ENGLISH COLONIAL SOCIETY IN THE MIDDLE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY
GENERAL FEATURES
Population and settled area.--By 1760 the population of the English
continental colonies was probably 1,650,000; of these the New England
colonies contained about a half-million, the middle group about four
hundred and fifty thousand, and south of the Mason-Dixon line there were
about seven hundred thousand. Nearly half of the inhabitants were in
Massachusetts, Pennsylvania and Virginia. The bulk of the population
still clung to the coastal regions, but the rivers had pointed the way
to the interior; many of the valleys were occupied for a considerable
distance, and the Germans and Scotch-Irish had penetrated the great
valleys of the central and southern Appalachians. Practically the whole
of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut had been occupied; to
the northward extended three narrow lines of settlement, one along the
New Hampshire and Maine coast as far as the Penobscot and extending
fifty miles up the Kennebec, another reaching up the Merrimac for sixty
miles into central New Hampshire, and a third following the Connecticut
for fifty miles above the northern Massachusetts line. Long Island was
almost entirely settled, as was the Hudson Valley to a point a little
above Albany, and the lower Mohawk Valley had been settled. New Jersey,
except in the central part and a small section of the eastern coast, was
occupied. Eastern Pennsylvania, the lower valley of the Susquehanna, and
adjacent valleys were peopled, as was the western shore of Delaware Bay.
Maryland and Virginia were settled up to the mountains and had
overflowed into the valleys of the Blue Ridge. In North Carolina the
settlements extended back for a hundred and fifty miles or more from the
coast and as far south as the valley of the Cape Fear River. In the back
country of North and South Carolina and Georgia the valleys were
occupied and the population had flowed over onto the eastern slopes of
the Appalachians. The coast lands of South Carolina and Georgia as far
as the Altamaha and the lowlands along the Pedee, Santee, and Savannah
Rivers were occupied for a hundred miles from the coast.
The older settled areas were below the Fall Line. There the industrial
and social life was less in a state of flux than along the
ever-advancing frontier. The economic tendencies in the coast country
were already fixed and showed little change until machines and
transportation worked an industrial revolution early in the nineteenth
century. The social life was also comparatively stable and was so to
remain until the Revolutionary War.
Manufacturing and mining.--During the colonial period manufacturing made
little progress, due mainly to the abundance of cheap land and English
restrictions. The colonists depended mainly upon England for
manufactured goods. Nevertheless, manufacturing made some headway,
especially in the North, where agricultural pursuits brought less profit
than in the South. The coarser fabrics, linen, hats, and shoes were
produced for the local markets. Mining was also beginning, iron mines
having been developed in New England. Pennsylvania, Maryland, and
Virginia, and at least one copper mine was worked in New Jersey.
Ironworks were established in the neighborhood of the mines and supplied
many of the local needs. In 1750 an act was passed by parliament which
allowed colonial pig-iron to be imported into England and bar-iron to
enter the port of London. The manufacture of rum was an important
northern industry.
NEW ENGLAND INDUSTRY
Farming.--During the colonial period the great mass of the people were
engaged in agriculture. In New England, where soil and climate were less
favorable than in the South, the small farm with diversified crops was
the prevailing type. The supply of labor was limited and wages
relatively high. Under such conditions, the farmer, his sons, and the
"hired man" worked the place, and by dint of industry made a living. The
New England farmer was more nearly self-sufficient that any other class,
a condition which no doubt increased his feeling of independence. The
products of the farm were usually adequate for local needs but
furnished practically nothing for exportation.
Lumbering and ship-building.--The New England forests continued to be a
source of wealth. Lumber was produced in large quantities and
ship-building was carried on extensively in the coast and river towns,
the craft being of a somewhat larger type than formerly, vessels of five
hundred tons burden frequently leaving the ways. The English navy and
merchant marine obtained large quantities of masts and spars from New
England.
The fisheries.--The importance of the fisheries increased greatly after
the War of the Spanish Succession. From the Newfoundland banks were
derived the chief products for foreign trade. Almost every coast town
had its fishing fleet, Gloucester alone boasting nearly a hundred
vessels. The cod was the most important catch, but as the century
progressed whaling became a more and more important industry.
