A QUARTER-CENTURY OF CONFLICT: THE EXPULSION OF THE FRENCH (1715-1763)
SPAIN AND THE POWERS, 1715-1739
Spanish dynastic ambitions.--From 1715 to 1739 the relations of England
and Spain were frequently strained, due to the clashing of commercial
and colonial interests, or to the ambitions of Spanish rulers. Philip V
hoped to become the king of France. His second wife, Elizabeth Farnese,
was ambitious to secure territories in Italy for her sons, the elder,
Don Carlos, being destined to play an important part in Italian and
Spanish history. The Spanish minister, Alberoni, devoted himself to
building up Spanish influence in Italy.
The Triple and Quadruple Alliances.--Her Italian policy brought Spain
into discord with the Emperor Charles VI, as the House of Austria hoped
to remain the dominant factor in Italy. In 1717 Austrian acts in the
Milanese provoked hostilities. Spanish forces immediately occupied
Sardinia and the following year Sicily. The same year an alliance had
been made between England, France, and Holland, and in 1718 Austria
joined the alliance. Austrian troops were sent to Italy, a Spanish fleet
was defeated by the English Admiral Byng, and in 1719 a French army
crossed the Spanish frontier. Spain was brought to terms and Alberoni
was dismissed. But before definite terms could be arranged, France
opened negotiations with Spain and French influence was greatly
strengthened. The war between Spain and France extended to their North
American colonies, with important consequences, as has been set forth in
an earlier chapter.
Spanish-Austrian alliance.--From 1721 to 1724 Elizabeth Farnese depended
on the French alliance to attain her ends. But France made no effort to
dislodge the English from Gibraltar, and Spanish merchants complained of
English smugglers in the colonies. Furthermore, Don Carlos had not been
established in Italy. To bring about the desired ends, in 1725 an
alliance between Spain and Austria was formed. This was made possible by
the ambitions of the Emperor Charles VI, who had been unable to obtain
the adhesion of England, Holland, and France to the Pragmatic Sanction.
He also hoped to secure a part of the Oriental trade by the formation of
the Ostend East India Company, an enterprise which ran counter to
English, Dutch, and French interests. Spain immediately demanded from
England the cession of Gibraltar. The reply was the formation of the
League of Hanover between England, France, and Prussia, the last named
power, however, soon deserting its allies. Hostilities began in 1726
when an English fleet blockaded Puerto Bello and in 1727 the Spanish
besieged Gibraltar. Austria was unprepared for war. Powerful parties in
England and France did not favor it, and a considerable faction in Spain
opposed the Austrian alliance. In consequence a peace was patched up.
The operations of the Ostend Company were suspended for seven years, and
the siege of Gibraltar was abandoned.
The treaty of Seville.--Abandoned by Austria, Elizabeth Farnese turned
to England and Holland. A treaty was made which provided that the
privileges of the Ostend Company be revoked, that England's former
rights of trade in the Spanish colonies be renewed, that Spain abandon
her claims to Minorca and Gibraltar, and that the succession of Don
Carlos to the Italian duchies be guaranteed. The Austrian emperor was
furious, but was pacified by a recognition of the Pragmatic Sanction on
the part of England and Holland. In 1731 Don Carlos became Duke of Parma
and Placenzia and was assured the succession to Tuscany.
French and Spanish alliance.--Walpole was not inclined to strengthen
Spanish influence in Italy, so the shifty queen abandoned England and
brought about an alliance with France. This was made possible by
commercial difficulties in the colonies, and by the fact that French and
English colonial interests were approaching a collision. The alliance of
France and Spain was not disclosed, however, until 1739. In 1733 the War
of the Polish Succession broke out; in the struggle England remained
neutral, but France and Spain took an active part against Austria. At
the end of the war Naples and Sicily were united under the rule of Don
Carlos and the great ambition of Elizabeth Farnese was attained.
Commercial relations of Spain and England, 1715-1739.--By the treaty of
Utrecht England had gained the right to supply the Spanish colonies with
slaves and to send an annual cargo of five hundred tons to Spanish
ports. English merchants were not satisfied with this paltry trade, and
smuggling increased. Spanish coast guard ships seized many of the
English traders, who received rough handling by the Spanish officials.
During 1738 and 1739 public opinion in England became more and more
inflamed against Spain. A paper presented to parliament in 1738 showed
that in recent years fifty-two vessels had been plundered by the
Spaniards, and that British seamen had been harshly treated. The most
famous case was that of Thomas Jenkins, who declared that a coast guard
captain had captured him, cut off his ears, and insolently remarked,
"Carry this home to the King, your master, whom, if he were present, I
Would serve in like fashion." Attempts to settle difficulties by
diplomacy failed, and by the summer of 1739 it became evident that war
was at hand. On July 10 George II issued a proclamation authorizing
reprisals and letters of marque against Spanish commerce. England
declared war on October 23, and Spain on November 28.
THE WAR OF JENKINS' EAR
Puerto Bello, Cartagena, and Chagres.--As soon as war appeared
inevitable, orders were despatched to Jamaica to make reprisals and
Admiral Edward Vernon, in command of nine war vessels, was sent to the
West Indies. Hearing that the Spanish galleons would rendezvous at
Cartagena and then sail to Puerto Bello, where bullion was waiting to be
exchanged for merchandise, Vernon determined to attack Puerto Bello. On
November 22, 1739, the place was captured and the fortifications
demolished. On March 6 and 7, 1740, Cartagena was bombarded, and a part
of the fleet then attacked and captured Chagres.
The Georgia frontier.--While these events were taking place, Oglethorpe
was taking measures to strengthen the Georgia frontier. Hearing that the
Spanish and French were tampering with the Indians, he visited Kawita,
the principal Lower Creek village, where a conference was held with
chieftains of many tribes, who acknowledged the sovereignty of George
II. Upon his return to Augusta, Oglethorpe was visited by Chickasaw and
Cherokee chiefs, who made complaint against the traders, but he
succeeded in appeasing them. By these conferences the frontier was made
safe from Indian depredations in the coming war. As soon as Oglethorpe
received information that a state of war existed, he recruited his
forces and sent runners to the Indian villages asking for a thousand
warriors to cooeperate against the Spaniards. Fortifications were
strengthened and vessels patrolled the coast. In November, 1739, word
came that the settlement on Amelia Island had been attacked. In
retaliation the Spaniards were driven from their outposts on the St.
