THE BEGINNINGS OF ENGLISH EXPANSION (1485-1603)
THE TUDOR PERIOD
Periods of English activities.--While the French were colonizing Canada
and the West Indies, and the Spaniards were opening mines and ranches in
northern Mexico, the English were founding still more vigorous
settlements on the Atlantic seaboard, in the islands, and in the region
of Hudson Bay.
The history of English activities in America before 1783 may be divided
into four periods: (1) The Tudor epoch (1485-1603), which was a period
of commercial expansion, exploration, and attempted colonization; (2)
the Stuart and Cromwellian era (1603-1689), the period of colony
planting; (3) the international struggle for territory (1689-1763); and
(4) the struggle of a part of the English colonists for independence
(1763-1783).
Henry VII.--When Henry Tudor ascended the throne of England a new era
was ushered in. The continental possessions except Calais had been swept
away in the Hundred Years' War. The Wars of the Roses had broken the
power of the feudal barony, and the middle class Englishman had become
the most important political element in the nation. The general form of
the constitution had become fixed, the functions of the three branches
of the government, the king and his council, parliament, and the courts,
having become fairly well defined. The work of Henry Tudor was to
restore the finances, to build up commerce and industry, to keep England
at peace, and at the same time, by a series of marriage alliances and by
adroit diplomacy to raise England to her former position as a great
European power. He also built up the kingship at the expense of a
subservient parliament.
The English Reformation.--During the three succeeding reigns, England
played little part in exploration. While Spain was founding her vast
colonial empire, the attention of Englishmen was centered on the
European situation created by Charles V and on the great religious
controversy, which resulted in the break with Rome and the establishment
of the Anglican church.
Queen Elizabeth.--With the accession of Queen Elizabeth a new situation
arose. To the Catholic powers, Elizabeth had no right to the throne of
England. Philip II of Spain hoped to restore the country to the Catholic
fold; his first wife was Queen Mary of England, and under his influence
a short-lived Catholic reaction had been produced; if Elizabeth could
now be induced to turn Catholic and marry Philip, England might be won
back to the Roman church. Elizabeth, however, followed an independent
course, dangling before the eyes of the Spanish ambassador the
possibility of a marriage with Philip, while perfecting the organization
of the Anglican church, increasing her hold upon the affections of her
subjects, strengthening her treasury, army, navy, and defences, and
stimulating industry and commerce. Her path was beset with additional
difficulties, for the powerful Catholic party in France was intriguing
to place Mary Stuart, the queen of Scotland, on the English throne. To
weaken her foes, Elizabeth aided the Huguenots, assisted the Dutch in
their war against Spain, and connived with English mariners to raid the
Spanish Main. In 1588 the patience of Philip was exhausted, and he
sought to humble the haughty queen by sending the Invincible Armada
against England. A running fight occurred in the Channel and several of
the galleons were sunk or driven on shore. The Armada entered the roads
of Calais but a great storm shattered the fleet. Of the original one
hundred and thirty vessels only one-third returned to Spain. The defeat
of the Armada marks a turning point in Spanish and English history. From
that time Spain was thrown on the defensive and her power on the
continent gradually declined, though her colonies continued to expand.
England followed up her success by taking the offensive; an era of
greater commercial activity followed, and she soon entered upon her role
of a colonizing nation.
COMMERCIAL EXPANSION
John Cabot.--The discovery of new lands in the west soon became known in
England, and when the Venetian citizen, John Cabot, applied for letters
patent to go on a western voyage, Henry VII readily complied. In May,
1497, his single ship with eighteen men set sail from Bristol and
crossed the north Atlantic. It is impossible to state with certainty
what part of the coast was visited, but it appears to have been in the
neighborhood of Cape Breton Island. The idea that Sebastian Cabot
accompanied his father is generally rejected by the best authorities.
The importance of the voyage lies in the fact that it was used at a
later date to strengthen the English claim to a large part of North
America. The following year John Cabot sailed for the new found land but
never returned.
The Newfoundland fisheries.--Cabot's voyage had another important
result. He had discovered a convenient trade route to the fisheries of
Newfoundland, and English, French, Spanish, and Portuguese fishing
vessels soon swarmed the region. English ships are thought to have
traded there regularly after 1502. Expeditions are known to have been
made thither in 1527 and 1536, and before 1550 fishing fleets went from
southern England to Newfoundland every spring and autumn.
The Muscovy Company.--The latter half of the Tudor period witnessed the
formation of great companies which reached out for foreign trade. In
1553 a group of London merchants decided to make an attempt to reach
China and the East Indies by a northern route. Under the command of
Willoughby and Chancellor, three ships sailed along the Norway coast and
rounded the North Cape. Willoughby and the crews of two of the ships
perished on the coast of Lapland, but Chancellor entered the White Sea
and penetrated to Moscow, where he was promised trading privileges by
Ivan the Terrible. In 1555 the merchants who were interested in the
expedition were granted a royal charter, the company being familiarly
known as the Muscovy Company. Annual fleets were despatched to the White
and Baltic seas; warehouses were established at various points in
Russia, and the agents of the company extended their activities to the
Caspian Sea, to Bokhara, and to Persia. In 1580 the Turks cut them off
from the region outside of European Russia. Occasional unsuccessful
attempts were also made by the company to reach China by the northern
route. In 1579 the Eastland Company, a rival organization, was chartered
to trade in the Baltic, and developed an extensive trade in Poland.
