von dem Begriff der Philosophie und ihren

Theilen_ (Berlin, 1778)--a short essay, in which he announced the plan

of his lectures on being appointed to the professorship at Halle;

_Lobschrift auf Herrn Johann Thunmann Prof. der Weltweisheit und

Beredsamkeit auf der Universitaet zu Halle_ (Halle, 1779); _Amyntor,

eine Geschichte in Briefen_ (Berlin, 1782)--written with the view of

counteracting the influence of those sceptical and Epicurean

principles in religion and morals then so prevalent in France, and

rapidly spreading amongst the higher ranks in Germany; _Ueber die

Zeichen der Aufklaerung einer Nation_, &c. (Halle, 1783); _Theorie der

schoenen Kuenste und Wissenschaften_, &c. (Halle, 1783, 3rd ed. 1790);

_Vermischte Schriften_ (Halle, 1784); _Neue vermischte Schriften_ (ib.

1786); _Allgemeine Geschichte der Philosophie_, &c. (Halle, 1788), 2nd

ed. with a continuation and chronological tables (1796); _Versuch

einer allgemeinen-deutschen Synonymik_ (Halle and Leipzig, 1795-1802,

6 vols., 4th ed. 1852-1853), long reckoned the best work on the

synonyms of the German language (an abridgment of it was published by

the author in one large volume, Halle, 1802); _Handbuch der Aesthetik_

(Halle, 1803-1805, 2nd ed. 1807-1820). He also edited the

_Philosophisches Magazin_ (1788-1792) and the _Philosophisches Archiv_

(1792-1795).

See F. Nicolai, _Gedaechtnisschrift auf J.A. Eberhard_ (Berlin and

Stettin, 1810); also K.H. Joerdens, _Lexicon deutscher Dichter und

Prosaisten_.

EBERLIN, JOHANN ERNST (1702-1762), German musician and composer, was

born in Bavaria, and became afterwards organist in the cathedral at

Salzburg, where he died. Most of his compositions were for the church

(oratorios, &c.), but he also wrote some important fugues, sonatas and

preludes; and his pieces were at one time highly valued by Mozart.

EBERS, GEORG MORITZ (1837-1898), German Egyptologist and novelist, was

born in Berlin on the 1st of March 1837. At Goettingen he studied

jurisprudence, and at Berlin oriental languages and archaeology. Having

made a special study of Egyptology, he became in 1865 _docent_ in

Egyptian language and antiquities at Jena, and in 1870 he was appointed

professor in these subjects at Leipzig. He had made two scientific

journeys to Egypt, and his first work of importance, _Aegypten und die

Buecher Moses_, appeared in 1867-1868. In 1874 he edited the celebrated

medical papyrus ("Papyrus Ebers") which he had discovered in Thebes

(translation by H. Joachim, 1890). Ebers early conceived the idea of

popularizing Egyptian lore by means of historical romances. _Eine

aegyptische Koenigstochter_ was published in 1864, and obtained great

success. His subsequent works of the same kind--_Uarda_ (1877), _Homo

sum_ (1878), _Die Schwestern_ (1880), _Der Kaiser_ (1881), of which the

scene is laid in Egypt at the time of Hadrian, _Serapis_ (1885), _Die

Nilbraut_ (1887), and _Kleopatra_ (1894), were also well received, and

did much to make the public familiar with the discoveries of

Egyptologists. Ebers also turned his attention to other fields of

historical fiction--especially the 16th century (_Die Frau

Buergermeisterin_, 1882; _Die Gred_, 1887)--without, however, attaining

the success of his Egyptian novels. Apart from their antiquarian and

historical interest, Ebers's books have not a very high literary value.

His other writings include a descriptive work on Egypt (_Aegypten in Wort

und Bild_, 2nd ed., 1880), a guide to Egypt (1886) and a life (1885) of

his old teacher, the Egyptologist Karl Richard Lepsius. The state of his

health led him in 1889 to retire from his chair at Leipzig on a pension.

He died at Tutzing in Bavaria, on the 7th of August 1898.

