THE FOUNDING OF NEW SPAIN (1492-1543)
SPAIN DURING THE CONQUEST
The discoveries of Columbus opened to Spain the opportunity to found a
great colonial empire in the new world. For this work Spain had been
prepared by the welding of the nation which was perfected during the
reign of Ferdinand and Isabella.
The Christian reconquest.--In the eighth century the Mohammedan Berbers
had overthrown the Visigothic kingdom, the unconquered Christian princes
retiring to the mountain regions of the north. Gradually they
reconquered the country. By 910 they had established the kingdoms of
Leon and Navarre, and the county of Barcelona. By 1037 Leon and Castile
had united and conquered a wide tract south of the Douro River. Aragon,
originally a Frankish country, had also become an independent kingdom.
By 1150 almost two-thirds of the peninsula had been conquered; Portugal
now extended from the Minho River to the Tagus; Castile occupied the
central region, and Aragon had incorporated Barcelona and Catalonia.
During the next two centuries the rest of the peninsula, except the
small kingdom of Granada, was conquered, and Aragon established her
power in the Balearic Isles, Sardinia, and southern Italy. In 1469
Isabella of Castile married Ferdinand of Aragon, thus uniting the two
great states. In 1481 they made war upon Granada, completing its
conquest in the year of the discovery of America. All of these changes
had been chiefly of rulers, the great body of the people remaining of
the original Iberian stock.
Lack of unity.--But there was neither unity of speech, customs, nor
institutions. There were three main religious groups, Christians,
Mohammedans, and Jews. The people were also divided into social classes,
nobility, clergy, common people, and slaves. The ranks and privileges of
the nobility varied greatly, some having immense estates and almost
sovereign powers, others being landless soldiers of fortune. Castile
was the land of castles. The nobles were turbulent and warlike. They
delighted in chivalry, which probably attained a higher development in
Spain than in any other country. Furthermore, there were three great
military orders, which had grown in strength during the Moorish wars;
these were the Knights of Santiago, of Calatrava, and of Alcantara, at
the head of each of which was a grand master. The orders, the landed
nobility, and the church owned about one-third of the land and
controlled large military forces. The cities were also powerful; they
were strongly fortified, regulated their own affairs, and many of them
had great fleets and extensive commerce. Life outside of the cities was
largely pastoral, wool, growing being the principal industry. Both
Castile and Aragon contained governing bodies called _Cortes_, to which
some of the larger cities sent representatives, but they were of little
importance, most of the work of lawmaking being done by the sovereign
acting with his Council of State.
Establishment of unity.--To bring the entire country into religious and
political unity was the great task of Ferdinand and Isabella. This was
accomplished partly through the _Hermandad_ and the organization of
several royal councils. The _Hermandad_, originally a local police, was
organized as a state police; captured offenders were punished before
local officers of the crown called _alcaldes_. Turbulent nobles and
brigands were made to feel the long arm of the royal power. The nobles
were also curbed by transferring the grand masterships of the military
orders to the crown and the sovereigns resumed control of many estates
which had been granted to churches and nobles. The royal council of
twelve had been the principal governing body. Under Ferdinand and
Isabella it was divided into three councils, justice, state, and
finance. Other councils were added from time to time; among these was
the Council of the Inquisition, whose business it was to stamp out
heresy. By its efforts unbaptized Jews and Moors were expelled. The
rulers also sent royal officers called _corregidores_ into the local
communities, who gradually extended the powers of the crown at the
expense of local government. Thus were laid the foundations of an
absolute monarchy, which, in the sixteenth century, became the most
influential in Europe.
Charles V.--The prestige of Spain was greatly enhanced in the
sixteenth century by the Emperor Charles V, the grandson of Ferdinand
and Isabella. From his mother he inherited Spain, Naples, and Sicily,
and possessions in the new world and the Far East; from his father the
Netherlands; from his grandfather, Maximilian I, the Hapsburg
inheritance in Germany. By election he became Holy Roman Emperor. The
larger part of the reign was occupied by three great European contests;
a series of struggles with Francis I of France for the control of Italy,
the Reformation in Germany, and the curbing of the westward advance of
the Turks. The almost constant wars of the Emperor kept him away from
Spain nearly his entire time, but he used the centralized system of
Ferdinand and Isabella to supply him with soldiers and money. The
constant drain of treasure overtaxed the resources of Spain, but the
rich mines of the new world furnished the surplus for his vast
undertakings. The fact that Charles was successful in retaining his
power in Italy, coupled with his struggle against the Protestants and
the Turks, made him the recognized protector of the Catholic church. His
reign, marked by many sad failures in Europe, witnessed a phenomenal
expansion of Spain's colonies.
[Illustration: The Unification of Spain. (Based on Maps in Shepherd,
W.R., _Historical Atlas_, pp. 82-83.).]
THE OCCUPATION OF THE WEST INDIES
The rule of Columbus in the Indies.--When Columbus discovered a new
world for Spain, that country was placed in a new situation, and a
settled colonial policy was developed only with experience. A department
of Indian affairs was created at once and put in charge of Fonseca, a
member of the royal council. A combined interest in commerce, religion,
and colonization was shown in all the arrangements for a second voyage
by Columbus, but commerce was the primary object. At first it was
planned to send a thousand colonists, but so eager were the applicants
that fifteen hundred embarked. The expedition was equipped at the
queen's expense, and most of the colonists were in her pay.