The Levant Company.--English merchants also turned their attention to
the Mediterranean to renew a trade which had formerly been of some
importance. In 1581 a charter was issued to the Levant Company, which
engaged in trading with the Turkish ports along the southern and eastern
shores of the Mediterranean. The same year a charter was granted to the
Venetian Company and in 1592 the two were combined as the Levant
Company. Among those interested in the Mediterranean commerce were Sir
Thomas Smythe and Sir Walter Raleigh, both of whom were important
figures in the colonization of Virginia. Other groups of merchants
opened trade with Morocco, and the Senegambia and Guinea coasts. In all
of these enterprises Englishmen were reaching out for the trade with the
East Indies, which had long been monopolized by the Portuguese. In 1581,
the year in which the Levant Company was chartered, Portugal was
incorporated with Spain, and hostility to that power added another
incentive to reach the East.
THE ELIZABETHAN SEA-DOGS
John Hawkins.--Among those interested in the African trade was William
Hawkins, who filled the important positions of mayor of Plymouth and
member of parliament. He made three voyages to Guiana and Brazil. His
son, John Hawkins, became one of the most famous mariners of his time.
In 1562 he sailed for Africa to obtain slaves, which he disposed of in
Espanola. In 1564-1565 he engaged in a second voyage which resulted in
great profit. A third voyage in 1567-1568 ended disastrously. The
Spanish government had sent a fleet to stop the traffic; but in spite of
it he forced an entrance to the West Indian ports and disposed of his
cargo. Being driven by a storm into the harbor of Vera Cruz, he was
attacked by a Spanish fleet and but two of the English vessels escaped.
Drake and Cavendish.--Francis Drake, a nephew of John Hawkins, had
accompanied him on his third expedition and had suffered the loss of his
investment. He soon began a series of reprisals. In 1572 he made an
unsuccessful attack on Nombre de Dios and ascended the Chagres River
where he waylaid a train of mules laden with bullion. The example set by
him was frequently followed by raids of English mariners in the
following decade. In 1577 another fleet sailed under Drake's command.
After capturing several Spanish and Portuguese vessels on the African
coast, the fleet crossed the Atlantic and attempted to pass through the
Straits of Magellan. Only one vessel reached the Pacific. Drake
proceeded up the western coast, plundering as he went. In a harbor known
as Drake's Bay, north of San Francisco Bay, he refitted, and claimed the
California region for the queen, calling it New Albion. He then sailed
to the East Indies where a cargo of spice was obtained. From Java, Drake
crossed the Indian Ocean, rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and proceeded
to England, entering the harbor of Plymouth in November, 1580, having
completed the first English circumnavigation of the globe. In 1586
Thomas Cavendish followed almost the same course, plundered the Spanish
commerce in the Pacific, and in 1588 completed the circumnavigation of
the world. Besides Hawkins, Drake, and Cavendish a score of English
mariners engaged in raiding the Spanish Main. They were assisted
financially by the queen and by many of her councillors who considered
the raiding of Spanish commerce good business as well as good state
policy.
East Indian trade.--A party of English merchants had also succeeded in
penetrating from the Syrian coast to India. The report of their journey
and the voyages of Drake and Cavendish stimulated the desire to open
trade with the Far East. The result was that in 1591 an expedition was
fitted out which rounded the Cape of Good Hope and reached Ceylon,
India, and the Malay Peninsula. Reports of the successes of the Dutch in
the East Indies increased the interest of the English merchants, and in
1600 the East India Company was formed.
SEARCH FOR A NORTHWEST PASSAGE
Frobisher.--The unsuccessful attempts of the Muscovy Company to reach
the East by a northeast passage led to the search for a northwestern
route. The great exponent of the idea was Martin Frobisher. After vainly
seeking many years for a patron who would furnish funds, in 1574 he
received the support of Michael Lock, a member of the Muscovy Company,
and the following year a royal license was granted to undertake the
work.
In June, 1576, Frobisher sailed from England in command of three small
vessels, only one of which reached America. The vessel passed along the
Labrador coast, crossed the entrance of Hudson Strait, and coasted
Baffin Land, entering the inlet now known as Frobisher's Bay. Upon his
return to England, Frobisher took back a large stone, which an assayer
claimed contained gold. In consequence the queen and many influential
men subscribed liberally for another voyage. The Company of Cathay was
formed which was to have a monopoly in all lands to the westward where
Englishmen had not traded before. Expeditions in search of gold were
sent out under Frobisher in 1577 and 1578, but the rocks which were
brought back proved to be worthless.