Ebers's _Gesammelte Werke_ appeared in 25 vols. at Stuttgart

(1893-1895). Many of his books have been translated into English. For

his life see his _Die Geschichte meines Lebens_ (Stuttgart, 1893);

also R. Gosche, _G. Ebers, der Forscher und Dichter_ (2nd ed.,

Leipzig, 1887).

EBERSWALDE, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, 28 m. N.E. of

Berlin by rail; on the Finow canal. Pop. (1905) 23,876. The town has a

Roman Catholic and two Evangelical churches, a school of forestry, a

gymnasium, a higher-grade girls' school and two schools of domestic

economy. It possesses a mineral spring, which attracts numerous summer

visitors, and has various industries, which include iron-founding and

the making of horse-shoe nails, roofing material and bricks. A

considerable trade is carried on in grain, wood and coals. In the

immediate neighbourhood are one of the chief brass-foundries in Germany

and an extensive government paper-mill, in which the paper for the notes

of the imperial bank is manufactured.

Eberswalde received its municipal charter in 1257. It was taken and

sacked during the Thirty Years' War. In 1747 Frederick the Great brought

a colony of Thuringian cutlers to the town, but this branch of industry

has entirely died out. About 4 m. to the north lies the old Cistercian

monastery of Chorin, the fine Gothic church of which contains the tombs

of several margraves of Brandenburg.

EBERT, FRIEDRICH ADOLF (1791-1834), German bibliographer, was born at

Taucha, near Leipzig, on the 9th of July 1791, the son of a Lutheran

pastor. At the age of fifteen he was appointed to a subordinate post in

the municipal library of Leipzig. He studied theology for a short time

at Leipzig, and afterwards philology at Wittenberg, where he graduated

doctor in philosophy in 1812. While still a student he had already

published, in 1811, a work on public libraries, and in 1812 another work

entitled _Hierarchiae in religionem ac literas commoda_. In 1813 he was

attached to the Leipzig University library, and in 1814 was appointed

secretary to the Royal library of Dresden. The same year he published

_F. Taubmanns Leben und Verdienste_, and in 1819 _Torquato Tasso_, a

translation from Pierre Louis Ginguene with annotations. The rich

resources open to him in the Dresden library enabled him to undertake

the work on which his reputation chiefly rests, the _Allgemeines

bibliographisches Lexikon_, the first volume of which appeared in 1821

and the second in 1830. This was the first work of the kind produced in

Germany, and the most scientific published anywhere. From 1823 to 1825

Ebert was librarian to the duke of Brunswick at Wolfenbuettel, but

returning to Dresden was made, in 1827, chief librarian of the Dresden

Royal library. Among his other works are--_Die Bildung des

Bibliothekars_ (1820), _Geschichte und Beschreibung der koeniglichen

oeffentlichen Bibliothek in Dresden_ (1822), _Zur Handschriftenkunde_

(1825-1827), and _Culturperioden des obersaechsischen Mittelalters_

(1825). Ebert was a contributor to various journals and took part in the

editing of Ersch and Gruber's great encyclopaedia. He died at Dresden on

the 13th of November 1834, in consequence of a fall from the ladder in

his library.

See the article in _Ersch und Grubers Encyclopaedie_, and that in the

_Allg. deutsche Biog._ by his successor in the post of chief librarian

in Dresden, Schnorr von Carolsfeld.

EBINGEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wuerttemberg, on the

Schmiecha, a left-hand tributary of the Danube, 22 m. S. of Tuebingen and

37 m. W. of Ulm by rail. It manufactures velvet and cotton-velvet

("Manchester") goods, stockings, stays, hats, needles, tools, &c. There

are also tanneries. Pop. 9000.

