_I.--The Beginnings of a Romantic Career_
Marco Polo stands out in history and literature as the
most famous traveller belonging to the early mediæval
period. He was born at Venice in 1254. In 1271, his father
and uncle, Venetian merchants, set out on a long and
romantic Oriental journey, taking with them young Marco,
who now began the amazing career chronicled in his book.
Everywhere he made copious notes of his observations, and
his curious records, so astonishing as to meet with little
credence during the Middle Ages, have been so far
confirmed as to demonstrate his absolute fidelity to facts
as he saw them, and to such traditions as were
communicated to him, however fantastic. Returning to
Venice in 1295, three years later he fought in his own
galley at Curzola, but on the defeat of the Venetians by
the Genoese he was taken captive and flung into a fortress
at Genoa. This captivity, which lasted a year, is
memorable as being the cause of bringing about the record
of his extraordinary experiences in the East. "The Travels
of Marco Polo, a Venetian," consists essentially of two
parts--first, the author's personal narrative; second, his
description of the provinces and states and the peoples of
Asia during the latter half of the thirteenth century.
In the middle of the thirteenth century, two merchants of Venice, Nicolo
and Maffeo Polo, voyaged with a rich cargo of merchandise, in their own
ship, to Constantinople, and thence to the Black Sea. From the Crimea
they travelled on horseback into Western Tartary, where they resided in
business for a year, gaining by their politic behaviour the cordial
friendship of the paramount chief of the tribes, named Barka.
Prevented from returning to Europe through the outbreak of a tribal war
in Tartary, the travellers proceeded to Bokhara, where they stayed three
years. Here they made the acquaintance of the ambassador of the famous
Kublai Khan. This potentate is called the "grand khan," or supreme
prince of all the Tartar tribes. The ambassador invited the merchants to
visit his master. Acceding to his request, they set out on the difficult
journey, and on reaching their destination were cordially received by
Kublai, for they were the first persons from Italy who had ever arrived
in his dominions. He begged them to take with them to their country a
commissioner from himself to the Pope of Rome. The result was
unfortunate, for the commissioner fell ill on the way through Tartary in
a few days, and was left behind. At Acre, the travellers heard that Pope
Clement IV. was dead. Arrived at Venice, Nicolo Polo found that his wife
had died soon after his departure in giving birth to a son, the Marco of
this history, who was now fifteen years of age.
Waiting for two years in Venice, the election of a new pope being
delayed by successive obstacles, and fearing that the grand khan would
be disappointed or might despair of their return, they set out again for
the East, taking with them young Marco Polo. But at Jerusalem they heard
of the accession to the pontifical throne of Gregory X., and hastened
back to Italy. The new pope welcomed them with great honour, furnished
them with credentials, and commissioned to accompany them to the East
two friars of great learning and talent, Fra Guglielmo da Tripoli and
Fra Nicolo da Vicenza. The party, entrusted with handsome presents from
the pontiff to the grand khan, voyaged forth, and reached Armenia to
find that region embroiled in war. The two friars, in terror, returned
to the coast under the care of certain knight templars; but the three
Venetians, accustomed to danger, continued their journey, which, on
account of slow winter progress, lasted altogether three and a half
years.
Kublai had removed to a splendid city named Cle Men Fu [near where
Peking now stands], and, on arriving, a gracious reception awaited the
three merchants, who narrated events and delivered the messages from
Rome with the papal presents. Taking special notice of young Marco, the
grand khan enrolled him among his attendants of honour. Marco soon
became proficient in four languages, and displayed such extraordinary
talents that he was sent on a mission to Karazan, a city six months'
journey distant. On this mission he distinguished himself by his tact
and success, and during the seventeen years spent in the service of the
khan executed many similar tasks in every part of the empire.
The Venetians remained many years at the Tartar court, and at length,
after amassing much wealth, felt constrained to return home. They were
permitted to depart, taking with them, at the khan's request, a maiden
named Kogatin, of seventeen, a relative of the khan, whom they were to
conduct to the court of Arghun, a sovereign in India, to become his
wife.
The travellers were not fortunate, for they were compelled, through
fresh wars among the Tartar princes, to return. But about this time
Marco Polo happened to arrive after a long voyage in the East Indies,
giving a most favourable report of the safety of the seas he had
navigated. Accordingly, it was arranged that the party should go by sea;
and fourteen ships were prepared, each having four masts and nine sails,
and some crews of over 200 men. On these embarked the three Venetians,
the Indian ambassadors, and the queen. In three months Java was reached,
and India in eighteen more.