Gilbert.--Among those interested in the search for a northwest passage
was Raleigh's half-brother, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, who believed that a
colony might be established on the American coast. In 1578 he obtained a
six-year monopoly of discovery and settlement in America. A fleet was
equipped, but being twice scattered by storms, the attempt was
abandoned. In 1583 Gilbert made a second venture. Arriving at St. Johns,
Newfoundland, Gilbert informed the crews of the fishing fleet of his
commission, and took possession in the name of Elizabeth. On the return
voyage the _Squirrel_ with Gilbert and all on board was lost in a storm
just north of the Azores.
Davis.--In 1584 John Davis, Walter Raleigh, and others were granted a
charter to explore a route to China and to trade in lands which might be
discovered. Command of an expedition was given to Davis, who sailed from
Dartmouth in 1585. The southern coast of Greenland was explored and
Davis Strait was crossed, but the illusive opening was not found. In
1586 and 1587 Davis sought the passage but without success.
ATTEMPTS AT COLONIZATION
Raleigh and the attempted colonization of Virginia.--England's struggle
with Spain for empire did not end with an attack on her fleets and her
colonies. Men soon arose who dared to dispute Spain's monopoly by
planting colonies in the lands claimed by His Catholic Majesty. The
leader in the enterprise was Sir Walter Raleigh. In 1584 he received a
patent similar to that of Gilbert. Two vessels were soon despatched
under Amadas and Barlowe. They followed the southern route by the
Canaries and the West Indies, and finally landed on Roanoke Island,
taking possession of that region, which was named Virginia in honor of
Elizabeth, a name which was soon applied to the country from the Spanish
settlements to Newfoundland. In April of the following year Grenville
commanded a second expedition which took out the first colonists, who
made a settlement on Roanoke Island. In 1586 supply ships were sent out,
but they found the settlement deserted. Wearied by the hard winter, the
settlers had accepted an offer from Sir Francis Drake, who had been
raiding in the Caribbean, to carry them back to England.
In 1587 another group of colonists including almost a hundred men,
seventeen women, and several children, was sent out under Governor John
White and landed at Roanoke. White returned to England, but owing to the
naval war with Spain and other difficulties he was unable to go to
Virginia again until 1591, when he found only deserted ruins. News of
the English intrusion caused alarm on the Spanish frontier, and the
governor of Florida in person led a counter expedition up the coast as
far as Chesapeake Bay. To this day the fate of the Roanoke colony is a
mystery, but light on the matter may yet be shed by the Spanish
archives.
Raleigh's Orinoco expedition.--The discoveries of the Spaniards in
Mexico and Peru spurred the Englishman to attempt to find similar lands
of treasure. A story became current that in the interior of South
America on the upper waters of the Amazon and the Orinoco was a great
kingdom, which contained a powerful city called Manoa. It was also
believed that in the interior there was a mountain of sapphire and a
land ruled by female warriors called Amazons. After the failure of the
Roanoke enterprise, Raleigh became interested in this land of wonders,
and in 1594 sent a vessel to the Guiana coast to obtain information. The
following year Raleigh himself made an exploration of the delta of the
Orinoco and ascended the main stream a considerable distance. But the
city of Manoa proved elusive, supplies ran short, and the expedition
returned to England.
READINGS
CABOT
Bourne, E.G., _Spain in America_, 54-61; Channing, Edward, _History of
the United States_, I, 33-42; Fiske, John, _Discovery of America_, II,
2-15; Markham, C.R., _Columbus_, 226-233; Olson, J.E., ed., _The
Northmen, Columbus and Cabot_.
COMMERCIAL COMPANIES
Cheyney, E.P., _A History of England from the Defeat of the Armada to
the Death of Elizabeth_, I, 309-348, 375-422, 433-459; Cunningham,
William, _The Growth of English Industry and Commerce in Modern
Times--The Mercantile System_, 214-279; Scott, W.R., _The Constitution
and Finance of English, Scottish and Irish Joint-Stock Companies to
1720_, II, 3-11, 36-52, 83-89; Tilby, A.W., _The English People
Overseas_, I, 38-43.
SEA ROVERS, THE NORTHWEST PASSAGE, AND RALEIGH
Buchan, J., _Sir Walter Ralegh_; Channing, Edward, _History of the
United States_, I, 115-140; Cheyney, E.P., _A History of England from
the Defeat of the Armada to the Death of Elizabeth_, I, 349-374,
423-459; Corbett, J.S., _Drake and the Tudor Navy; Sir Francis Drake_;
Hume, M.A.S., _Sir Walter Ralegh_; Nuttall, Zelia, _New Light on Drake_;
Payne, E.J., _Elizabethan Sea-men_; Scott, W.R., _The Constitution and
Finance of English, Scottish and Irish Joint-Stock Companies to 1720_,
II, 76-82, 241-245; Tilby, A.W., _The English People Overseas_, I,
24-38; Woodward, W.H., _A Short History of the Expansion of the British
Empire_, 17-63; Wood, W., _Elizabethan Sea-Dogs_.