[1] This aspect of the matter--"buccal digestion"--has been specially
emphasized in recent years by Horace Fletcher of the United States,
whose experience of the results of systematic "chewing," confirmed by
Sir M. Foster, Prof. Chittenden and others, has almost revolutionized
the science of dietetics.
DYSTELEOLOGY, a modern word invented by Haeckel (_Evolution of Man_) for
the doctrine of purposelessness, as opposed to the philosophical
doctrine of design (Teleology).
DZUNGARIA, DSONGARIA, or JUNGARIA, a former Mongolian kingdom of Central
Asia, raised to its highest pitch by Kaldan or Bushtu Khan in the latter
half of the 17th century, but completely destroyed by Chinese invasion
about 1757-1759. It has played an important part in the history of
Mongolia and the great migrations of Mongolian stems westward. Now its
territory belongs partly to the Chinese empire (east Turkestan and
north-western Mongolia) and partly to Russian Turkestan (provinces of
Semiryechensk and Semipalatinsk). It derived its name from the Dsongars,
or Songars, who were so called because they formed the left wing
(_dson_, left; _gar_, hand) of the Mongolian army. Its widest limit
included Kashgar, Yarkand, Khotan, the whole region of the T'ien Shan,
or Tian-shan, Mountains, and in short the greater proportion of that
part of Central Asia which extends from 35 deg. to 50 deg. N. and from 72 deg. to
97 deg. E. The name, however, is more properly applied only to the present
Chinese province of T'ien Shan-pei-lu and the country watered by the
Ili. As a political or geographical term it has practically disappeared
from the map; but the range of mountains stretching north-east along the
southern frontier of the Land of the Seven Streams, as the district to
the south-east of the Balkhash Lake is called, preserves the name of
Dzungarian Range.
E The fifth symbol in the English alphabet occupies also the same
position in Phoenician and in the other alphabets descended from
Phoenician. As the Semitic alphabet did not represent vowels, E was
originally an aspirate. Its earliest form, while writing is still from
right to left, is [symbol], the upright being continued some distance
below the lowest of the cross-strokes. In some of the Greek alphabets it
appears as [symbol] with the upright prolonged at both top and bottom,
but it soon took the form with which we are familiar, though in the
earlier examples of this form the cross-strokes are not horizontal but
drop at an angle, [symbol]. In Corinth and places under its early
influence like Megara, or colonized from it like Corcyra, the symbol for
_e_ takes the form [symbol] or [symbol], while at Sicyon in the 6th and
5th centuries B.C. it is represented by [symbol]. In early Latin it was
sometimes represented by two perpendicular strokes of equal length,
[symbol].
In the earliest Greek inscriptions and always in Latin the symbol E
represented both the short and the long _e_-sound. In Greek also it was
often used for the close long sound which arose either by contraction of
two short _e_-sounds or by the loss of a consonant, after a short
_e_-sound, as in [Greek: phileite], "you love," for [Greek: phileete],
and [Greek: phaeinos], "bright," out of an earlier [Greek: phaesnos].
The Ionian Greeks of Asia Minor, who had altogether lost the aspirate,
were the first to use the symbol H for the long _e_-sound, and in
official documents at Athens down to 403 B.C., when the Greek alphabet
as still known was adopted by the state, E represented [epsilon], [eta]
and the sound arising by contraction or consonant loss as mentioned
above which henceforth was written with two symbols, [Greek: ei], and
being really a single sound is known as the "spurious diphthong." There
were some minor distinctions in usage of the symbols E and H which need
not here be given in detail. The ancient Greek name was [Greek: ei], not
_Epsilon_ as popularly supposed; the names of the Greek letters are
given from Kallias, an earlier contemporary of Euripides, in Athenaeus
x. p. 453 d.