On landing, the travellers learned that the King of Arghun had died some
time before, and his son Kiakato was reigning in his stead, and that the
lady was to be presented to Kiasan, another son, then on the borders of
Persia guarding the frontier with an army of 60,000. This was done, and
then the party returned to the residence, and there rested nine months
before taking their leave. While on their way they heard of the death of
Kublai, this intelligence putting an end to their plan of revisiting
those regions. Pursuing, therefore, their intended route, they at length
reached Trebizonde, whence they proceeded to Negropont, and finally to
Venice, at which place, in the enjoyment of health and abundant riches,
they safely arrived in the year 1295, and offered thanks to God, Who had
preserved them from innumerable perils.
The foregoing record enables the reader to judge of the opportunities
Marco Polo had of acquiring a knowledge of the things he describes
during a residence of many years in the eastern parts of the world.
_II.--Legends of Ancient Persia_
Persia was anciently a great province, but it is now in great part
destroyed by the Tartars. From the city called Saba came the three magi
who adored Christ at Bethlehem. They are buried in Saba, and are all
three entire with their beards and hair. They were Baldasar, Gaspar, and
Melchior. After three days' journey you come to Palasata, the castle of
the fire-worshippers. The people say that the three magi, when they
adored Christ, were by Him presented with a closed box, which they
carried with them for several days, and then, being curious to see what
it contained, were constrained to open. In it was a stone signifying
that they should remain firm to the faith they had received.
Thinking themselves deluded, they threw the stone into a pit, whence
instantly fire flamed forth. Bitterly repenting, they took home with
them some of the fire, and placed it in a church, where it is adored as
a god, the sacrifices all being performed before it. Therefore, the
people of Persia worship fire.
In the north of Persia the people tell of the Old Man of the Mountain.
He was named Alo-eddin, and was a Moslem. In a lovely valley he had
planted a magnificent garden and built a cluster of gorgeous palaces,
supplied by means of conduits with streams of wine, milk, honey, and
pure water. Beautiful girls, skilled in music and dancing, and richly
dressed, were among the inhabitants of this retreat.
The chief object of Alo-eddin in forming this fascinating garden was to
persuade his followers that, as Mahomet had promised to the Moslems the
enjoyments of Paradise, with every species of sensual gratification, so
he was also a prophet and the compeer of Mahomet, and had the power of
admitting to Paradise whom he pleased. An impregnable castle guarded the
entrance to the enchanting valley, the entrance to this being through a
secret passage.
At his court this chief entertained many youths, selected from the
people of the mountains for their apparent courage and martial
disposition. To these he daily preached on Paradise and his prerogative
of granting admission; and at certain times he caused opium to be
administered to a dozen of the youths, who, when half dead with sleep,
were conveyed to apartments in the palaces in the gardens. On awakening,
each person found himself surrounded by lovely damsels, who sang,
played, served delicate viands and exquisite wines, till the youth,
intoxicated with excess of enjoyment, believed himself assuredly in
Paradise, and felt unwilling to quit it.
After four or five days the youths were again thrown into somnolency and
carried out of the garden; and when asked by Alo-eddin where they had
been, declared that by his favour they had been in Paradise, the whole
court listening with amazement to their recital. The consequence was
that his followers were so devoted to his service that if any
neighbouring chiefs or princes gave him umbrage they were put to death
by these disciplined assassins, and his tyranny made him dreaded
through all the surrounding provinces. He employed people to rob
travellers in their passage through his country. At length the grand
khan grew weary of hearing of his atrocious practices, and an army was
sent in the year 1262 to besiege him in his castle. It was so strong
that it held out for three years, until Alo-eddin was forced through
lack of provisions to surrender, and was put to death. Thus perished the
Old Man of the Mountain.
_III.--Of the Tartars and their Grand Khan_
Now that I have begun speaking of the Tartars, I will tell you more
about them. They never remain long anywhere, but when winter approaches
remove to the plains of a warmer region, in order to find sufficient
pasture for their cattle. Their flocks and herds are multitudinous.
Their tents are formed of rods covered with felt, and being exactly
round, and nicely put together, they can gather them together into one
bundle, and make them up as packages to carry about. When they set them
up again, they always make the entrance front the south.