John's. On January 1, 1740, Oglethorpe proceeded against Fort Picolata
on the St. John's River, surprised and captured it, and shortly
afterward Fort San Francisco de Papa, only twenty-one miles from St.
Augustine, was reduced but later abandoned.
Attack on St. Augustine.--Oglethorpe determined to make an attempt to
capture St. Augustine. He repaired to Charleston, where he succeeded in
getting the assembly to pass an act to contribute five hundred men and a
schooner. The mouth of the St. John's River was to be the rendezvous for
the Carolina and Georgia troops. The Indians were asked to send forces
to Frederica. Oglethorpe also obtained the cooeperation of nine small
vessels of the British fleet. Without waiting for a complete
concentration of his forces, he entered Florida in May, 1740, and soon
captured the Spanish outposts. He then concentrated his forces and moved
against St. Augustine. Oglethorpe expected to capture it by a combined
sea and land attack, but the fleet failed to cooeperate and a siege had
to be instituted. The city was closely invested until June 14, when a
sortie succeeded in recapturing one of the outposts. A ship of war which
had been guarding the Matanzas River was withdrawn and the Spaniards
took advantage of the opportunity to land reinforcements and supplies
from Havana. After a consultation between the naval and military
commanders, Oglethorpe decided to give up the undertaking.
Spanish and English preparations.--The Spaniards, alarmed by English
activities, in July, 1740, sent out a large squadron under Admiral Don
Rodrigo de Torres. France was persuaded to proclaim her close alliance
with Spain and she made known her decision not to allow England to make
conquests or new settlements in the West Indies, but the death of the
Emperor Charles VI determined her to stay out of the war for the time
being. When news of Torres' fleet reached England, twenty large vessels,
several frigates and small craft, and many transports carrying nine
thousand troops were sent to the West Indies, where they arrived in
December. "A fleet such as had never before been assembled in the waters
of the New World was now at the disposal of the British commander."
Commodore George Anson was also despatched around Cape Horn to the
Pacific to prey upon Spanish commerce.
English failures.--In March, 1740, the English fleet anchored before
Cartagena. From March 9 to April 11 the city was besieged, but lack of
harmony between the commanders of the land and sea forces, and general
mismanagement coupled with sickness among the besiegers, contributed to
one of the most striking failures in English naval history. After
destroying the works which had been taken, the expedition sailed for
Jamaica and shortly afterward eleven of the heavier vessels and five
frigates were withdrawn from the West Indian station. The English
ministry also hoped to conquer Cuba, but an attack on Santiago failed as
dismally as that on Cartagena. In 1742 the capture of Panama by an
overland expedition from Puerto Bello was planned, but after again
occupying Puerto Bello the scheme was found to be impossible of
attainment. The only success of the year was the occupation of Roatan
Island off Honduras Bay. In October Vernon returned to England, leaving
Oglethorpe in command of the West Indian station. An expedition along
the Venezuelan coast failed as completely as other English ventures on
the Spanish main.
The Georgia frontier, 1742-1743.--The failures of the English made it
possible for the Spanish to assume the offensive, and forces estimated
at about five thousand, besides a large fleet, were collected at St.
Augustine for an attack upon Georgia. The Spanish attack was launched
against the fortifications on St. Simon Island, but the spirited
defence disheartened the invaders and they soon withdrew to St.
Augustine. In March of the following year Oglethorpe retaliated by a
descent on Florida and drove the Spanish within their defences at St.
Augustine, but being too weak to attack the city, withdrew again to
Georgia.
THE WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION
France enters the war.--The European situation had developed along lines
by 1743 which brought France into an offensive alliance with Spain. In
1740 the Emperor Charles VI died and his daughter Maria Theresa became
Archduchess of Austria and Queen of Hungary and Bohemia. Portions of her
domains were coveted by Prussia and France. Prussia seized Silesia; this
was followed by a French attack, and the War of the Austrian Succession
was on. England and Holland feared that France might annex the Austrian
Netherlands. France found a ready ally in Spain, and the conflict which
had been waged between England and Spain since 1739, by 1743 had
developed into a great European war.
French attack on Acadia.--Events in Europe and the Mediterranean were
far more important in bringing the struggle to a conclusion than those
in America, but it is beyond the scope of this work to deal with them.
During the peace the French had fortified Louisbourg on Cape Breton
Island, making it one of the strongest fortifications in America. The
governor of Cape Breton decided to attempt to regain Acadia and sent out
an expedition which captured Canso. After destroying the town the French
proceeded to Annapolis. The place was saved, however, by the vigilance
of the Massachusetts authorities, Governor Shirley and the assembly
having despatched a body of volunteers, who arrived before the enemy.
Capture of Louisbourg.--Governor Shirley then proposed to the assembly
the quixotic scheme of capturing Louisbourg. Nearly four thousand
volunteers from Connecticut, New Hampshire, and Massachusetts were
assembled and placed under the command of William Pepperel of Kittery,
Maine. Each of the New England colonies furnished war vessels and
transports, and Commodore Peter Warren was sent from the West Indies
with several ships of war. In April, 1745, the great flotilla appeared
before Louisbourg and the place was soon invested by land and sea. After
one of the most remarkable sieges in American history, in which the
untrained colonials acquitted themselves with bravery and efficiency, on
June 28 the place surrendered.