Commerce.--With the West Indies the New Englanders carried on an
extensive trade, lumber, fish, and rum being exchanged for sugar,
molasses, and other tropical products. Rum was also an important factor
in the slave trade, which was carried on mainly by the Rhode Islanders,
who exchanged the products of the distilleries for negroes on the Guinea
Coast and in the West Indies. These in turn were traded to the southern
colonies for tobacco, rice, indigo, and naval stores. From the profits
of southern commerce and from fish, lumber, and naval stores, the New
Englanders were able to purchase English textiles, hardware, glass, and
other manufactured articles. The chief port was Boston which contained
about twenty thousand inhabitants.
THE MIDDLE COLONIES
Intensive farming was at its best in the middle colonies, which were the
great producers of provisions. Live stock, cereals, fruit, and
vegetables were raised in large quantities, the animal products and
grain furnishing the chief products for exportation. Lumber and furs
were also important items of commerce.
New York.--An observant English traveler who visited New York in 1760,
gives the following excellent description of the colony: "The province
in its cultivated state affords grain of all sorts, cattle, hogs, and
great variety of English fruits.... The people ... export chiefly grain,
flour, pork, skins, furs, pig-iron, lumber, and staves.... They make a
small quantity of cloth, some linen, hats, shoes, and other articles of
wearing apparel. They make glass also, and wampum; refine sugars, which
they import from the West Indies; and distil considerable quantities of
rum." He also noted that the New Yorkers were engaged in ship-building.
The Indian traffic was mainly carried on through Albany. The foreign and
coastwise trade was concentrated at New York, a city with a population
of sixteen or seventeen thousand.
New Jersey.--New Jersey was fortunate in having an historian who has
left us an excellent account of the province. Samuel Smith's history
gives the following description: "Almost the whole extent of the
province adjoining on the atlantick, is barrens, or nearly approaching
it; yet there are scattering settlements all along the coast, the people
subsisting in great part by raising cattle in the bog undrained meadows
and marshes, and selling them to graziers, and cutting down the
cedars.... Another means of subsistence along the coast, is the plenty
of fish and oysters, these are carried to New-York and Philadelphia
markets.... The lands in general, (perhaps something better than two
thirds of the whole) are good, and bear wheat, barley, or anything else
suitable to the climate, to perfection. As the province has very little
foreign trade on bottoms of its own, the produce of all kinds for sale,
goes chiefly to New-York and Philadelphia; much of it is there purchased
for markets abroad; but some consumed among themselves."
Pennsylvania and Delaware.--Agriculture was the mainstay of the people
of Pennsylvania and Delaware. The thrifty Quakers, Germans,
Scotch-Irish, and Swedes who formed the bulk of the population, produced
large quantities of grain and live-stock. The surplus was brought to
Philadelphia, a well-built city of nearly twenty thousand inhabitants.
Peter Calm has left the following picture of its industrial life:
"Several ships are annually built of American oak in the docks.... The
town carries on a great trade both with the inhabitants of the country
and to other parts of the world, especially to the West Indies, South
America, and the Antilles; to England, Ireland, Portugal, and to
several English colonies in North America. Yet none but English ships
are allowed to come into this port. Philadelphia reaps the greatest
profits from its trade to the West Indies: for thither the inhabitants
ship almost every day a quantity of flour, butter, flesh, and other
victuals, timber, plank, and the like. In return they receive either
sugar, molasses, rum, indigo, mahogany, and other goods, or ready
money.... They send both West India goods and their own products to
England; the latter are all sorts of woods, especially walnut, and oak
planks for ships; ships ready built, iron, hides, and tar.... Ready
money is likewise sent over to England; from whence in return they get
all sorts of goods there manufactured, viz: fine and coarse cloth,
linen, iron ware, and other wrought metals, and East India goods; for it
is to be observed, that England supplies Philadelphia with almost all
stuffs and manufactured goods which are wanted here. A great quantity of
linseed goes annually to Ireland, together with many of the ships which
are built here. Portugal gets wheat, flour, and maize which is not
ground. Spain sometimes takes some corn. But all the money which is got
in these several countries, must immediately be sent to England, in
payment for the goods which are got from thence, and yet those sums are
not sufficient to pay all the debts."