In Greek the short _e_-sound to which E was ultimately limited was a
close sound inclining more towards _i_ than _a_; hence the
representation of the contraction of [Greek: ee] by [Greek: ei]. Its
value in Latin was exactly the opposite, the Latin short _e_ being open,
and the long close. In English there has been a gradual narrowing of the
long vowels, _a_ becoming approximately _ei_ and _e_ becoming _i_
(Sweet, _History of English Sounds_, Sec.Sec. 781, 817 ff. 2nd ed.). In
languages where the diphthong _ai_ has become a monophthong, the
resulting sound is some variety of long _e_. Often the gradual
assimilation can be traced through the intermediate stage of _ae_ to
_e_, as in the Old Latin _aidilis_, which in classical Latin is
_aedilis_, and in medieval MSS. _edilis_.
The variety of spelling in English for the long and short _e_-sounds is
conveniently illustrated in Miss Soames's _Introduction to the Study of
Phonetics_, pp. 16 and 20. (P. Gi.)
EA (written by means of two signs signifying "house" and "water"), in
the Babylonian religion, originally the patron deity of Eridu, situated
in ancient times at the head of the Persian Gulf, but now, by reason of
the constant accumulation of soil in the Euphrates valley, at some
distance from the gulf. Eridu, meaning "the good city," was one of the
oldest settlements in the Euphrates valley, and is now represented by
the mounds known as Abu Shahrein. In the absence of excavations on that
site, we are dependent for our knowledge of Ea on material found
elsewhere. This is, however, sufficient to enable us to state definitely
that Ea was a water-deity, and there is every reason to believe that the
Persian Gulf was the body of water more particularly sacred to him.
Whether Ea (or A-e as some scholars prefer) represents the real
pronunciation of his name we do not know. All attempts to connect Ea
with Yah and Yahweh are idle conjectures without any substantial basis.
He is figured as a man covered with the body of a fish, and this
representation, as likewise the name of his temple E-apsu, "house of
the watery deep," points decidedly to his character as a god of the
waters (see OANNES). Of his cult at Eridu, which reverts to the oldest
period of Babylonian history, nothing definite is known beyond the fact
that the name of his temple was E-saggila, "the lofty house"--pointing
to a staged tower as in the case of the temple of Bel (q.v.) at Nippur,
known as E-Kur, i.e. "mountain house"--and that incantations, involving
ceremonial rites, in which water as a sacred element played a prominent
part, formed a feature of his worship. Whether Eridu at one time also
played an important political role is not certain, though not
improbable. At all events, the prominence of the Ea cult led, as in the
case of Nippur, to the survival of Eridu as a sacred city, long after it
had ceased to have any significance as a political centre. Myths in
which Ea figures prominently have been found in Assur-bani-pal's
library, indicating that Ea was regarded as the protector and teacher of
mankind. He is essentially a god of civilization, and it was natural
that he was also looked upon as the creator of man, and of the world in
general. Traces of this view appear in the Marduk epic celebrating the
achievements of this god, and the close connexion between the Ea cult at
Eridu and that of Marduk also follows from two considerations: (1) that
the name of Marduk's sanctuary at Babylon bears the same name,
E-saggila, as that of Ea in Eridu, and (2) that Marduk is generally
termed the son of Ea, who derives his powers from the voluntary
abdication of the father in favour of his son. Accordingly, the
incantations originally composed for the Ea cult were re-edited by the
priests of Babylon and adapted to the worship of Marduk, and, similarly,
the hymns to Marduk betray traces of the transfer of attributes to
Marduk which originally belonged to Ea.