Reaching Espanola in November, 1493, Columbus found Navidad destroyed by
Indians; he accordingly established a new settlement, named Isabella, at
a point farther east. Leaving his brother Diego in charge, Columbus
explored the southern coast of Cuba, discovered Jamaica, and
circumnavigated Espanola. Complaints being made against his
administration, in 1495 Columbus returned to Spain to defend himself.
Shortly after his departure, gold being found in the southern part of
Espanola, the new town of Santo Domingo was founded there and became the
capital. Other men were eager for commercial adventure, and, in response
to their demands, in 1495 trade in the Indies was opened to all
Spaniards, at their own expense. Columbus regarded this an infringement
upon his rights, and on his return to Spain he protested, but to little
purpose.
In 1498 Columbus sailed on a third voyage, taking some two hundred
colonists. On the way he discovered the mainland of South America near
the Orinoco River, and, farther west, valuable pearl fisheries. During
his absence a civil war had occurred in Espanola, and, at the end of two
years of trouble with the contending factions, Columbus was sent to
Spain in chains by Bobadilla, a royal commissioner, who remained to
govern in his place. The charges against Columbus were dismissed, but he
was not restored to his rule in the Indies. In 1502 Nicolas de Ovando
was sent to replace Bobadilla, taking with him 2500 new colonists.
Spread of settlement in the West Indies.--After 1496 Santo Domingo
became the chief town of Espanola and the seat of Spanish rule in
America. In rapid succession posts and mining camps were established in
various parts of the island, and by 1513 there were seventeen chartered
towns in Espanola alone. Santo Domingo at that time had a population of
fifteen hundred persons. It was some fifteen years after the settlement
of Espanola before the other islands began to be occupied, attention
being first given to making cruises along the southern mainland. Ovando
began the conquest of the other islands, however, and Diego Columbus,
his successor, prosecuted the work with more vigor. In 1508 Ponce de
Leon was sent to conquer Porto Rico, and in 1511 the present city of San
Juan was founded. The settlement of Jamaica was begun in 1509 by
Esquivel, under orders of Diego Columbus. Several towns were soon
established, and a shipyard opened. In 1537 Jamaica became a possession
of the family of Columbus, with the title of Marquis till 1557, then of
Duke of La Vega. In 1508 Ocampo circumnavigated Cuba and in 1511
Velasquez began the conquest of the island. Santiago was founded in
1514 and Havana a year later. Thus the West Indies became the nursery of
Spanish culture and institutions in America.
[Illustration: The Development of the West Indies, 1492-1519.]
Gold mining was important in Espanola for a time, but the mines were
soon exhausted. In all the islands cotton, sugar, and cattle raising
soon acquired some proportions, but the native population rapidly
decreased, negro slaves were expensive, and rich profits attracted the
settlers to the mainland; consequently, after the first quarter century
the islands declined in prosperity and Porto Rico was for a time
actually abandoned.
BEGINNINGS OF COLONIAL ADMINISTRATION AND POLICY
The Casa de Contratacion.--For ten years Fonseca remained at the head of
American affairs, being in effect colonial minister. In 1503 the Casa de
Contratacion or House of Trade was established at Seville, to direct
commerce, navigation, and all related matters of the Indies. In charge
of the Casa was a board of officials, including factors, treasurer,
auditor, and notary. They maintained a warehouse for receiving all goods
and treasure going to or from the islands. They were required to keep
informed of the needs of the Indies, assemble and forward supplies,
organize trading expeditions, and instruct and license pilots. Later on
a professorship of cosmography was established for the purpose of
instructing pilots, who were required to keep diaries of their voyages.
This provision resulted in the accumulation of a vast amount of
historical and geographical information in the government archives, much
of which is still extant.
The Council of the Indies.--Spanish America was a possession of the
sovereigns of Castile, as heirs of Queen Isabella, under whose patronage
America had been discovered. At first, legislative and political matters
relating to the Indies had been considered by the sovereigns in
consultation with Fonseca and other personal advisors, but to supervise
these matters a new board was gradually formed. In 1517 it was formally
organized, among the members being Fonseca and Peter Martyr, the
historian. In 1524 the board was reorganized as the Council of the
Indies. This body was the supreme legislative and judicial authority,
under the king, of Spanish-America. The Casa de Contratacion was
subordinate to the Council, which likewise supervised all civil and
ecclesiastical appointments in the colonies. Usually some of the members
of the Council had served in the Indies.
The governors-general and the audiencia.--Ovando ruled in Espanola until
1509, when Diego Columbus, son of Christopher, after a struggle for his
hereditary rights, was made admiral and governor-general of the Indies.
Complaint against Diego's administration led to the establishment at
Santo Domingo of a superior court with appeals from the decisions of the
governor-general. This was the germ of the Audiencia of Santo Domingo,
which, for a time, was the administrative head of the greater part of
the Indies. By decree of September 14, 1524, the Audiencia was formally
established, with a president, four judges, a fiscal, a deputy
grand-chancellor, and other officers.
The towns.--In the early sixteenth century the colonial towns showed
some political activity. In 1507 the municipalities of Espanola sent
delegates to Spain to petition for the rights enjoyed by Spanish towns.
The request was granted, and, among other privileges, fourteen towns
were granted coats-of-arms. Conventions of delegates from the towns were
often held in these early days, to consider common needs and to draw up
memorials to the home government. In 1530 Charles V decreed that such
conventions should not be held without his consent, and the tendency
thereafter was toward stronger absolutism and away from local political
life. But there never was a time when the right of petition was not
freely exercised, and with great effect on actual administration. In the
sixteenth century the towns sometimes elected proctors to represent them
before the Council of the Indies. In the seventeenth century they
sometimes employed residents of Spain for this purpose.