Border warfare, 1746-1748.--The success at Louisbourg encouraged the
colonists to attempt the conquest of Canada. All of the colonies as far
south as Virginia furnished men, and the Duke of Newcastle promised a
large force of regulars. But the English troops were diverted to Europe
and the plan came to naught. The failure of the projected conquest
spurred the French colonists to attack the outlying settlements; from
Acadia to the New York border, bands of French and Indians harried the
frontier. Grand Pre and Fort Massachusetts were captured but were soon
reoccupied. Until the close of the war, the New England borders were
harassed by frequent raids. The New York and Pennsylvania frontiers were
protected, mainly through the influence of the Indian agent, William
Johnson, who kept the Mohawks friendly, and the Pennsylvania interpreter
Conrad Weiser, whose policy of favoring the Iroquois land claims in
Pennsylvania at the expense of the Delawares held the powerful New York
confederation on the English side.
French and English naval activity, 1745-1746.--In March, 1745, a large
French fleet under De Caylus was sent to the West Indies. As soon as the
English ministry heard of this, Vice-Admiral William Rowley was sent out
with large reinforcements. Though De Caylus's fleet was not engaged, on
October 31 Rowley fell in with another squadron of war vessels and
supply ships, and captured or destroyed thirty out of forty sail. In
1746 France made an attempt to regain Cape Breton and Acadia. Under
D'Anville a fleet of eleven large war vessels, several frigates and
small craft, and transports carrying thirty-five hundred troops, arrived
off the Acadian coast but the fleet was shattered by a storm, and the
enterprise was abandoned.
Decisive battles off Cape Finisterre.--In 1747 another French fleet was
sent out to recapture Cape Breton, but an English fleet under Anson and
Warren intercepted it off Cape Finisterre and nearly every French vessel
was captured. Later in the year France despatched a fleet to the West
Indies convoying over two hundred merchantmen, but near the scene of
the former battle a second great engagement occurred in which the
English were again victorious. These two great victories completed the
destruction of the French fighting navy.
Knowles's attack on the Spanish, 1748.--Early in 1748 Rear-Admiral
Charles Knowles attacked and captured Port Louis on the southern shore
of Espanola. In April he bombarded Santiago de Cuba. In September an
engagement with a Spanish fleet took place off Havana, but he succeeded
in capturing only one vessel.
The Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle.--The long war was drawing to an end,
neither side having attained unqualified success. In the Peace of
Aix-la-Chapelle, signed in October, 1748, all conquests were restored.
The peace was but a truce. Both England and France realized it and both
put forth efforts to strengthen and extend their colonial possessions.
THE APPROACH OF ANOTHER CONFLICT
Acadia.--Acadia, the upper valley of the Ohio, and the Cherokee country
were debatable territories. To insure English possession of Acadia, Lord
Halifax, the president of the Board of Trade, insisted upon the
strengthening of the peninsula of Nova Scotia. In 1749 twenty-five
hundred emigrants were sent over and the city of Halifax was founded.
Three years later the English population had increased to four thousand.
Edward Cornwallis was installed as governor, and the usual form of crown
colony government established. Fort Lawrence was erected on the isthmus.
Since many of the Acadians had failed to be neutral in the last war,
Cornwallis asked that they again take the oath of allegiance, a request
which was refused, and three or four thousand emigrated rather than
swear allegiance. The policy of France regarding Acadia was to restrict
its boundaries to the peninsula of Nova Scotia, to incite the Indians to
make depredations, and to keep the Acadians loyal to the French king.
Fort Beausejour on the isthmus was converted into a formidable fortress
and Louisbourg was greatly strengthened.
English activities on the Ohio.--Victories on the sea in the recent war
had made it possible for English merchants to undersell their French
rivals. From Albany and Oswego officials and traders worked in unison
to keep the friendship of the Iroquois. From his estate on the Mohawk,
William Johnson, a nephew of Admiral Warren, exerted great influence
over the neighboring tribes, an influence which was to increase as the
years went by. To the southward the frontiersmen grasped the opportunity
for profit, and soon the Ohio country was frequented by many traders
from Virginia and Pennsylvania. They penetrated to the Indian villages
as far as the Mississippi and even into the country beyond. The
principal trading centers were Pickawillany in the Miami confederacy,
Logstown on the Ohio, and Venango on the Alleghany. Settlers also began
to cross the mountains; in 1748 Virginia frontiersmen made a settlement
at Draper's Meadow on the Greenbrier River.
The Ohio Company.--In 1744, at a council held at Lancaster,
Pennsylvania, the Iroquois granted to the English the control of the
country north of the upper Ohio. By subsequent agreements title was
obtained to lands south of the river. In 1749 definite action was taken
to occupy the territory. The project was launched by Virginia, partly to
check the western pretensions of Pennsylvania. A charter was granted
conveying a half-million acres on the upper Ohio to a group of Virginia
and English gentlemen, among the stockholders being several of
Washington's relatives. The grantees agreed to build a fort on the Ohio
and within seven years to settle a hundred families on their lands. In
the same year the Loyal Company secured a grant of 800,000 acres in the
West. In 1750 Christopher Gist, a well-known fur trader, was sent by the
Ohio Company to explore as far as the Falls of the Ohio, the site of
modern Louisville. During 1750-1751 he traversed portions of what are
now Ohio, Kentucky, West Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania. His
favorable report stimulated activity; a trading house was built at
Wills' Creek where Cumberland, Maryland, now stands, and a trail was
blazed to the junction of Redstone Creek and the Monongahela, the
primitive beginning of the Cumberland Pike. A few Virginians immediately
settled at the western terminal of the trail.