THE SOUTHERN COLONIES
The tobacco colonies.--Maryland, Virginia, and the northeastern part of
North Carolina continued to be devoted largely to the raising of
tobacco. Except on the frontiers the small farms had disappeared, having
been, absorbed by great landholdings. Many of the plantations covered
thousands of acres, but probably not more than a tenth of the land was
under cultivation. The tobacco crop was extremely exhaustive to the
soil, and when the land had been cropped until its productivity
decreased, wheat or corn were usually planted, or it was turned into
pasturage. The tangled thicket soon sprang up and in the wilderness
ranged cattle and hogs. The breeding of horses was attended to with
care, for horse-racing and fox-hunting were favorite diversions among
the planters, but the cattle and hogs were of inferior quality. The
great article of commerce was tobacco, but grain, pork, and lumber were
also exported. From the Madeiras the planters received wines and from
the West Indies rum, sugar, molasses, and slaves. Most of the
manufactured articles came directly from England. In spite of the
considerable trade, no large towns had sprung up, the plantation
continuing to be the economic and social unit of the tobacco colonies.
The industries of North Carolina were more diversified than those of the
other southern colonies as is shown by the following statement from
Edmund Burke's _Account of the European Settlements in America_:
Exported from all the ports of North Carolina in 1753:
Tar 61,528 barrels
Pitch 12,055 ditto
Turpentine 10,429 ditto
Staves 762,330 no.
Shingles 2,500,000 no.
Lumber 2,000,647 feet
Corn 61,580 bushels
Peas, about 10,000 ditto
Pork & Beef 3,300 barrels
Tobacco, about 100 hogsheads
Tanned leather about 1,000 hundred weight
Deer skins, in all ways, about 30,000
Besides a very considerable quantity of wheat, rice, bread, potatoes,
bees-wax, tallow, candles, bacon, hogs lard, some cotton, and a vast
deal of squared timber of walnut and cedar, and hoops and headings of
all sorts. Of late they raise indigo, but in what quantity I cannot
determine, for it is all exported from South Carolina. They raise
likewise much more tobacco than I have mentioned, but this, as it is
produced on the frontiers of Virginia, so it is exported from thence.
They export too no inconsiderable quantity of beaver, racoon, otter,
fox, minx, and wild cat skins, and in every ship a good deal of live
cattle, besides what they vend in Virginia.
The rice country.--The great staple of South Carolina was rice, which
was grown upon the marshy lands. A limited amount was also produced in
North Carolina and Georgia. The unhealthfulness of the rice fields,
coupled with the large profits from the business, were factors which
made negro slavery seem desirable. In 1733 the whites in South Carolina
numbered about seven thousand, in 1748 about twenty-five thousand, and
in 1765 about forty thousand, but this increase was due largely to the
great migration to the back country. Between 1753 and 1773 it is
estimated that about forty-three thousand slaves were brought into the
province.
Indigo.--In 1741 or 1742 Miss Elizabeth Lucas, the daughter of the
governor of Antigua, planted some indigo seed on the Lucas plantation
near Charleston. From this beginning the indigo business rapidly
developed. In 1747 the colony produced 134,118 pounds; in 1754 over
200,000 pounds were exported, and shortly before the Revolution over
1,000,000 pounds were shipped annually.
Commerce.--Charleston was the commercial center. Its white population
was about five thousand in 1760 and it contained about an equal number
of negroes. In the summer and autumn the population increased, as the
planters' families stayed in the metropolis to escape the
unhealthfulness of the back country. Hundreds of vessels were engaged in
the South Carolina trade, the products being shipped to the northern
colonies and to the West Indies, to Holland, Portugal, the
Mediterranean, and England. From the profits the planters purchased the
necessities and luxuries of English manufacture, the wines of Portugal
and Madeira, and the rum, sugar, molasses, and slaves of the West
Indies.
Georgia.--In 1760 Georgia contained about six thousand whites and
thirty-five hundred negroes. Industry was diversified, as is shown by a
report of Governor Wright of 1766 which says: "Our whole time and
strength ... is applied in planting rice, corn, peas, and a small
quantity of wheat and rye, and in making pitch, tar, and turpentine, and
in making shingles and staves, and sawing lumber and scantling, and
boards of every kind, and in raising stocks of cattle, mules and
hogs...." In addition there was considerable fur trade, for which
Augusta was the center.
LABOR SYSTEMS
Free labor.--The preponderance of agriculture and the abundance of cheap
land made a continual demand for laborers. The climatic and soil
conditions determined the labor system of each area. In the north the
small farm was usually tilled by the owner and his sons, aided by hired
help especially during harvest time. The men of a neighborhood
frequently combined to do important pieces of work, such as clearing
land, house-building, haying, harvesting, and corn-husking.