It is, however, more particularly as the third figure in the triad, the
two other members of which were Anu (q.v.) and Bel (q.v.), that Ea
acquires his permanent place in the pantheon. To him was assigned the
control of the watery element, and in this capacity he becomes the _shar
apsi_, i.e. king of the Apsu or "the deep." The Apsu was figured as an
ocean encircling the earth, and since the gathering place of the dead,
known as Aralu, was situated near the confines of the Apsu, he was also
designated as En-Ki, i.e. "lord of that which is below," in contrast to
Anu, who was the lord of the "above" or the heavens. The cult of Ea
extended throughout Babylonia and Assyria. We find temples and shrines
erected in his honour, e.g. at Nippur, Girsu, Ur, Babylon, Sippar and
Nineveh, and the numerous epithets given to him, as well as the various
forms under which the god appears, alike bear witness to the popularity
which he enjoyed from the earliest to the latest period of
Babylonian-Assyrian history. The consort of Ea, known as Damkina, "lady
of that which is below," or Nin-Ki, having the same meaning, or
Damgal-nunna, "great lady of the waters," represents a pale reflection
of Ea and plays a part merely in association with her lord. (M. Ja.)
EABANI, the name of the friend of Gilgamesh, the hero in the Babylonian
epic (see GILGAMESH, EPIC OF). Eabani, whose name signifies "Ea
creates," pointing to the tradition which made the god Ea (q.v.) the
creator of mankind, is represented in the epic as the type of the
primeval man. He is a wild man who lives with the animals of the field
until lured away from his surroundings by the charms of a woman. Created
to become a rival to Gilgamesh, he strikes up a friendship with the
hero, and together they proceed to a cedar forest guarded by Khumbaba,
whom they kill. The goddess Irnina (a form of Ishtar, q.v.) in revenge
kills Eabani, and the balance of the epic is taken up with Gilgamesh's
lament for his friend, his wanderings in quest of a remote ancestor,
Ut-Napishtim, from whom he hopes to learn how he may escape the fate of
Eabani, and his finally learning from his friend of the sad fate in
store for all mortals except the favourites of the god, like
Ut-Napishtim, to whom immortal life is vouchsafed as a special boon.
(M. Ja.)
EACHARD, JOHN (1636?-1697), English divine, was born in Suffolk, and was
educated at Catharine Hall, Cambridge, of which he became master in 1675
in succession to John Lightfoot. He was created D.D. in 1676 by royal
mandate, and was twice (in 1679 and 1695) vice-chancellor of the
university. He died on the 7th of July 1697. In 1670 he had published
anonymously a humorous satire entitled _The Ground and Occasions of the
Contempt of the Clergy enquired into in a letter to R. L._, which
excited much attention and provoked several replies, one of them being
from John Owen. These were met by _Some Observations, &c., in a second
letter to R. L._ (1671), written in the same bantering tone as the
original work. Eachard attributed the contempt into which the clergy had
fallen to their imperfect education, their insufficient incomes, and the
want of a true vocation. His descriptions, which were somewhat
exaggerated, were largely used by Macaulay in his _History of England_.
He gave amusing illustrations of the absurdity and poverty of the
current pulpit oratory of his day, some of them being taken from the
sermons of his own father. He attacked the philosophy of Hobbes in his
_Mr Hobb's State of Nature considered; in a dialogue between Philautus
and Timothy_ (1672), and in his _Some Opinions of Mr Hobbs considered in
a second dialogue_ (1673). These were written in their author's chosen
vein of light satire, and Dryden praised them as highly effective within
their own range. Eachard's own sermons, however, were not superior to
those he satirized. Swift (_Works_, xii. 279) alludes to him as a signal
instance of a successful humorist who entirely failed as a serious
writer.
A collected edition of his works in three volumes, with a notice of
his life, was published in 1774. The _Contempt of the Clergy_ was
reprinted in E. Arber's _English Garner_. _A Free Enquiry into the
Causes of the very great Esteem that the Nonconforming Preachers are
generally in with their Followers_ (1673) has been attributed to
Eachard on insufficient grounds.