The French frontier strengthened.--In general the Iroquois had been
faithful to the English, but the French continued their efforts to gain
the support of the powerful confederation. An Iroquois mission was
established near Montreal, and in 1748 Father Piquet founded the mission
of La Presentation at modern Ogdensburg. To divert trade from Oswego, in
1749 Fort Rouille was built where Toronto now flourishes. A new post was
established at the Niagara portage, Detroit was strengthened, and a
garrison stationed at Sault Ste. Marie. The Marquis de la Galissoniere,
the governor of Canada, saw the danger of the English occupation of the
Ohio country. In 1749 he despatched a force under Celoron de Bienville
to take possession. The expedition passed from Lake Erie to Chautauqua
Lake and proceeded southward to the Alleghany, where the work of taking
formal possession began. The procedure was to proclaim French
sovereignty, to nail to a tree a sheet of tin bearing the arms of
France, and to bury at the foot of the tree a leaden plate which stated
that the land along the Ohio and its tributaries belonged to the King of
France. Many Indian villages in the Ohio Valley were visited and several
plates buried, but wherever Celoron went he found evidences that the
tribes were friendly to the English. At the Great Miami the last plate
was buried, and the party proceeded to the French post on the Maumee and
then returned to Canada.
French occupation of the upper Ohio.--In May, 1749, the Marquis de la
Jonquiere was appointed governor general. He was instructed to get rid
of Oswego by inciting the Iroquois to attack it. Jonquiere found his
government permeated with dishonesty, the intendant Bigot having used
his official position to fatten the purses of himself and friends. The
governor was powerless to occupy the Ohio country, having neither
soldiers nor money sufficient for the enterprise. When he ordered
Celoron to attack Pickawillany, that officer refused because of
disaffection among the neighboring Indians. But help came from an
unexpected quarter. A young French trader from Green Bay named Charles
Langlade gathered two hundred and fifty Ottawas and Ojibways and
destroyed the Miami village. Jonquiere died in 1752; his successor, the
Marquis Duquesne, proved to be of sterner stuff. In 1753 he sent an
expedition of fifteen hundred men to occupy the Ohio country. Fort
Presq'Isle was erected and a road was cut to French Creek, where Fort
LeBoeuf was built The French planned to build another fort at the forks
of the Ohio, but sickness and the lateness of the season interrupted
their operations.
Washington's mission, 1753.--Dinwiddie, the lieutenant-governor of
Virginia, realized the import of the French advance. He warned the home
government which authorized him to demand the departure of the enemy,
and in case of refusal, to drive them out by force. He at once sent an
embassy to protest. The bearer of the message was George Washington, a
surveyor who had barely reached the age of twenty-one. Guided by
Christopher Gist, he proceeded to the forks of the Ohio, then to
Logstown where parleys were held with the Indians, and later to Venango.
Washington was civilly received but was told that the French intended to
keep possession of the Ohio. He then proceeded to Fort LeBoeuf, where he
was told that Dinwiddie's letter would be sent to Duquesne and that in
the meantime the commander would remain at his post. It was evident that
force must be employed if the Ohio country was to become English
territory.
The southern frontier.--The back country of the Carolinas and Georgia
was the land of the hunters, cowboys, and Indian traders. The
headquarters of the Georgia traders was Augusta, while those of South
Carolina had a place of deposit at the residence of Peter St. Julien
near Dorchester. From there the caravans followed the Congaree trail or
that which led to the Chickasaw. French agents were continually working
among the interior tribes and in 1753 a war broke out between the Creeks
and Cherokees. Governor Glen of South Carolina called the Indians to
conferences and finally succeeded in maintaining peace for the time
being. The governor then visited the lower Cherokee and purchased a
tract of land on which Fort Prince George was built, one hundred and
seventy miles above Augusta on the Savannah River.
THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR
Virginia prepares to attack the French.--When Dinwiddie heard the French
reply, he prepared for war. From the house of burgesses he demanded men
and money, and messengers were sent to the Catawbas, Cherokees,
Chickasaws, and the Iroquois of the Ohio Valley asking them to join in a
war against the French. Dinwiddie also appealed to the governors of
Pennsylvania, North and South Carolina, Maryland, and New Jersey for men
and he asked the governors of New York and Massachusetts to make a
demonstration against Canada to distract forces from the Ohio. The
replies proved disappointing. The only outside troops which immediately
came were a company of regulars from South Carolina sent by royal order.
Two companies of regulars from New York arrived too late to be of
service.
Washington's first campaign.--Three hundred provincial troops were
raised in Virginia and placed under Joshua Frye, with Washington second
in command. A few backwoodsmen were sent forward in February, 1754, to
build a fort at the forks of the Ohio, but were captured by a body of
French and Indians. The prisoners were released and brought back the
news of their mishap. The French demolished the fortification and built
a stronger one which they named Fort Duquesne. Washington pushed on
toward the west with a portion of the troops and by the middle of May
reached the Great Meadows. Hearing that a party of French were scouting
in the neighborhood, Washington, with forty men surprised them, captured
twenty-two, and killed ten.
The death of Frye gave Washington the command. Realizing the imminence
of an attack, he constructed a rude fortification at Great Meadows,
which he called Fort Necessity, and here the rest of the Virginia troops
and the regulars from South Carolina were concentrated. From Ft.
Duquesne a force variously estimated at from five hundred to seven
hundred men under Coulon de Villiers, was despatched to attack
Washington's forces, now reduced to about three hundred and fifty
effectives. The fortifications proved to be badly constructed and poorly
located, and ammunition ran short. In a few hours fifty or sixty men had
fallen, and when Villiers proposed terms of surrender it was evident
that they must be accepted. "Not an English flag now waved beyond the
Alleghanies," and the red warriors of the West and even many of the
Iroquois flocked to the standards of France.
Apathy of the colonial legislatures.--Even Washington's defeat did not
greatly arouse the colonial assemblies. After much delay Virginia voted
twenty thousand pounds, Pennsylvania a paltry five hundred pounds for
presents to the Indians, New York five thousand pounds, Maryland six
thousand. In Massachusetts Governor Shirley used a rumor that the French
were seizing places in the back country to obtain a large grant. He also
sent eight hundred men to build two forts on the Kennebec. The southern
colonies appear to have taken no action.