Their travelling-cars are drawn by oxen and camels. The women do all the
business of trading, buying, and selling, and provide everything
necessary for their husbands and families, the time of the men being
entirely devoted to hunting, hawking, and matters that relate to
military life. They have the best falcons and also the best dogs in the
world. They subsist entirely on flesh and milk, consuming horses,
camels, dogs, and animals of every description. They drink mares' milk,
preparing it so that it has the qualities and flavour of white wine, and
this beverage they call kemurs.
The Tartars believe in a supreme deity, to whom they offer incense and
prayers; while they also worship another, called Natigay, whose image,
covered with felt, is kept in every house. This god, who has a wife and
children, and who, they consider, presides over their terrestrial
concerns, protects their children, and guards their cattle and grain.
They show him great respect, and at their meals they never omit to take
a fat morsel of the flesh, and with it to grease the mouth of the idol.
Rich Tartars dress in cloth of gold and silks, with skins of the sable,
the ermine, and other animals. All their accoutrements are of the most
expensive kind. They are specially skilful in the use of the bow, and
they are very brave in battle, but are cruel in disposition. Their
martial qualities and their wonderful powers of endurance make them
fitted to subdue the world, as, in fact, they have done with regard to a
considerable portion of it.
When these Tartars engage in battle they never mingle with the enemy,
but keep hovering about him, discharging their arrows first from one
side, and then from the other, occasionally pretending to fly, and
during their flight shooting arrows backwards at their pursuers, killing
men and horses as if they were combating face to face. In this sort of
warfare the adversary imagines he has gained a victory, when in fact he
has lost the battle. For the Tartars, observing the mischief they have
done him, wheel about, and renewing the fight, overpower his remaining
troops, and make them prisoners in spite of their utmost exertions.
Kublai is the sixth grand khan, and began his reign as grand khan in the
year 1246, and commenced his reign as Emperor of China in 1280. It is
forty-two years since he began his reign in Tartary to the present year,
1288, and he is fully eighty-five years of age. It was his ancestor,
Jengiz, who assumed the title of khan. Kublai is considered the most
able and successful commander that ever led the Tartars to battle. He it
was who completed the conquest of China by subduing the southern
provinces and destroying the ancient dynasty. After this period he
ceased to take the field in person. His last campaign was against
rebels, of whom there were many both in Cathay and Manji [North and
South China].
The Tartars date the beginning of their year from the beginning of
February, and it is their custom on that occasion to dress in white.
Great numbers of beautiful white horses are presented to the grand khan.
On the day of the White Feast all his elephants, amounting to five
thousand, are exhibited in procession, covered with rich housings. It is
a time of splendid ceremonials, and of most sumptuous feasting. During
the amusements a lion is conducted into the presence of his majesty, so
tame that it is taught to lay itself down at his feet.
The grand khan has many leopards and lynxes kept for the purpose of
chasing deer, and also many lions, which are larger than the Babylonian
lions, and are active in seizing boars, wild oxen, and asses, stags,
roebucks, and of other animals that are objects of sport. It is an
admirable sight, when the lion is let loose in pursuit of the animal, to
observe the savage eagerness and speed with which he overtakes it. His
majesty has them conveyed for this purpose in cages placed on cars, and
along with them is confined a little dog, with which they become
familiarised. The grand khan has eagles also, which are trained to stoop
at wolves, and such is their size and strength that none, however large,
can escape from their talons.
Before we proceed further we shall speak of a memorable battle that was
fought in the kingdom of Yun-chang. When the king of Mien [Burma] heard
that an army of Tartars had arrived at Yun-chang, he resolved to attack
it, in order that by its destruction the grand khan might be deterred
from again attempting to station a force on the borders of his
dominions.
For this purpose he assembled a very large army, including a multitude
of elephants (an animal with which the country abounds), on whose backs
were placed battlements, or castles of wood, capable of containing to
the number of twelve or sixteen in each. With these, and a numerous army
of horse and foot, he took the road to Yun-chang, where the grand khan's
army lay, and encamping at no great distance from it, intended to give
his troops a few days of rest.
The Tartars, chiefly by their wonderful skill in archery, inflicted a
terrible defeat on their foes; and the King of Mien, though he fought
with the most undaunted courage, was compelled to flee, leaving the
greater part of his troops killed or wounded.
In the northern parts of the world there dwell many Tartars, under a
chief of the name of Kaidu, nearly related to Kublai, the grand khan.