EADBALD (d. 640), king of Kent, succeeded to the throne on the death of
his father AEthelberht in 616. He had not been influenced by the teaching
of the Christian missionaries, and his first step on his accession was
to marry his father's widow. After his subsequent conversion by
Laurentius, archbishop of Canterbury, he recalled the bishops Mellitus
and Justus, and built a church dedicated to the Virgin at Canterbury. He
arranged a marriage between his sister AEthelberg and Edwin of
Northumbria, on whose defeat and death in 633 he received his sister and
Paulinus, and offered the latter the bishopric of Rochester. Eadbald
married Emma, a Frankish princess, and died on the 20th of January 640.
See Bede, _Historia ecclesiastica_ (ed. C. Plummer, Oxford, 1896);
_Saxon Chronicle_ (ed. J. Earle and C. Plummer, Oxford, 1899).
EADIE, JOHN (1810-1876), Scottish theologian and biblical critic, was
born at Alva, in Stirlingshire, on the 9th of May 1810. Having taken the
arts curriculum at Glasgow University, he studied for the ministry at
the Divinity Hall of the Secession Church, a dissenting body which, on
its union a few years later with the Relief Church, adopted the title
United Presbyterian. In 1835 he became minister of the Cambridge Street
Secession church in Glasgow, and for many years he was generally
regarded as the leading representative of his denomination in Glasgow.
As a preacher, though he was not eloquent, he was distinguished by good
sense, earnestness and breadth of sympathy. In 1863 he removed with a
portion of his congregation to a new church at Lansdowne Crescent. In
1843 Eadie was appointed professor of biblical literature and
hermeneutics in the Divinity Hall of the United Presbyterian body. He
held this appointment along with his ministerial charge till the close
of his life. Though not a profound scholar, he was surpassed by few
biblical commentators of his day in range of learning, and in soundness
of judgment. In the professor's chair, as in the pulpit, his strength
lay in the tact with which he selected the soundest results of biblical
criticism, whether his own or that of others, and presented them in a
clear and connected form, with a constant view to their practical
bearing. He received the degree of LL.D. from Glasgow in 1844, and that
of D.D. from St Andrews in 1850.
His publications were connected with biblical criticism and
interpretation, some of them being for popular use and others more
strictly scientific. To the former class belong the _Biblical
Cyclopaedia_, his edition of _Cruden's Concordance_, his _Early Oriental
History_, and his discourses on the _Divine Love_ and on _Paul the
Preacher_; to the latter his commentaries on the Greek text of St Paul's
epistles to the Ephesians, Colossians, Philippians and Galatians,
published at intervals in four volumes. His last work was the _History
of the English Bible_ (2 vols., 1876). He rendered good service as one
of the revisers of the authorized version. He died at Glasgow on the 3rd
of June 1876. His valuable library was bought and presented to the
United Presbyterian College.
EADMER, or EDMER (c. 1060-c. 1124), English historian and ecclesiastic,
was probably, as his name suggests, of English, and not of Norman
parentage. He became a monk in the Benedictine monastery of Christ
Church, Canterbury, where he made the acquaintance of Anselm, at that
time visiting England as abbot of Bec. The intimacy was renewed when
Anselm became archbishop of Canterbury in 1093; thenceforward Eadmer was
not only his disciple and follower, but his friend and director, being
formally appointed to this position by Pope Urban II. In 1120 he was
nominated to the archbishopric of St Andrews, but as the Scots would not
recognize the authority of the see of Canterbury he was never
consecrated, and soon afterwards he resigned his claim to the
archbishopric. His death is generally assigned to the year 1124.
Eadmer left a large number of writings, the most important of which is
his _Historiae novorum_, a work which deals mainly with the history of
England between 1066 and 1122. Although concerned principally with
ecclesiastical affairs scholars agree in regarding the _Historiae_ as
one of the ablest and most valuable writings of its kind. It was first
edited by John Selden in 1623 and, with Eadmer's _Vita Anselmi_, has
been edited by Martin Rule for the "Rolls Series" (London, 1884). The
_Vita Anselmi_, first printed at Antwerp in 1551, is probably the best
life of the saint. Less noteworthy are Eadmer's lives of St Dunstan, St
Bregwin, archbishop of Canterbury, and St Oswald, archbishop of York;
these are all printed in Henry Wharton's _Anglia Sacra_, part ii.