The Albany convention.--The encroachments of the French showed the
necessity of adopting some plan of defence. In June, 1754,
representatives from New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and the New
England colonies met at Albany. The Indian chiefs stated their
grievances and were sent away soothed but hardly satisfied. The
representatives then took up the subject of defence. A plan of union,
chiefly the work of Franklin, was proposed, but when it was submitted to
the colonies they unanimously rejected it. The Board of Trade then
formulated a plan of union for military purposes only, but events were
occurring which made it necessary to take immediate action. The plan was
laid aside, and the board suggested the appointment of a
commander-in-chief over all the forces in America, a suggestion which
was eventually put into effect.
Preparations for war.--In Europe, England and France were nominally at
peace. At the head of the English ministry was the Duke of Newcastle,
who maintained his control of a parliamentary majority by corruption
rather than by statesmanship. Fortunately for England, she had a fleet
which was far more numerous than that of her opponent. The strength of
France lay in her army which was nearly ten times as strong as that of
her rival. Major-General Edward Braddock, a former governor of
Gibraltar, stubborn, irascible, and little given to taking advice, was
sent to Virginia with two regiments, which embarked at Cork in January,
1755. As soon as the French heard of this, eighteen men-of-war with
three thousand soldiers were sent to Canada, followed shortly by nine
more war vessels. The English immediately sent twelve vessels under
Admiral Boscawen in pursuit, followed shortly by seven more, but only
two of the French vessels were captured.
The council of governors.--Braddock summoned the governors for a
consultation and they met in April, 1755, at Alexandria in Virginia.
Those who responded were the governors of Virginia, North Carolina,
Pennsylvania, Maryland, New York, and Massachusetts. William Johnson was
also at Alexandria but was not in the council. A four-fold attack was
planned. Braddock was to attack Fort Duquesne; Shirley was to strike at
Niagara; Johnson to attack Crown Point; and Lieutenant-Colonel Monckton
was to proceed against Beausejour.
Braddock's campaign.--After great difficulty in obtaining wagons and
supplies, Braddock moved toward the frontier. In May his forces,
composed of about two thousand men, were gathered at Fort Cumberland. At
Little Meadows, thirty miles from Fort Cumberland, Braddock left the
heavy baggage and marched on, though slowly, to attack Fort Duquesne. On
July 9 when the forces were about seven miles from the fort they began
to march along a rough path through the forest. As the English advanced
forces were crossing a ravine they were attacked by the French and
Indians, who spread out on either side and fought from behind trees,
while the English regulars wheeled into line and returned the fire. The
bravery and discipline of the English regulars proved of little avail
against the invisible enemy and they soon broke and fled. Braddock
hastened up with the second division, but the troops retreating from the
front threw them into hopeless confusion. Braddock realized that his
force was in danger of annihilation and ordered a retreat. As he fell
back he received a mortal wound. Washington, left in command, extricated
the troops as best he could and once more led back the sorry remnant of
a defeated force.
The harrying of the frontiers.--With the defeat of Braddock, the
frontiers of Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia were left almost
defenceless. Washington could muster barely fifteen hundred men to
protect a mountainous frontier nearly four hundred miles long. No
assistance was offered by Pennsylvania, whose Quaker representatives,
religiously opposed to war, quarreled with the governor over raising
money for defence, in every revenue bill asserting the right to tax the
lands of the proprietor, a course in which the governor was unable to
acquiesce. The deadlock between governor and assembly continued for
months, while Indian war bands killed hundreds of settlers. The back
country of Virginia was also a scene of massacre and rapine. Under
Washington's supervision a plan of defence was devised. Blockhouses
were built at advantageous points along the frontier, the most important
being Fort Ligonier near the Alleghany River, Fort Chiswell in the
Shenandoah Valley, Fort Bird on the Holston River, and Fort Loudoun on
the Little Tennessee. Fort Cumberland protected the upper Potomac.
[Illustration: The Western English Frontier (From Thwaites, France in
America, opposite p. 256 [Harpers]).]
Operations in Acadia.--While the war was going badly on the western
frontier Nova Scotia was the scene of victory. In June Monckton with two
thousand colonials landed at Fort Lawrence and soon captured Fort
Beausejour. Fort Gaspereau and a fortification at the mouth of the St.
John were also occupied. Then followed one of those tragic dramas of
war, the removal of the Acadians. They had constantly been in sympathy
with France and many of them had broken their neutrality in the recent
conflict. When they were again asked to take the oath of allegiance they
stubbornly refused. Fearing their defection in case the French attempted
to reconquer the peninsula, their deportation was ordered. Over six
thousand were sent away, many being placed in the mainland English
colonies; others went to Louisiana and the West Indies, and still others
to Canada and France. One shipload of the unfortunates landed in Texas
and fell into the hands of the Spaniards.
The Crown Point campaign.--For the advance against Crown Point about
three thousand men from the New England colonies and New York were
brought together at Albany under William Johnson. It was not until
August that they encamped at the southern end of Lake George. The
slowness of Johnson's movements had given the French ample time for
preparation. Baron Dieskau with thirty-four hundred men had been sent to
Crown Point. He now moved southward with a part of his force to a point
almost east of the English camp. In the first engagement Dieskau scored
a success. He then rashly attacked the English camp, but his forces
suffered heavily, were finally routed, and the commander captured. After
the battle Johnson, who was wounded, decided not to attempt to capture
Crown Point.
The Niagara campaign.--Governor Shirley undertook the reduction of
Niagara. With two regiments of colonials and five hundred New Jersey men
he advanced to Oswego. But there Shirley found himself checkmated, for
the French had sent fourteen hundred men to Fort Frontenac and had
brought twelve hundred from Fort Duquesne to Niagara. If Shirley
attacked, he would be in danger of forces from Fort Frontenac cutting
his line of communications. After a summer of inactivity he left a
garrison of seven hundred men at Oswego and abandoned the campaign.
The diplomatic revolution.--In 1756 the old alignment of England and
Austria against Prussia, France, and Spain changed. Since the War of the
Austrian Succession, Maria Theresa had bided her time, until she could
recover Silesia. With the aid of her great minister, Kaunitz, she
succeeded in forming new alliances, France, Russia, Austria, and some of
the minor German states uniting against Frederick the Great. To protect
Hanover, the hereditary possession of George II, England made an
alliance with Prussia, and thus became a participant in the Seven Years'
War. Although a state of war with France had existed in India and
America, neither power had made a declaration of war. But there was no
longer need for subterfuge; England declared war on May 18, 1756, and
France on June 9.