In the colonial towns, both Spanish and native, there was some degree of
self-government. Each Spanish town had its _cabildo_ composed of
_regidores_. In 1523 the _regidores_ were made elective, but the
tendency was to secure the office by purchase or inheritance, as was the
case in Spain. The functions of the _cabildos_ were similar to those of
a New England town council, embracing legislation, police matters, care
of highways, sanitation, and analogous functions.
Emigration.--The notion sometimes voiced that Spain did not "colonize"
America is unfounded. Emigration to America was encouraged by subsidies
and other means, and in early days large colonies were sent by
government authority. It has been seen, for example, that on his first
three voyages Columbus took over about 100, 1500, and 200 colonists
respectively, and that Ovando took 2500. During the entire sixteenth
century the emigration to America averaged from 1000 to 2000 persons per
year. In general, emigration was restricted to Spaniards of undoubted
orthodoxy, hence Jews, Moors, and recent converts were excluded.
Naturalization was relatively easy, however, and by means of it many
foreigners were admitted. Portuguese, for example, were numerous in the
Indies, especially among the seamen. Charles V adopted the liberal
policy of opening the Indies to subjects of all parts of his empire, but
Philip II returned to the more exclusive practice. Later on, as the
trade monopoly broke down, it became necessary to admit foreign traders
to American ports, but they were required to return within specified
periods.
Married Spaniards emigrating from Spain were urged or even required to
take their families but the emigration of unmarried Spanish women was
discouraged. Intermarriage of Spaniards with native women was favored by
the authorities and, as a large majority of the immigrants were single
men, the practice was common, either with or without formal sanction. An
effort to supply the lack of women by sending white slaves to the
islands failed, and in 1514 marriage with Indian women was approved by
royal order. With the opening of Mexico and Peru the island colonies
were in danger of depopulation. To prevent this from happening,
migration to the mainland was forbidden under heavy penalties
(1525-1526), and the recruiting of new conquering expeditions in the
islands was prohibited. To secure settlers for Espanola, in 1529
attractive feudal lordships were offered to founders of colonies.
Agriculture.--Agriculture in the West Indies was encouraged by all means
available. Duties on imports were remitted for a term of years. In 1497
the sovereigns ordered a public farm established to provide loans of
stock and seed, to be paid back by colonists within a term of years.
Free lands were granted to settlers, with a reservation of the precious
metals to the crown. Special orders were given for mulberry and silkworm
culture. These efforts to promote agriculture in the West Indies,
however, were made largely nugatory by commercial restrictions and the
superior attractions of the mainland.
Indian policy.--Columbus found Espanola inhabited, it was estimated, by
a quarter of a million of Indians, and the other islands similarly
populated. He was instructed to treat the natives well and to do all in
his power to convert them. The sovereigns frequently repeated these
orders, and commanded that the natives be treated as free men and paid
for their work. But the shortage of a labor-supply and the relative
position of the two races led quickly and almost inevitably to the
practical enslavement of the weaker.
Encomiendas.--Following the rebellion of 1495, the subdued natives were
put under tribute in the form of specified amounts of products,
commutable to labor. In 1497 a practice was begun of allotting lands to
Spaniards, the forced labor of the natives going with the land.
Complaint being made by priests and seculars that the Indians could
neither be made to work, nor be taught or converted without restraint,
in 1503 it was ordered that they should be congregated (_congregados_)
in permanent villages and put under protectors (_encomenderos_), who
were obliged to teach and protect them, and were empowered to exact
their labor, though for pay and as free men. This provision contained
the essence of the encomienda system, which was designed to protect and
civilize the native, as well as to exploit him. But there was always
danger that the former aim would yield to the latter, and, contrary to
royal will, the condition of the natives fast became one of practical
slavery.
Depopulation of the islands.--Moreover, in a very short time the islands
became nearly depopulated of natives. Many were slain in the wars of
conquest and during rebellions, or died of starvation while in hiding.
Perhaps a greater number died of smallpox, measles, and other diseases
brought from Europe. The result was that by 1514 the native population
of Espanola was reduced to 14,000. A similar reduction of native
population occurred in the other islands as they were successively
occupied.
Indian slavery.--Indian slavery was not generally allowed in theory.
But the Lesser Antilles, the Bahamas, and Florida were found to be
inhabited by hostile cannibals, who were regarded as fair prize for
enslavement. As early as 1494 Columbus suggested that permission be
given to sell Caribs. In 1498 he took a cargo of six hundred of them to
Spain. Soon it became an accepted legal principle that cannibals and
rebellious Indians could be enslaved. The idea was encouraged by the
lack of Spanish laborers, and by the disappearance of the native
population of Espanola. Slave-hunting was soon extended, therefore, to
the coasts of Florida, Panuco, and other parts of the mainland. The
practice was continued, as the frontier advanced, to the eighteenth
century when, for example, Apaches of Texas and Pawnees of Kansas were
often sold to Work on plantations in Louisiana or Cuba.