(1691), where a list of Eadmer's writings will be found. The manuscripts
of most of Eadmer's works are preserved in the library of Corpus Christi
College, Cambridge.
See M. Rule, _On Eadmer's Elaboration of the first four Books of
"Historiae novorum"_ (1886); and Pere Ragey, _Eadmer_ (Paris, 1892).
EADS, JAMES BUCHANAN (1820-1887), American engineer, was born at
Lawrenceburg, Indiana, on the 23rd of May 1820. His first engineering
work of any importance was in raising sunken steamers. In 1845 he
established glass works in St Louis. During the Civil War he constructed
ironclad steamers and mortar boats for the Federal government. His next
important engineering achievement was the construction of the great
steel arch bridge across the Mississippi at St Louis (see BRIDGE, fig.
29), upon which he was engaged from 1867 till 1874. The work, however,
upon which his reputation principally rests was his deepening and fixing
the channel at the mouths of the Mississippi by means of jetties,
whereby the narrowed stream was made to scour out its own channel and
carry the sediment out to sea. Shortly before his death he projected a
scheme for a ship railway across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, in lieu of
an isthmian canal. He died at Nassau, in the Bahamas, on the 8th of
March 1887.
EAGLE (Fr. _aigle_, from the Lat. _aquila_), the name generally given to
the larger diurnal birds of prey which are not vultures; but the limits
of the subfamily _Aquilinae_ have been very variously assigned by
different writers on systematic ornithology, and there are eagles
smaller than certain buzzards. By some authorities the _Laemmergeier_ of
the Alps, and other high mountains of Europe, North Africa and Asia, is
accounted an eagle, but by others the genus _Gypaetus_ is placed with
the _Vulturidae_ as its common English name (bearded vulture)
shows. There are also other forms, such as the South American _Harpyia_
and its allies, which though generally called eagles have been ranked as
buzzards. In the absence of any truly scientific definition of the
family _Aquilinae_ it is best to leave these and many other more or less
questionable members of the group--such as the genera _Spizaetus_,
_Circaetus_, _Spilornis_, _Helotarsus_, and so forth--and to treat here
of those whose position cannot be gainsaid.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Sea-Eagle.]
True eagles inhabit all the regions of the world, and some seven or
eight species at least are found in Europe, of which two are resident in
the British Islands. In England and in the Lowlands of Scotland eagles
only exist as stragglers; but in the Hebrides and some parts of the
Highlands a good many may yet be found, and their numbers appear to have
rather increased of late years than diminished; for the foresters and
shepherds, finding that a high price can be got for their eggs, take
care to protect the owners of the eyries, which are nearly all well
known, and to keep up the stock by allowing them at times to rear their
young. There are also now not a few occupiers of Scottish forests who
interfere so far as they can to protect the king of birds.[1] In Ireland
the extirpation of eagles seems to have been carried on almost
unaffected by the prudent considerations which in the northern kingdom
have operated so favourably for the race, and except in the wildest
parts of Donegal, Mayo and Kerry, eagles in the sister island are almost
birds of the past.