These Tartars are idolaters. They possess vast herds of horses, cows,
sheep, and other domestic animals. In these northern districts are found
prodigious white bears, black foxes, wild asses in great numbers, and
swarms of sables and martens. During the long and severe winters the
Tartars travel in sledges drawn by great dogs.
Beyond the country of these northern Tartars is another region, which
extends to the utmost bounds of the north, and is called the Region of
Darkness, because during most part of the winter months the sun is
invisible, and the atmosphere is obscured to the same degree as that in
which we find it just about the dawn of day, when we may be said to see
and not to see. The intellects of the people are dull, and they have an
air of stupidity. The Tartars often proceed on plundering expeditions
against them, to rob them of their cattle and goods, availing themselves
for this purpose of those months in which the darkness prevails.
_IV.--Of Ceylon and Malabar_
The island of Zeilan [Ceylon] is better circumstanced than any other in
the world. It is governed by a king named Sendernaz. The people worship
idols, and are independent of every other state. Both men and women go
nearly nude. Their food is milk, rice, and flesh, and they drink wine
drawn from trees. Here is the best sappan-wood that can anywhere be met
with.
The island produces more beautiful and valuable rubies than can be found
in any other part of the world, and also many other precious stones. The
king is reported to possess the grandest ruby that ever was seen, being
a span in length, and the thickness of a man's arm, brilliant beyond
description, and without a single flaw. The grand khan, Kublai, sent
ambassadors to this monarch, with a request that he would yield to him
possession of this ruby; in return for which he should receive the value
of a city. The answer was that he would not sell it for all the treasure
of the universe. The grand khan, therefore, failed to acquire it.
Leaving the island of Zeilan, you reach the great province of Malabar,
which is part of the continent of the greater India, the noblest and
richest country in the world. It is governed by four kings, of whom the
principal is named Sender-bandi. Within his district is a fishery for
pearls. The pearl oysters are brought up in bags by divers. The king
wears many jewels of immense value, and among them is a fine silken
string containing one hundred and four splendid pearls and rubies. He
has at least a thousand wives and concubines, and when he sees a woman
whose beauty pleases him, he immediately signifies his desire to possess
her. The heat of the country is excessive, and on that account the
people go naked.
In this kingdom, and also throughout India, all the beasts and birds
are unlike those of our own country. There are bats as large as
vultures, and vultures as black as crows, and much larger than ours.
In the province of Malabar is the body of St. Thomas the Apostle, who
there suffered martyrdom. It rests in a small city to which vast numbers
of Christians and Saracens resort. The latter regard him as a great
prophet, and name him Ananias, signifying a holy personage.
In the year 1288 a powerful prince of the country, who at the time of
harvest had accumulated as his portion an enormous quantity of rice, and
whose granaries could not hold the vast store, used for that purpose a
religious house belonging to the church of St. Thomas, although the
guardians of the shrine begged him not thus to occupy the place. He
persisted, and on the next night the holy apostle appeared to him,
holding a small lance in his hand, which he held at his throat,
threatening him with a miserable death if he should not immediately
evacuate the house. The prince awoke in terror, and obeyed.
Various miracles are daily wrought here through the interposition of the
blessed saint. The Christians who have the care of the church possess
groves of cocoanut-trees, and from these derive the means of
subsistence. The death of this most holy apostle took place thus. Having
retired to a hermitage, where he was engaged in prayer, and being
surrounded by a number of peafowls, with which bird the country abounds,
an idolater who happened to be passing, and did not perceive the holy
man, shot an arrow at a peacock, which struck St. Thomas in the side. He
only had time to thank the Lord for all His mercies, and into His hands
resigned his spirit.
In the kingdom of Musphili [Solconda], which you enter upon leaving
Malabar after proceeding five hundred miles northward, are the best and
most honourable merchants that can be found. No consideration whatever
can induce them to speak an untruth. They have also an abhorrence of
robbery, and are likewise remarkable for the virtue of continence, being
satisfied with the possession of one wife. The Brahmins are
distinguished by a certain badge, consisting of a thick cotton thread
passed over the shoulder and tied under the arm.
The people are gross idolaters, and much addicted to sorcery and
divination. When they are about to make a purchase of goods, they
observe the shadow cast by their own bodies in the sunshine, and if the
shadow be as large as it should be, they make the purchase that day.
Moreover, when they are in a shop for the purchase of anything, if they
see a tarantula, of which there are many there, they take notice from
which side it comes, and regulate their business accordingly. Again, if
they are going out of their houses and they hear anyone sneeze they
return to the house and stay at home.