Las Casas.--Numerous prominent Spaniards in the Indies early opposed
encomiendas on moral grounds. Among them the most aggressive was Father
Bartolome de las Casas. He had come to the Indies as a layman, had held
an encomienda after becoming a priest, but in 1514 had renounced it. In
the following year he went to Spain, secured the appointment of a
commission of Geronymite friars to enforce the laws regarding Indians in
the islands, and was himself made Protector of the Indians. In 1516 he
returned to Espanola, but, being dissatisfied with the work of the
commission, he returned to Spain, where he favored negro slavery as a
means of sparing the natives. In 1521 he tried to found a Utopian colony
on Tierra Firme, to furnish an humane example, but through unfortunate
circumstances it failed completely.
EXPLORATION OF THE MAINLAND COASTS AND THE SEARCH FOR A STRAIT
Voyages toward the South.--The discovery by Columbus (1498) of pearls on
the southern mainland, combined with the Portuguese successes in India,
gave new incentive to voyages, and within the next few years many
thousands of miles of coastline of South and Central America were
explored in the interest of trade, discovery, and international rivalry.
In 1499 Ojeda explored from near Paramaribo to the Gulf of Maracaibo. In
1500 Pinzon and DeLepe sailed north to the Pearl Coast from points near
8 deg. and 10 deg. south, respectively, and Bastidas made known the coast from
the Gulf of Maracaibo to Nombre de Dios, on the Isthmus of Panama. The
chain of discoveries was carried in 1502 from the north shore of
Honduras to Nombre de Dios by the fourth voyage of Columbus, made
primarily in search of a strait through the troublesome lands which he
had discovered. In 1504 La Cosa and Vespucius, during a trading voyage
on the Gulf of Uraba, ascended the Atrato River two hundred miles by a
route which has since been proposed as an interoceanic canal. Meanwhile
numerous other voyages were made to the Pearl Coast for commercial
purposes. They added little more to geographical knowledge, but led to
colonization on the southern mainland.
Portuguese competition.--Spanish efforts to find a passage to the Indian
Ocean by going to the southward were stimulated by the Portuguese
voyages in the same direction. In 1500 Cabral, on his way to India, took
possession for Portugal at a point near 18 deg. south latitude on the
Brazilian coast. In the following year a Portuguese expedition, in which
Americus Vespucius was pilot, explored the coast from 5 deg. to 32 deg. south
latitude, discovering the La Plata River on the way. It was to this
voyage of Vespucius, made in the interest of Portugal, that America owes
its name. First applied to South America, it was soon extended to the
northern continent. A Portuguese voyage made in 1503 by Jaques, in
search of a passage to the East, is said to have reached 52 deg. south.
Establishment of the Portuguese Empire in the East.--Gama's voyage was
promptly followed by the founding of Portuguese colonies in the East.
The chief actor in this work was Alburquerque, who accompanied an
expedition to India in 1503 and became viceroy in 1509, an office which
he held until his death in 1515. During his rule the Portuguese
established themselves at Goa, which gave them control of the Malabar
coast, and at Malacca, from which point they were able to control the
trade of the Malay Peninsula and the Spice Islands. Ormuz was captured,
making them supreme in the commerce of the Persian Gulf. In succeeding
years they acquired Ceylon and established trading settlements in Burma,
China, and Japan.
Continued quest for a strait.--These Portuguese successes were an
incentive to further Spanish efforts to find the strait. In 1506 Vicente
Yanez Pinzon, accompanied by Juan de Solis, in search of a passage
explored the Gulf of Honduras and eastern Yucatan from Guanaja Islands,
the western limit of Columbus's voyage, to the Island of Caria. In 1509
Solis, in the service of Spain, reached 42 deg. south, while in search of
the desired route. The discovery of the Pacific Ocean by Balboa in 1513
aroused Spain to renewed efforts to find the strait. Exploration was at
once undertaken on the southern shores of Panama, and in 1515 Solis
again was sent down the Brazilian coast. Reaching the La Plata River, he
was killed and eaten by the savages.
Magellan and Elcano.--The solution of the problem of the southern strait
was left for Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese who had seen service in
the Far East. Returning to Portugal, he proposed to the king the opening
of a route to the East by going west. His offer being refused, like
Columbus he turned to Spain, where his plan found favor. Sailing with
five vessels in 1519, he discovered the Straits of Magellan and crossed
the Pacific Ocean to the Philippines, where he was killed in 1521. Part
of the crew, led by Elcano, continued round the world and reached Spain
in September, 1522, after one of the most remarkable voyages in all
history.
The mapping of the Gulf coast.--Meanwhile the outlines of the Gulf of
Mexico had been made known, and by 1525 the continued search for the
strait and efforts to settle on the mainland had carried Spanish,
explorers nearly the whole length of the North Atlantic coast. In 1508
Ocampo had circumnavigated Cuba. Sailing from Porto Rico in 1513 Juan
Ponce de Leon, who was interested in slave-hunting and exploration,
discovered and coasted the Peninsula of Florida.
Four years later Cordova, under a license from Velasquez, governor of
Cuba, explored Yucatan, finding signs of large cities and of wealth. The
reports aroused new interest in the mainland, and Velasquez sent out
Grijalva, who coasted the shore from Yucatan to Panuco River, securing
on the way twenty thousand dollars' worth of gold. To take advantage of
Grijalva's discoveries, Velasquez organized another expedition and put
it in charge of Hernando Cortes. Garay, governor of Jamaica, also sent
out an expedition, under Pineda, with instructions to seek new lands and
look for a strait. Sailing north to the mainland in 1519, Pineda
completed the mapping of the Gulf by coasting from Florida to Vera Cruz
and back. On the way west he discovered the Mississippi River, which he
called Rio del Espiritu Santo. On the strength of Pineda's discoveries,
Garay now secured a patent to the northern Gulf shore, and undertook to
colonize the province of Amichel.