EBIONITES (Heb. [Hebrew: ebyonim], "poor men"), a name given to the

ultra-Jewish party in the early Christian church. It is first met with

in Irenaeus (_Adv. Haer._ i. 26. 2), who sheds no light on the origin of

the Ebionites, but says that while they admit the world to have been

made by the true God (in contrast to the Demiurge of the Gnostics), they

held Cerinthian views on the person of Christ, used only the Gospel of

Matthew (probably the Gospel according to the Hebrews--so Eusebius), and

rejected Paul as an apostate from the Mosaic Law, to the customs and

ordinances of which, including circumcision, they steadily adhered. A

similar account is given by Hippolytus (_Haer._ vii. 35), who invents a

founder named Ebion. Origen (_Contra Celsum_, v. 61; _In Matt._ tom.

xvi. 12) divides the Ebionites into two classes according to their

acceptance or rejection of the virgin birth of Jesus, but says that all

alike reject the Pauline epistles. This is confirmed by Eusebius, who

adds that even those who admitted the virgin birth did not accept the

pre-existence of Jesus as Logos and Sophia. They kept both the Jewish

Sabbath and the Christian Lord's day, and held extreme millenarian ideas

in which Jerusalem figured as the centre of the coming Messianic

kingdom. Epiphanius with his customary confusion makes two separate

sects, Ebionites and Nazarenes. Both names, however, refer to the same

people[1] (the Jewish Christians of Syria), the latter going back to the

designation of apostolic times (Acts xxiv. 5), and the former being the

term usually applied to them in the ecclesiastical literature of the 2nd

and 3rd centuries.

The origin of the Nazarenes or Ebionites as a distinct sect is very

obscure, but may be dated with much likelihood from the edict of Hadrian

which in 135 finally scattered the old church of Jerusalem. While

Christians of the type of Aristo of Pella and Hegesippus, on the

snapping of the old ties, were gradually assimilated to the great church

outside, the more conservative section became more and more isolated and

exclusive. "It may have been then that they called themselves the Poor

Men, probably as claiming to be the true representatives of those who

had been blessed in the Sermon on the Mount, but possibly adding to the

name other associations." Out of touch with the main stream of the

church they developed a new kind of pharisaism. Doctrinally they stood

not so much for a theology as for a refusal of theology, and, rejecting

the practical liberalism of Paul, became the natural heirs of those

early Judaizers who had caused the apostle so much annoyance and

trouble.

Though there is insufficient justification for dividing the Ebionites

into two separate and distinct communities, labelled respectively

Ebionites and Nazarenes, we have good evidence, not only that there were

grades of Christological thought among them, but that a considerable

section, at the end of the 2nd century and the beginning of the 3rd,

exchanged their simple Judaistic creed for a strange blend of Essenism

and Christianity. These are known as the Helxaites or Elchasaites, for

they accepted as a revelation the "book of Elchasai," and one Alcibiades

of Apamea undertook a mission to Rome about 220 to propagate its

teaching. It was claimed that Christ, as an angel 96 miles high,

accompanied by the Holy Spirit, as a female angel of the same stature,

had given the revelation to Elchasai in the 3rd year of Trajan (A.D.

100), but the book was probably quite new in Alcibiades' time. It taught

that Christ was an angel born of human parents, and had appeared both

before (e.g. in Adam and Moses) and after this birth in Judea. His

coming did not annul the Law, for he was merely a prophet and teacher;

Paul was wrong and circumcision still necessary. Baptism must be

repeated as a means of purification from sin, and proof against disease;

the sinner immerses himself "in the name of the mighty and most high

God," invoking the "seven witnesses" (sky, water, the holy spirits, the

angels of prayer, oil, salt and earth), and pledging himself to

amendment. Abstinence from flesh was also enjoined, and a good deal of

astrological fancy was interwoven with the doctrinal and practical

teaching. It is highly probable, too, that from these Essene Ebionites

there issued the fantastical and widely read "Clementine" literature

(_Homilies_ and _Recognitions_) of the 3rd century. Ebionite views

lingered especially in the country east of the Jordan until they were

absorbed by Islam in the 7th century.

In addition to the literature cited see R.C. Ottley, _The Doctrine of

the Incarnation_, part iii. Sec. ii.; W. Moeller, _Hist. of the Christian

Church_, i. 99; art. in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopaedie_, s.v.

"Ebioniten"; also CLEMENTINE LITERATURE.