French preparations.--Already France had despatched to America the
Marquis de Montcalm to take command of the forces, with the Chevalier de
Levis as second in command. Almost from the first Montcalm was beset
with difficulties. Vaudreuil, who had taken Duquesne's place as
governor-general, was a colonial, jealous of any official from France, a
man lacking in decision, desirous of appearing as the mainspring of
success, but ever ready to blame failure upon others. The Intendant
Bigot was entirely venal, a man of low morality, who feathered his nest
regardless of the public danger. Montcalm's command contained three
thousand French regulars in Canada and eleven hundred at Louisbourg, two
thousand trained colonials, and about fifteen thousand militia. The
Indian allies furnished varying numbers.
English preparations.--Upon his return from Oswego Shirley planned a new
offensive, which included attacks upon Ft. Duquesne, the Lake Ontario
and Lake Champlain defences, and the settlements above Quebec. This was
approved by a war council at Albany, but the colonies refused to embark
in such an extensive scheme and the attack on Ft. Duquesne and Quebec
had to be abandoned. John Winslow was commissioned to lead the troops
against Ticonderoga and Crown Point, and Shirley proposed to command
against the Ontario strongholds. But before the plan could be executed
Shirley was superseded by Colonel Daniel Webb, who in turn was followed
by General James Abercromby, with the understanding that Loudoun was
soon to take command.
The fall of Oswego.--While the colonial forces were slowly preparing to
take the offensive, Montcalm struck at Oswego. A three days' siege made
the forts untenable and the place surrendered on August 14, 1756,
sixteen hundred prisoners being taken. Montcalm then returned to
Ticonderoga, where his garrison of five thousand men defied Loudoun, who
dared not attack him. The year had been one of dismal disasters for the
English: Oswego fallen, the Ticonderoga attack abandoned, the frontiers
from Maine to South Carolina harried by Indian war, Minorca captured by
the French, and Calcutta fallen to Sur'a ah Dowlah.
Pitt becomes the moving spirit.--Newcastle's mismanagement raised a
popular outcry and in November, 1756, he resigned. The Duke of
Devonshire became Prime Minister, but Pitt was the strong man of the new
cabinet. He was not in the king's favor, however, and, by April, 1757,
was forced out of office. In July a new ministry was formed. "To
Newcastle was given the name of Prime Minister, to Pitt the reality.
With the control of foreign affairs as Principal Secretary of State he
was also to have control of the war." He saw that England's opportunity
was on the seas and in the colonies.
Louisbourg and Ft. William Henry.--At the advice of Loudoun an attack on
Louisbourg had been planned. A part of the troops were withdrawn from
the northern frontier and in June eleven or twelve thousand men were
gathered at Halifax, where they were joined by a squadron under
Vice-Admiral Holburne. The news that Louisbourg had been heavily
reinforced alarmed Loudoun and he returned to New York. Holburne cruised
off Louisbourg, hoping to attack the French, but his fleet was shattered
by a storm. Loudoun had left an insufficient force to defend the Lake
George region. Montcalm, ever on the alert to take advantage of the
blunders of the enemy, descended from Ticonderoga and attacked Fort
William Henry at the southern end of the lake. After a three days'
bombardment the English force of about two thousand surrendered. On the
continent the British had failed dismally. An attempt to capture
Rochefort had been unsuccessful and the Duke of Cumberland had conducted
an inglorious campaign in Germany. The only great British successes of
the year were in India where Calcutta and Chandernagore were captured
and the battle of Plassey was won.
Preparations and plans, 1758.--By 1758 Pitt, ably seconded by Admiral
Anson, had brought the army and navy to a high standard. A squadron was
sent to watch Brest, flying squadrons attacked several French ports, a
fleet was maintained in the Mediterranean to prevent the fleet at Toulon
from getting into the Atlantic, and small squadrons were sent to India,
to the African coast, and the West Indies. The army was raised to a
hundred thousand. In America Loudoun was superseded by Abercromby,
Major-General Amherst was sent over, and twenty thousand provincial
troops were put in the field. A three-fold offensive was planned. Forbes
with about seven thousand men was to attack Fort Duquesne; Abercromby
and Howe with fifteen thousand men were to clear the French from Lake
Champlain, and Amherst with twelve thousand regulars aided by a powerful
fleet under Admiral Boscawen was to attack Louisbourg.
Capture of Louisbourg.--Boscawen and Amherst rendezvoused at Halifax and
on June 1, 1758, over a hundred and fifty vessels appeared before
Louisbourg. Gradually the English forces encompassed the fortress. The
French sunk several war vessels in the harbor mouth to prevent the
entrance of the English fleet, but in the course of the bombardment
three of the remaining French vessels caught fire and two others were
destroyed by a night attack. The defences were battered down one by one
and on July 26 Ducour, the French commander, offered to capitulate and
six thousand prisoners of war passed into English hands.
Abercromby's defeat.--While the English were besieging Louisbourg,
Abercromby led his army of fifteen thousand against Ticonderoga.
Montcalm was in command of the French fortress, which was garrisoned by
less than four thousand men. The English army crossed Lake George on a
great flotilla, and on July 6 was within four miles of Ticonderoga.
Abercromby foolishly thought that the fortifications could be rushed
with the bayonet and on July 8 the attempt was made. The French fire
mowed down the charging ranks with frightful slaughter. A desultory
fight continued, followed by a second charge which also failed, and
Abercromby, after losing nearly two thousand men, decided to retreat. In
October Amherst took command of the forces which were encamped at the
southern end of Lake George, but the season was too far advanced to
attempt another great offensive in that region until spring.