The North Atlantic coast.--The exploration of the North Atlantic coast
soon followed. In 1513 De Leon had rounded the Peninsula of Florida.
Eight years later Gordillo, sailing from Espanola in the employ of
Ayllon, and Quexos, a slave hunter whom Gordillo met on the way, reached
the mainland at 33 deg. 30', near Cape Fear in a region called Chicora.
Ayllon in 1523 secured a patent authorizing him to seek a strait in the
north and found a colony. In Ayllon's employ, Quexos in 1525 coasted
north perhaps to 40 deg.. In the same year Stephen Gomez, under contract to
seek a northern strait, descended the coast from Nova Scotia to Florida.
Over the northern part of his route he had been preceded by the English
explorer John Cabot (1497). With the return of Gomez the entire Atlantic
shore from the Straits of Magellan to Nova Scotia had been explored by
expeditions made in the name of Spain.
THE MAYAS AND THE NAHUAS
A Double Movement.--Having subdued the islands and run the eastern
coastline, the Spaniards proceeded to take possession of the mainland.
To the southward they were attracted by trade, rumors of gold, and the
hope of finding a strait leading to the East. To the westward they were
drawn by the semi-civilized Nahuas and Mayas, who lived in substantial
towns, possessed accumulated wealth, had a stable population used to
hard labor, and were worth exploiting. The advance into the interior was
a double movement, one proceeding north from a base on the Isthmus of
Panama, the other radiating in all directions from the Valley of Mexico.
Two Civilizations.--The Nahuas occupied Mexico south of a line drawn
roughly from Tampico through Guadalajara to the Pacific Ocean. The Mayas
lived principally in Yucatan and Guatemala. The Nahuas had acquired
much of their culture from the Mayas, and the cultural areas overlapped.
These peoples had several features in common. They lived in substantial
pueblos, or towns, and practiced agriculture by means of irrigation,
raising extensively maize, beans, potatoes, and tobacco. Maguey was a
staple crop in the Valley of Mexico and henequen in Yucatan. Mayas and
Nahuas both lacked important domestic animals. They were dominated by a
powerful priesthood and practiced slavery and human sacrifice.
Maya Characteristics.--Certain features distinguished the two
civilizations. The Mayas had imposing architectural structures devoted
to religion, notably at Palenque, Uxmal, and Chichen Itza. They had made
considerable advance toward written records in the form of ideograms.
More than 1500 Maya manuscripts, written on henequen, have been
preserved but are as yet in the main undeciphered.
The Nahuas.--The Nahuas had made remarkable progress in astronomical
calculations, and their worship was closely connected with the planetary
system. The most notable religious monuments were the pyramids which are
widely scattered over the country. Some of these, it is believed, are of
Maya origin. Calendars of great perfection had been devised, the famous
Calendar Stone now preserved in the National Museum at Mexico being one
of the rare treasures of archaeology. The Nahuas had achieved a more
highly developed agriculture than the Mayas, had a stronger military and
political organization, and larger and better constructed towns. Of
these the most notable was Mexico (Tenochtitlan). It was built in a lake
in the center of the great valley of Anahuac, and had a population of
perhaps 60,000 when the Spaniards came.
Nahua History.--The Nahuas had come from the north about the time when
the Germanic tribes were overrunning southern Europe. According to their
own traditions the first Nahua tribe, the Toltecs, entered the Valley of
Mexico in 596 A.D., and were overpowered by the barbarians whom they
found there, but civilized them. In succeeding centuries they were
followed by other Nahua tribes, whose names are now borne by numerous
cities in the Valley of Mexico. Among the late comers were the Aztecs,
who, according to tradition, founded their lake-city in 1325 A.D. Their
military stronghold was the crag of Chapultepec, where the presidential
mansion of Mexico now stands.
The Triple Alliance.--Among the numerous cities or pueblos built by
these struggling tribes four emerged into prominence. First
Atzcapotzalco, then Tezcuco, then Mexico acquired supremacy. Placing
itself at the head of a triple alliance (Mexico, Tezcuco, and Tacuba),
Mexico in the fifteenth century engaged in a series of conquests which
carried the Aztec power to the Gulf of Mexico, to the Pacific Ocean, and
well into the Maya regions of Central America. War became a national
impulse, closely identified with the religion of which human sacrifice
was a central feature. The "empire" was but a military overlordship,
however, and had for its chief objects tribute and human beings for
sacrifice.
The hegemony was not secure, nor did it embrace all of the
semi-civilized peoples. The Tarascans and other tribes to the west had
resisted its power, and shortly before the advent of the Spaniards the
Tlascalans to the east had defeated the Aztecs in battle. At the coming
of the Europeans the "empire" was losing its hold. The subject peoples
were becoming more restless under the burden of tribute; and the ruler,
Montezuma II, was a superstitious fatalist. The Spanish conquerors
arrived at the opportune moment for success.
THE CONQUEST OF CENTRAL AMERICA
Castilla del Oro.--At the same time that the islands other than Espanola
were being occupied, beginnings of settlement were made in Central
America. In 1503 Christopher Columbus had attempted to establish a
colony on the Veragua coast, but had failed. After several successful
trading voyages had been made, however, two colonies were planned for
the southern mainland. Ojeda received a grant called Uraba, east of the
Gulf of Darien, and Nicuesa obtained a grant called Veragua, lying west
of that Gulf. Ojeda founded a colony at San Sebastian (1509), which was
shortly afterward moved to Darien, where Vasco Nunez de Balboa soon
became the leading figure and governor _ad interim_ (1511). Nicuesa's
colony was founded at Nombre de Dios (1510), but it did not flourish.