Indented servants.--The great plantations of the south demanded large
forces of laborers, and there the bond servants and slaves formed the
important elements of the laboring classes. The indented servants were
of two classes, voluntary and involuntary. The voluntary servants were
those who, for transportation and maintenance, willingly bound
themselves to a master for a term of years. In the seventeenth century
the usual term had been seven years, but in the eighteenth the demand
for labor was so strong that the limit was usually four years. At the
end of the term of service the servant either worked for hire or "took
up" land. Many moved to the frontier where they soon became prosperous
farmers.
The involuntary bond servants were paupers, disorderly persons, and
criminals. The harsh penal laws of England at that time recognized three
hundred capital crimes. Imprisonment for debt and for political offenses
swelled the numbers in confinement. To relieve the situation
parliamentary acts were passed which allowed the commutation of the
death penalty to a service of fourteen years in the colonies, and seven
years in place of branding and whipping. We have no data for exact
numbers of indented servants, but a careful student of industrial life
in the colonies has estimated that they probably constituted one-half of
all English immigrants, the middle colonies, Maryland, and Virginia,
receiving the larger numbers.
Slavery.--In the seventeenth century negro slavery was of minor
importance in the mainland colonies, but as the plantation system
developed slaves became an ever-increasing element. In the New England
colonies and Pennsylvania they were used principally as house servants.
In New York and New Jersey they formed from eight to ten per cent. of
the population. It has been estimated that in 1760 there were four
hundred thousand slaves south of Pennsylvania. In Maryland they
constituted about thirty per cent. of the population, probably forty per
cent. in Virginia, and sixty per cent. in South Carolina.
FEATURES OF SOCIETY
Near the coast.--Colonial society in the older settled regions was
aristocratic rather than democratic This was due mainly to English
customs and traditions, to an increasing wealth and corresponding
raising of the standard of living, to the strength of the religious
institutions, and to the colonial system, which provided for a
considerable body of officials. In New England the ruling classes were
the clergy and the selectmen, who occupied the important places both in
the church and in political use; the official class, at the head of whom
was the governor; and a third group, the merchants, who usually were not
admitted to the governor's circle, and who were apt to voice their
social disapprobation in their influence upon legislation. In New York
and eastern New Jersey the great landholders and the official group
controlled politics and society. In western New Jersey and Pennsylvania
the Quakers were politically, socially, and commercially the
preponderant element. In the South the plantation owners formed an
aristocracy whose social lines were drawn with distinctness.
The frontier.--In contrast to the tide-water country, frontier society
was distinctly individualistic and democratic. The Scotch-Irish and
Germans had flocked to the mountain country. There they had built their
cabins, made their clearings in the forest, and lived a life free from
the conventions of the longer settled communities. Hunting, fur-trading,
lumbering, and cattle raising were their chief pursuits. The danger from
Indian attack was a constant menace, and personal bravery and
resourcefulness were strongly marked characteristics. With it all they
were a religious people, the Presbyterians and Pietists being
predominant.
The Anglican church.--The religious lines marked out in the seventeenth
century were followed in the eighteenth with one notable exception,
namely, the growth of the Anglican church. This was due mainly in the
first instance to the efforts of the Bishop of London who sent
commissaries to America, the first being James Blair who was sent to
Virginia in 1689, and the second Thomas Bray, who in 1695 was sent to
inquire into the state of the colonial church. The result of Bray's
inquiry was the founding in 1701 of the Society for Propagating the
Gospel. At the time of its foundation nearly all of the Episcopal
churches were in Virginia and Maryland. In 1759 Thomas Sherlock, the
Bishop of London, reported that, "at least one half of the Plantations
are of the established Church.... This is the case of So. Carolina, N.
Carolina, Virginia, Maryland, Jamaica, Barbadoes, Antegoa, Nevis, and
the rest of the Caribbee Islands. On the other side--Pennsylvania is in
the hands and under the governmt of the Quakers, and New England and the
adjoining Colonies are in the hands of the Independents. But in some of
them are great numbers of Churchmen."