Forts Frontenac and Duquesne.--The French forces on Lake Ontario had
been weakened by withdrawals. Taking advantage of this, in August
Lieutenant-Colonel Bradstreet led twenty-five hundred men against Fort
Frontenac. The feeble garrison of one hundred soon surrendered, and the
fort and ships in the harbor were destroyed. Lake Ontario was now in the
hands of the English, and French control on the upper Ohio was
weakening. General Forbes gathered a force of six or seven thousand men
and advanced toward Fort Duquesne. Upon the approach of the English in
November, the French destroyed the fortifications and scattered to the
various western posts which they still possessed.
Kerlerec and the southern Indians.--That the English did not carry the
war into the Southwest was due in no small part to the Indian policy of
Kerlerec, the governor of Louisiana. The Creeks and Choctaws were
traditionally favorable to the French, but their loyalty was always
strained by the superior quality of English goods. Kerlerec made annual
visits to Mobile to distribute presents, and prevented the Choctaws from
threatened defection. Through his influence, in 1755 and again in 1757
the Creeks expelled Englishmen sent to establish posts among them, and
murdered English traders. In 1757 Fort Massac was built on the Ohio to
prevent an English expedition descending that stream or the Cumberland.
At the same time the Shawnees returned to French allegiance.
The Cherokee War.--For three years Kerlerec intrigued with the Cherokees
and succeeded in winning them over. He soon incited them to attack the
settlements and many depredations occurred. In October, 1759, Governor
Lyttleton of South Carolina, after a show of force, patched up a truce,
but shortly afterward the Cherokees surrounded Fort Prince George and
killed the commander and two others. The garrison then massacred Indian
hostages within the fort, and immediately the southern frontier was
ablaze with war. Hostilities assumed such proportions that it was
necessary, early in 1760, for Amherst to send twelve hundred men to
assist the colony. An expedition under Colonel Montgomery destroyed many
Cherokee villages, but Montgomery's orders did not allow him to remain
long in the colony, and in August he departed for New York. The
Cherokees then captured Fort Loudoun. In 1761 an expedition of
twenty-six hundred Highlanders and colonials under Colonel Grant was
sent against the Indians. The heart of the Cherokee country was
penetrated and the Indians were forced to sue for peace.
Operations in the West Indies.--Late in 1758 British reinforcements were
sent to the West Indies to attempt the capture of the French island
possessions, twenty-five vessels being gathered under Commodore John
Moore. In January an attempt was made to take Martinique, but the French
force of ten thousand regulars and militia prevented the occupation.
During the following months Guadeloupe, Marie Galante, the Saintes, La
Desirade, and Petit Terre surrendered to the English.
The campaigns of 1759.--Four expeditions against the French in North
America were planned for 1759; one under Prideaux against Niagara, a
second under Stanwix against settlements on Lake Erie, and a third under
Amherst against Ticonderoga and Crown Point. The fourth under
Vice-Admiral Saunders and Major-General Wolfe was directed against
Quebec.
Niagara captured.--Prideaux arrived before Niagara in July. In the
attack the general was accidentally killed and Sir William Johnson took
command. He defeated a relieving force and the fort surrendered. The
fall of Niagara made it unnecessary for Stanwix to proceed, and he
devoted his energies to the building of Fort Pitt, on the site of modern
Pittsburgh.
The fall of Quebec.--While Amherst was slowly moving toward Lake
Champlain, the more important operations were proceeding against Quebec.
The rendezvous was at Louisbourg. There were gathered nine thousand
troops, thirty-nine men-of-war, ten auxiliaries, twenty-six transports,
and a hundred and sixty-two other craft, manned by eighteen thousand
men. In June the vast armament sailed up the St. Lawrence to attack the
strongest fortification on the continent. For the defence of the city
Montcalm was able to muster an army of seventeen thousand, four thousand
of whom were French regulars. The city occupies a promontory which juts
into the St. Lawrence. Behind it are the Plains of Abraham, a plateau
with almost perpendicular cliffs. To the eastward flows the River St.
Charles. Between the St. Charles and the Montmorency stretched the
fortified French camp. The only weak place in the defence was Point
Levis across the river. This Montcalm had wished to fortify but had been
overruled by Vaudreuil.
On June 26 the fleet approached the city and Point Levis was immediately
occupied. Then began a series of attacks upon the French positions below
the city, but every assault was repulsed and frequently with heavy loss.
It became evident that the French encampment could not be taken and the
plan of attack was changed. The fleet, which formed a screen for land
operations on the southern shore, had gradually succeeded in getting
several vessels above the city, intercepting supplies and
reinforcements. At a council of war an attack above the city was
determined upon. Wolfe withdrew his forces from the Montmorency and they
were transferred to a point above the town. This movement was covered by
the movement of the ships, which continually passed up and down the
river as if to make a landing. On September 12 Saunders bombarded the
French camp below the city. Montcalm, completely deceived, hurried
reinforcements to that quarter. Before dawn of September 13 Wolfe landed
his first detachment at the foot of the cliffs two miles above the city.
Up the steep side clambered a small party, who overcame the guard at the
top. By sunrise forty-five hundred men had mounted to the Plains of
Abraham. Montcalm made a desperate effort to regain the position but the
battle went in favor of the English. Both Wolfe and Montcalm were
killed. On September 17 the British troops entered Quebec, the key to
the St. Lawrence.
Important naval operations.--Elsewhere the English were equally
successful. In 1758 Senegal and Goree on the African coast had been
captured, and in 1759 on the coast of India a French fleet was bested
and abandoned the East Indian waters. Rodney destroyed a French fleet at
Havre, Boscawen in August completely defeated the French Mediterranean
fleet, and Hawke in November annihilated the channel fleet in a great
battle near Quiberon Bay.
The French fail to recapture Quebec.--Although Quebec had fallen the
French still had a formidable force in the field. The troops were
withdrawn from Lake Champlain and new levies were raised. By April,
1760, Levis had gathered an army of eleven thousand men and he proceeded
boldly to attempt the recapture of Quebec. A hard winter had greatly
reduced the effectiveness of the English garrison and General Murray was
able to meet the French with only three thousand men. On April 18
occurred the second battle on the Plains of Abraham. The artillery saved
the English and the attack failed. An English fleet soon blocked the St.