The Darien region became known as Nueva Andalucia, and in 1513 the
whole southern mainland, excepting Veragua, Honduras and Yucatan, to the
west and Paria, to the east, was reorganized into one grand jurisdiction
called Castilla del Oro, and made independent of Espanola.
Balboa.--Hearing of gold and a sea toward the south, Balboa led a band
of men in 1513 across the Isthmus of Panama and discovered the Pacific
Ocean. The discovery was an important factor in leading to Magellan's
great voyage, already recounted, and it set in motion a wave of
explorations both up and down the Pacific coast, and led to the conquest
of Peru. Balboa had made enemies, and he fell under the suspicion of the
new governor of Castilla del Oro, Pedrarias de Avila, who arrived at
Darien in 1514 with a colony of fifteen hundred persons; but a
conciliation occurred, and in 1515 Balboa was made Adelantado of the
Island of Coiba, in the South Sea. To explore that water he built
vessels on the north coast and had them transported across the Isthmus
on the backs of Indians. The vessels proved unseaworthy, and while
Balboa was building two more at the Isle of Pearls, he was summoned by
Pedrarias, charged with treason, and beheaded (1519).
Exploration on the South Sea.--Balboa was succeeded by Espinosa in
charge of the southern coast. He at once began plundering raids westward
by land, seeking gold and slaves. The South Sea now became the chief
center of interest, and, to provide a better base, in 1519 Pedrarias
founded Panama, moved his capital thither, refounded Nombre de Dios, and
opened a road across the Isthmus between the two places.
Rapidly now the conquerors and explorers, under Pedrarias, pushed their
way westward, by water and by land. With two of the vessels built by
Balboa, in 1519 Espinosa sent an expedition under Castaneda which
reached the Gulf of Nicoya, some five hundred miles from Panama. In 1522
Andres Nino and Gil Gonzalez Davila fitted out a joint expedition,
planning to sail west one thousand leagues, to seek spices, gold, and
silver. After sailing one hundred leagues westward, Gonzalez proceeded
west by land, while Nino continued with the fleet. Gonzalez reached and
conquered the country bordering on the Gulf of Nicoya and Lake
Nicaragua, places so named from local chieftains. Nino sailed west to
Fonseca Bay, thus coasting the entire length of Nicaragua. When the
commanders returned to Panama they reported thirty-two thousand
baptisms, and presents in gold and pearls worth more than $112,000.
[Illustration: The Development of Central America, 1509-1543.]
The Conquest of Costa Rica and Nicaragua.--These profitable explorations
stimulated renewed interest, and were followed by conquest and
settlement in Costa Rica and Nicaragua. Gonzalez desired to return at
once to occupy the country which he had explored, and, meeting hindrance
from Pedrarias, he went to Espanola to organize another expedition,
while awaiting royal consent. Meanwhile Pedrarias set about conquering
Nicaragua for himself. With funds borrowed from Francisco Pizarro and
others, he equipped a small expedition and sent it under Francisco
Hernandez de Cordova. One of the commanders was Hernando de Soto, who
later became famous in Peru and Florida. Proceeding westward, in 1524
Cordova founded Bruselas, on the Gulf of Nicoya, and parceled out the
natives among the settlers. Continuing into Nicaragua, he founded the
cities of Leon and Granada. In the struggle which followed, Bruselas was
abandoned and the settlement of Costa Rica proceeded slowly.
Gonzalez in 1524, having secured royal permission, entered Honduras from
the northeast, with an expedition destined for Nicaragua. De Soto, sent
against him by Cordova, was easily subdued, but Gonzalez was defeated by
the agents of Cortes, who was now engaged in the conquest of Mexico. In
Nicaragua Cordova revolted against Pedrarias and was executed. In 1527
Pedrarias became governor of Nicaragua, where he ruled till 1531. During
all these wranglings the Indians were the chief sufferers. They were
granted in encomienda, employed as beasts of burden, or branded and sold
as slaves in Panama, Peru, or the West Indies.
Guatemala, San Salvador, and Honduras.--Meanwhile the north-moving
conquerors who went out from Panama had met and struggled in Guatemala,
San Salvador, and Honduras with the companions of Cortes, moving
southward from Mexico. The history of the conquest of these disputed
regions, therefore, becomes a part of the story of the exploits of
Cortes and his lieutenants, recounted below.
Exploration of San Juan River.--One of the acts which relieve the bloody
story of the career of Pedrarias was the sending in 1529 of an
expedition under Estete to find the outlet to Lake Nicaragua. Estete
descended the San Juan River until a glimpse was had of the sea, but
hostile Indians prevented him from reaching it. It was believed that the
lake and river drained a country rich with gold, and explorations
continued. In 1536 the San Juan, with tributary branches, was explored
by Alonso Carrero and Diego Machuco, under orders from the new governor
of Nicaragua. Soon the lake and river became the principal highway from
Nicaragua to the Atlantic Ocean, and to the Porto Bello fairs.
The Dukedom of Veragua.--It was a long time after Nicuesa's failure in
1510 before another attempt was made to settle Veragua, one reason being
that the region was tenaciously claimed by the heirs of Columbus. In
1535 Alonso Gutierrez was made governor of Veragua, as agent of the
widow of Diego Columbus, but misfortune attended his efforts to found a
colony. Shortly afterward (1537) the discoverer's grandson, Luis, was
made Duke of Veragua; several attempts to colonize it failed, however,
and in 1556 the region was surrendered for a small pension.