The Great Awakening.--The eighteenth century witnessed a great change in
the New England churches. After a hundred years the early enthusiasm of
the Puritan church had subsided, and though its doctrine had changed but
slightly, a marked change in emphasis had taken place. Conversion was
still considered a divine work, but the belief had become current that
the soul could be put in touch with the spirit of God by prayer,
scriptural study, regular church attendance, participation in the Lord's
Supper, a moral life, and having been born of parents who belonged to
the church, by "owning the covenant." Against these views Jonathan
Edwards rebelled. In 1734 at Northampton, Edwards preached a series of
sermons in which he defended the doctrine of justification by faith
alone. He pleaded for immediate repentance and denied that good deeds
would lead to salvation. The religious revival, started at Northampton,
soon spread throughout Connecticut, and reverberated in Boston. At the
height of the movement George Whitefield, the friend of the Wesleys,
after preaching in Georgia and South Carolina, in 1740 visited New
England where thousands were converted. By 1744 the movement had
somewhat spent itself, and when Whitefield arrived at Boston for a
second preaching tour he found that a reaction had set in. The followers
of Edwards and Whitefield had come to be known as the "New Light" party,
while the reactionaries formed the "Old Light" party. Two generations
later this led to the separation of the Congregational body into the
"Orthodox" and "Unitarian" groups.
Colleges.--Religion played a large part in eighteenth century education.
William and Mary College, founded in Virginia in 1691 under Anglican
influence, was the only institution of advanced learning in the South.
Yale, founded in 1701 under strong clerical influence, became the seat
of orthodox Calvinism. Harvard also came on apace, in 1721 and 1727
establishing professorships in divinity and natural philosophy. Through
the influence of Presbyterian ministers, in 1746 the College of New
Jersey was granted a charter. King's College, now Columbia University,
founded in New York in 1754, was made possible by the efforts of Dean
Berkeley. In 1755, largely through the instrumentality of Benjamin
Franklin, the first college was founded in Pennsylvania, the institution
being freer from religious influence than any other colonial college.
BARBADOS, THE LEEWARD ISLES, AND JAMAICA
West Indian planters.--In the British West Indies, the production of
sugar profoundly influenced social and economic conditions. The West
Indian planter with his vast estate worked by slaves had crowded out the
small landholder. He represented the capitalistic class, belonged to the
Anglican church, and held views similar to those of the rural
aristocracy of the mother country. It has been customary for historians
to paint a roseate picture of life on the West India plantations, and no
doubt there were many pretentious homes and many of the planters were
possessed of great wealth. But it is a striking fact that a large
percentage of the owners spent much of their time in England where their
reckless living gave a false impression of West Indian prosperity.
Slavery fostered industrial waste, and coupled with a tropical climate,
produced a manner of fife which undermined character; drinking,
gambling, immorality, and sloth were common vices. Earthquakes and
hurricanes frequently devastated the islands, the numerous wars
destroyed shipping and cargoes, and slave insurrections were a constant
terror. Churches, schools, and newspapers were sadly inadequate.
Codrington College in Barbados, the only notable school in the islands,
had but fifty students. Children of the planters were frequently sent to
England to be educated, but they there acquired a point of view which
made plantation life distasteful and tended to swell the large group of
absentee landlords.
Barbados and the Leeward Isles.--During the seventeenth century most of
the British sugar came from Barbados and the Leeward Isles, but lack of
fertilization and slave labor had brought about deterioration on the
estates, and during the eighteenth century both population and
productivity were on the decline. In 1762 the white population of
Barbados was about 18,000 and the blacks numbered 70,000. In 1736 the
island produced 22,769 hogsheads of sugar, while during 1740-1748 the
average annual production was 13,948 hogsheads. In 1744, Antigua, St.
Christopher, Nevis, and Montserrat contained a total of about 11,000
whites and 60,000 slaves. As the lands became less productive, the
planters attempted to make up the loss by increasing the number of
slaves, a method which probably aggravated the condition.
Jamaica.--In the eighteenth century, Jamaica was the West Indian
frontier. There could be found large tracts of unoccupied land suitable
for sugar culture. In spite of this the population increased slowly;
this was mainly due to slave insurrections which were frequent until
1739, to the fact that there was a constant migration of small
landholders from the British West Indies, and to a depressed sugar
market. The Island of Jamaica contained 3,840,000 acres; in 1754, 1620
planters had under cultivation 1,671,569 acres. The demand for slaves
was keener than in any other British sugar island. During 1702-1775 it
has been estimated that the planters purchased about 5,000 negroes a
year from the slave traders.