Lawrence and the possibility of aid from France was at an end.
The capture of Montreal.--The last important Canadian stronghold was
Montreal, and here Vaudreuil and Levis made their final stand. Three
English armies were sent against the place. Murray ascended the St.
Lawrence, Haviland advanced from Lake Champlain, and Amherst with eleven
thousand men proceeded from Lake Ontario down the St. Lawrence. The
French, weakened by desertions and discouraged by defeats, offered
little resistance; on September 8 articles of capitulation were signed
and the struggle for New France was practically ended. Forts Miami,
Detroit, Mackinac, and St. Joseph soon surrendered; of the mainland
colonies Louisiana alone remained in the possession of France and this
also she was destined to lose.
George III becomes king.--The year 1760 also saw the breaking of French
power in India. Colonel Eyre Coote decisively defeated Count Lally at
the battle of Wandewash and the next year Pondicherry was captured,
putting an effectual end to French influence in the Carnatic. When
English success was at its height George III ascended the throne of
England. He opposed the war of conquest which Pitt was waging, desiring
to break the power of the Whig oligarchy which long had dominated
English politics. In 1761 Pitt resigned but the king was unable to bring
the struggle to an immediate close, for Charles III of Spain renewed the
family compact with France, and Spain entered the war.
Operations in the West Indies and the Philippines.--Against the new
antagonist England's sea power was overwhelmingly superior. In 1761
Rodney was sent to take command in the West Indies. He found Dominica
already in English hands. Rodney immediately ordered the blockade of
Martinique and in February, 1762, the island was surrendered. Shortly
afterward Granada, the Grenadines, and St. Lucia were occupied. Admiral
Pocock was sent out with reinforcements, and a great fleet of
fifty-three war vessels, besides transports and other craft, with an
army of fifteen thousand proceeded against Havana. In June the place was
invested by land and sea. On July 30 Moro Castle was carried by storm,
and on August 13 the city surrendered. Nine ships of the line and loot
to the value of L3,000,000 fell into English hands. The extinguishment
of French power in India made it possible to turn attention to the
Philippines, and a squadron under Draper was sent against Manila. The
place was feebly garrisoned and quickly surrendered, the capitulation
taking place on October 5.
The Peace of Paris.--France, Spain, and England were ready for peace. At
the decisive moment Russia had turned to the side of Prussia, and
Austria was unable to continue the war alone. France made overtures to
England for peace, and on November 3, 1762, the preliminaries were
signed. The definitive treaty between England, France, and Spain was
signed at Paris on February 10, 1763. France surrendered to England
Canada, St. John's, Cape Breton, and all that part of Louisiana which
was east of the Mississippi except the Island of Orleans. France
retained certain fishing rights on the Newfoundland banks and was given
the islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon. She also obtained Martinique,
Guadeloupe, Marie Galante, and St. Lucia. Belle Isle and Goree were
restored to France, but England kept Senegal. Minorca was restored to
England. In Asia English conquests were restored to France but no
fortifications were to be erected by her in Bengal. The preliminary
agreements had arranged matters with Spain. In exchange for Havana,
Florida was ceded to England. Manila was eventually restored to Spain as
the news of the capture did not arrive until the preliminaries had been
signed. Louisiana had been an expensive province, and Louis XV gladly
surrendered all the territory west of the Mississippi and the Isle of
Orleans to Spain as a compensation for the losses of his ally. France
was virtually eliminated from America. England and Spain stood out as
the world's great colonizing powers.
READINGS
THE WARS OF JENKINS' EAR AND THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION
Armstrong, E., _Elizabeth Farnese_; Clowes, W.L., _The Royal Navy_, III,
50-138, 263-289; Jones, C.C., _The History of Georgia_, I, 314-369;
Mahan, A.T., _The Influence of Sea-Power upon History, 1660-1783_, pp.
254-279; McCrady, E., _The History of South Carolina under the Royal
Government, 1719-1776_, pp. 187-229; Parkman, F., _A Half-Century of
Conflict_, II, 33-256; Thwaites, R.G., _France in America_, 105-123;
Walton, J.S., _Conrad Weiser and the Indian Policy of Colonial
Pennsylvania_, 9-121; Wood, W., _The Great Fortress_; Shea, J.G.,
_Catholic Church in Colonial Days_, 470-479.
FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR
Beer, G.L., _British Colonial Policy_, 1754-1765, pp. 6-77; Casgrain,
R.R., _Wolfe and Montcalm_; Channing, Edward, _A History of the United
States_, II, 550-599; Clowes, W.L., _The Royal Navy_, III, 138-255;
Kingsford, W., _The History of Canada_, III, 387-568, IV.; Lucas, C.P.,
_A Historical Geography of the British Colonies_, V, 216-328; McCrady,
Edward, _The History of South Carolina under the Royal Government,
1719-1776_, pp. 329-352; Mahan, A.T., _The Influence of Sea-Power upon
History, 1660-1783_, pp. 281-329; Parkman, Francis, _Montcalm and
Wolfe_; Short, A., and Doughty, A.G., _Canada and its Provinces_, I,
231-312; Smith, P.H., _Acadia, a lost Chapter in American History_,
145-249; Stone, W.L., _The Life and Times of Sir William Johnson_, I,
327-555, II, 1-213; Thwaites, R.G., _France in America_, 143-280;
Villiers du Terrage, Marc de, _Les Dernieres Annees de la Louisiane
Francaise_, 48-108; Walton, J.S., _Conrad Weiser and the Indian Policy
of Colonial Pennsylvania_, 121-381; Wood, W., _The Passing of New
France; The Winning of Canada_; Corbett, J.S., _England in the Seven
Years' War_; Wrong, G.M., _The Conquest of New France_.