Continued struggle in Central America.--These conquests were but the
beginning of a long struggle of the Spaniards with the natives in
Central America. The first stages of the conquest were over by the
middle of the sixteenth century, but many parts of the country were
still unconquered at the end of the seventeenth. Some tribes, indeed,
are unsubdued and uncivilized to this day.
THE CONQUEST OF THE VALLEY OF MEXICO
The revolt of Cortes.--In the very year of the founding of Panama
Hernando Cortes entered Mexico. The return of the expeditions of Cordova
and Grijalva to the Mexican coast had caused excitement in Cuba.
Governor Velasquez prepared an expedition to follow them up, and
appointed Cortes to lead it. Becoming distrustful of his lieutenant,
Velasquez sent messengers to recall him, but Cortes set forth,
nevertheless. In defiance of the governor, on February 18, 1519, he left
Cuba, a rebel, with eleven vessels, some six hundred men, and sixteen
horses. Proceeding to Tabasco and up the coast, he founded Vera Cruz,
by whose _cabildo_ he was chosen captain-general and _justicia mayor_,
and his position was thus given the color of legality. By this act
Cortes placed himself under the immediate protection of the king.
The march to Mexico.--On the way and while at Vera Cruz Cortes had
learned that the Aztec "empire" was honeycombed with dissension, and
that the subject peoples were burdened with tribute and filled with
hatred for Montezuma, the native ruler at the city of Mexico. He
therefore assumed the role of deliverer, and the Indians rallied to his
standard. At Cempoalla he connived at a revolt against Montezuma's tax
gatherers. Scuttling his ships and thus cutting off all chance for
retreat, in August he set out for Mexico. His march was a succession of
audacious deeds. At Cempoalla he threw down heathen idols and imprisoned
the chiefs. At Tlascala he was attacked by several thousand warriors,
but his genius changed them into allies in his train. At Cholula,
discovering a conspiracy, he raked the streets with cannon shot and
burned the leaders at the stake. In triumph he entered the great pueblo
of Tenochtitlan or Mexico. While lodged as a guest of Montezuma in the
center of the city, he seized the Aztec ruler and held him prisoner.
The loss and recapture of the city.--In the spring of 1520 Cortes
learned that Panfilo de Narvaez had arrived at Vera Cruz with nearly a
thousand men, under orders from Velasquez to arrest him. Leaving Pedro
de Alvarado in charge, he hastened to the coast, won over most of
Narvaez's men, and then hurried back to Mexico. During his absence the
Aztecs had revolted, through the rashness of Alvarado. Soon after the
return of Cortes the natives rose again, killed Montezuma, and replaced
him by Cuauhtemoc, a more vigorous leader. Cortes now sought safety in
flight, but during the night retreat he lost more than half his men.
This "unfortunate night" became known as "Noche Triste." But the defeat
was only temporary. Raising new allies, Cortes conquered the towns round
about Mexico, built a fleet at Tlascala, launched it on Lake Tezcuco,
besieged the city, and by a combined attack, by land and water, on
August 13, 1521, he recaptured Mexico, the most important native town in
all America.
Cortes's contest with Velasquez.--Knowing that Velasquez would oppose
him, Cortes, while at Vera Cruz in 1519, had at once sent agents,
bearing rich presents, to represent him at the court of Charles V. Then
began a three-year contest with the agents of the Cuban governor. The
delay was fortunate for Cortes, for in the course of it he won favor by
his remarkable feats of conquest. Through the influence of Fonseca,
Velasquez secured the appointment of Cristobal de Tapia, an official of
Espanola, as governor of New Spain, to take charge of the government and
investigate Cortes. But Cortes got rid of him as he had disposed of
Narvaez. Arriving at Vera Cruz in December, 1521, Tapia was met by a
council of delegates from the conqueror and practically driven from the
country, on the ground that new orders were expected from the king.
Cortes made Governor and Captain-General.--Before this Cortes had sent
Avila to the Audiencia of Santo Domingo to obtain its favor. Scarcely
had Tapia been ejected when Avila returned with tentative authority for
Cortes, subject to royal approval, to continue his conquests and to
grant encomiendas. This greatly strengthened Cortes's position. Having
succeeded so well in Espanola, Avila was now sent to Spain. Here he
triumphed also, for on October 15, 1522, the emperor approved the acts
of Cortes and made him governor and captain-general of New Spain. The
victory of Cortes was as complete as the discomfiture of Velasquez and
Fonseca.
Mexico rebuilt. Encomiendas granted.--The work of conquest on the
mainland was accompanied by the evolution of government and the
establishment of Spanish civilization, just as had been the case in the
West Indies during the earlier stages of the struggle. Wherever the
Spaniards settled, they planted their political, religious, economic,
and social institutions. Mexico was rebuilt in 1522 as a Spanish
municipality, Pedro de Alvarado, the most notable of Cortes's
lieutenants, being made first _alcalde mayor_. In the regions subdued
the principal provinces were assigned to the conquerors as encomiendas.
Much of the actual work of control was accomplished through native
chiefs, who were assigned Spanish offices and held responsible for good
order and the collection of tribute. This method was later adopted by
the British in India.
[Illustration: The Development of Southern Mexico, 1519-1543.]