Of the two British species the erne (Icel. _Oern_) or sea-eagle (by some
called also the white-tailed and cinereous eagle)--_Haliaetus
albicilla_--affects chiefly the coast and neighbourhood of inland
waters, living in great part on the fish and refuse that is thrown up on
the shore, though it not unfrequently takes living prey, such as lambs,
hares and rabbits. On these last, indeed, young examples mostly feed
when they wander southward in autumn, as they yearly do, and appear in
England. The adults (fig. 1) are distinguished by their prevalent
greyish-brown colour, their pale head, yellow beak and white
tail--characters, however, wanting in the immature, which do not assume
the perfect plumage for some three or four years. The eyry is commonly
placed in a high cliff or on an island in a lake--sometimes on the
ground, at others in a tree--and consists of a vast mass of sticks in
the midst of which is formed a hollow lined with _Luzula sylvatica_ (as
first observed by John Wolley) or some similar grass, and here are laid
the two or three white eggs. In former days the sea-eagle seems to have
bred in several parts of England--as the Lake district, and possibly
even in the Isle of Wight and on Dartmoor. This species inhabits all the
northern part of the Old World from Iceland to Kamchatka, and breeds in
Europe so far to the southward as Albania. In the New World, however, it
is only found in Greenland, being elsewhere replaced by the white-headed
or bald eagle, _H. leucocephalus_, a bird of similar habits, and the
chosen emblem of the United States of America. In the far east of Asia
occurs a still larger and finer sea-eagle, _H. pelagicus_, remarkable
for its white thighs and upper wing-coverts. South-eastern Europe and
India furnish a much smaller species, _H. leucoryphus_, which has its
representative, _H. leucogaster_, in the Malay Archipelago and
Australia, and, as allies in South Africa and Madagascar, _H. vocifer_
and _H. vociferoides_ respectively. All these eagles may be
distinguished by their scaly tarsi, while the group next to be treated
of have the tarsi feathered to the toes.
[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Mountain-Eagle.]
The golden or mountain eagle, _Aquila chrysaetus_, is the second British
species. This also formerly inhabited England, and a nest, found in 1668
in the Peak of Derbyshire, is well described by Willughby, in whose time
it was said to breed also in the Snowdon range. It seldom if ever
frequents the coast, and is more active on the wing than the sea-eagle,
being able to take some birds as they fly, but a large part of its
sustenance is the flesh of animals that die a natural death. Its eyry is
generally placed and built like that of the other British species,[2]
but the neighbourhood of water is not requisite. The eggs, from two to
four in number, vary from a pure white to a mottled, and often highly
coloured, surface, on which appear different shades of red and purple.
The adult bird (fig. 2) is of a rich dark brown, with the elongated
feathers of the neck, especially on the nape, light tawny, in which
imagination sees a "golden" hue, and the tail marbled with brown and
ashy-grey. In the young the tail is white at the base, and the neck has
scarcely any tawny tint. The golden eagle does not occur in Iceland, but
occupies suitable situations over the rest of the Palaearctic Region and
a considerable portion of the Nearctic--though the American bird has
been, by some, considered a distinct species. Domesticated, it has many
times been trained to take prey for its master in Europe, and to this
species is thought to belong an eagle habitually used by the Kirghiz
Tatars, who call it _Bergut_ or _Bearcoot_, for the capture of
antelopes, foxes and wolves. It is carried hooded on horseback or on a
perch between two men, and released when the quarry is in sight. Such a
bird, when well trained, is valued, says P.S. Pallas, at the price of
two camels. It is quite possible, however, that more than one kind of
eagle is thus used, and the services of _A. heliaca_ (which is the
imperial eagle of some writers[3]) and of _A. mogilnik_--both of which
are found in central Asia, as well as in south-eastern Europe--may also
be employed.
A smaller form of eagle, which has usually gone under the name of _A.
naevia_, is now thought by the best authorities to include three local
races, or, in the eyes of some, species. They inhabit Europe, North
Africa and western Asia to India, and two examples of one of them--_A.
clanga_, the form which is somewhat plentiful in north-eastern
Germany--have occurred in Cornwall. The smallest true eagle is _A.
pennata_, which inhabits southern Europe, Africa and India. Differing
from other eagles of their genus by its wedge-shaped tail, though
otherwise greatly resembling them, is the _A. audax_ of Australia.
Lastly may be noticed here a small group of eagles, characterized by
their long legs, forming the genus _Nisaetus_, of which one species, _N.
fasciatus_, is found in Europe. (A. N.)