A contemporary description of Jamaica.--Leslie described the island
customs in 1740 as follows: "The Gentlemens Houses are generally built
low, of one Story, consisting of five or six handsome Apartments,
beautifully lined and floored with mahogany, which looks exceeding gay;
they have generally a Piazza to which you ascend by several Steps, and
serves for a Screen against the Heat.... The Negroes have nothing but a
Parcel of poor miserable Huts built of Reeds, any of which can scarce
contain upwards of two or three.
"The common Dress here is none of the most becoming, the Heat makes many
clothes intolerable, and therefore the Men generally wear only Thread
Stockings, Linen Drawers, and Vest, a Handkerchief tied around their
Head, and a hat above. ... The negroes go mostly naked, except those
who attend Gentlemen.... The Laidies are as gay as any in _Europe_,
dress as richly, and appear with as good a Grace.... Learning is here at
the lowest Ebb; there is no publick School in the whole Island, neither
do they seem fond of the Thing.... The Office of a Teacher is looked
upon as contemptible, and no Gentlemen keeps Company with one of that
Character; to read, write, and cast up Accounts is all the Education
they desire, and even these are but scurvily taught.... The Gentlemen,
whose Fortunes can allow, send their children to Great Britain. ... The
Laidies read some, dance a great deal, coquet much, dress for Admirers,
and at last, for the most Part, run away with the most insignificant of
their humble Servants. Their Education consists entirely in acquiring
these little Arts."
Emigration.--There was a constant migration of small landholders from
the British West Indies to the French and Dutch islands, to Guiana and
to the North American colonies. Several acts were passed whose object
was to increase the number of colonists, but they had little effect, for
the small landowners could not compete with the great slave proprietors.
The colonists with small capital preferred to start where lands were
cheaper and where social fines were not so tightly drawn.
Illicit trade.--The largest market for northern goods was found in the
West Indies. Here was a field which required the products of the
temperate zone. As Pitman observes, "Its demands upon Northern
lumbermen, stock-raisers, and farmers, furnish a powerful incentive for
the clearing and settlement of the continent." In spite of legal
restrictions the Yankee skipper plied his trade. The planters of the
sugar islands believed that the Molasses Act would restore their
prosperity, but they soon found that natural economic laws were stronger
than parliamentary enactments and that the northern sea-captain smuggled
as of old. A considerable inter-island trade which ignored nationality
was also carried on. St. Eustatius and the Virgin Isles became important
smuggler havens, and even when war was in progress, the British
Americans did not hesitate to supply their enemies with provisions and
lumber in exchange for sugar, rum, and molasses.
READINGS
THE CONTINENTAL COLONIES
Bassett, J.S., ed., _The Writings of Colonel William Byrd of Westover in
Virginia, Esqr_.; Bogart, E.L., _The Economic History of the United
States_, 53-104; Burke, Edmund, _An Account of the European Settlements
in America_, II, 145-273; Burnaby, Andrew, _Travels through the Middle
Settlements in North America_; Callender, G.S., _Selections from the
Economic History of the United States_, 6-84; Clark, V.S., _History of
Manufactures in the United States, 1607-1860_, 73-214; Cross, A.L., _The
Anglican Episcopate and the American Colonies_; Dexter, F.B., "Estimates
of Population," in Am. Antiquarian Society, _Proceedings_, 1887; Fiske,
John, _Old Virginia and her Neighbors_, II, 174-369; Greene, E.B.,
_Provincial America_, 270-342; Hart, A.B., _Contemporaries_, II,
224-311; Johnson, E.R., and others, _History of Domestic and Foreign
Commerce of the United States_, I, 84-121; Kalm, Peter, _Travels in
North America_, in Pinkerton, _Travels_, XIII, 374-700; McCrady, Edward,
_The History of South Carolina under the Royal Government, 1719-1776_,
pp. 376-540; Smith, Samuel, _The History of the Colony of Nova Caesaria,
or New Jersey_, 419-509; Weeden, W.B., _Economic and Social History of
New England_, II, 449-713; Andrews, C.M., _Colonial Folkways_; Phillips,
U.B., _American Negro Slavery_, 67-114.
THE WEST INDIES
Edwards, Bryan, _History of the West Indies_; Gardner, W.J., _History of
Jamaica_; Long, Edward, _History of Jamaica_; Pitman, Frank W., _The
Development of the British West Indies, 1700-1763_; Phillips, U.B.,
_American Negro Slavery_, 46-66.