THE SPREAD OF THE CONQUEST
The semi-civilized tribes.--With the fall of the city the first stage of
the conquest had ended. Within the following decade most of the
semi-civilized tribes of southern Mexico and Central America were
brought under the dominion of Spain. During this period Spanish
activities were directed from the Valley of Mexico to the eastward,
southward and westward. From the south came rumors of gold and reports
of the South Sea, while to the north, among the barbarian tribes, there
was little, at this stage of the conquest, to attract the conquerors.
Factors in the conquest.--Several factors explain the marvelous rapidity
with which Spanish rule was extended. The conquerors were looking for
gold and accumulated treasure; not finding it in one place they hastened
to another, led off by any wild tale of riches. The fame of the
Spaniards preceded them and paralyzed resistance. They were everywhere
aided by great armies of allies, eager to help destroy their hated
enemies. Finally, Cortes, himself a genius, was assisted by an able body
of lieutenants; in the spread of the conquest Cortes remained the
central figure, but the actual work fell mainly to Orozco, Alvarado,
Olid, Sandoval, Chico, Avalos, Montejo and other subordinates.
Vera Cruz, Oaxaca, and Tehuantepec.--In the fall of 1520 Sandoval, in
search of gold and to punish rebellious Indians, invaded southern Vera
Cruz with a handful of soldiers, aided by thirty thousand Indian allies.
To hold the district he founded the towns of Medellin and Espiritu
Santo. Before the expulsion of Cortes from the city, goldseekers had
been sent to Oaxaca and Tehuantepec and were well received, but the
"Noche Triste" was followed by a reaction. Orozco was sent, therefore,
to subdue Oaxaca, which he reported to be rich in gold. In 1522 an
attack by hostile neighbors called Alvarado to Tehuantepec. Gold was
found, and as the district bordered on the South Sea, settlements were
formed to hold it.
Olid in Michoacan.--The same year, 1522, marks the extension of Spanish
rule into Michoacan, the territory of the hitherto independent
Tarascans. The cacique Tangaxoan visited Cortes and made submission, and
in return Olid was sent to found a settlement at Patzcuaro on Lake
Chapala. Before the end of the year part of the settlers moved to the
seacoast and settled at Zacatula, in the modern state of Guerrero, where
a post had been established.
Colima and Jalisco.--From Michoacan the conquest at once spread north
into Colima and Jalisco. Gold being reported in Colima, Avalos and
Chico, lieutenants of Olid entered the country, but were defeated by the
natives. Thereupon Olid followed, subdued the mountain region by force,
and founded the town of Colima (1524), which became a base for new
advances. On his return to Mexico, Olid brought samples of pearls from
Colima, and reports of an Amazon Island ten days up the coast, where
there were said to be great riches. To investigate these reports, in
1524 Francisco Cortes was sent north. He reached Rio de Tololotlan, and
secured the allegiance of the "queen" of Jalisco, but found little gold
and no Amazon Island.
Amichel and Panuco.--In 1522 the Huasteca country, to the northeast,
came under the control of Cortes. It was three years before this that
Pineda, as representative of Garay, governor of Jamaica, had visited the
region. Garay applied for a grant of a province called Amichel,
extending from Florida to Mexico, and set about colonizing it. In 1520,
before the patent was secured, a party of his men met disaster near
Panuco River. Hearing of Garay's operations, in 1522 Cortes led forty
thousand allies into the country, subdued it, and founded San Esteban,
on Panuco River. In 1523 Garay led a colony to the same region, but
found himself forestalled by Cortes, by whom he was sent to Mexico,
where he soon died. The rivalry of the Spaniards encouraged an Indian
revolt, but Sandoval, as agent of Cortes, put down the disturbance with
extreme cruelty. In 1527 the Panuco district, under the name of Victoria
Garayana was separated from Mexico, Nuno de Guzman being made governor,
while the region called Florida, further north, was assigned to Panfilo
de Narvaez. Guzman's rule of six months was characterized by attempts to
extend conquests northward into Narvaez's territory, by wars with the
Huasteca chieftains, and by constant slave-hunting raids, through which
the country was nearly depopulated.
Alvarado in Guatemala and San Salvador.--By this time the conquests of
Cortes and his lieutenants had extended into Central America, where they
encountered, the agents of Pedrarias. In 1522 embassies from the large
cities of Utatlan and Guatemala had visited Cortes and made submission.
In the following year Alvarado, with four hundred Spaniards and twenty
thousand allies, entered the region and conquered the Quiches and
Cakchiquels. This task partially completed, he continued south and
extended his conquests into San Salvador (1524).
Olid and Casas in Honduras.--Cortes believed that Honduras was rich, and
that a strait lay between it and Guatemala. Moreover, Gil Gonzalez and
the agents of Pedrarias had begun to operate there. Consequently, at the
same time that Alvarado went to Guatemala, Olid was despatched to
Honduras. Reaching there in 1524 he tried to imitate his master's
example by making a conquest for himself. He succeeded in defeating
Gonzalez, as has been seen, but was in turn beheaded by Francisco de las
Casas, who was sent by Cortes to overthrow him. During this struggle the
city of Trujillo was founded.
The march of Cortes to Honduras.--In doubt as to the wisdom of sending
Las Casas after Olid, in October, 1524, Cortes set out for Honduras in
person, with about one hundred and forty Spaniards and three hundred
Indians in his train, the latter led by three famous Aztec chiefs. In
his rear was driven a herd of swine. The route lay through southern Vera
Cruz, Tabasco, and Chiapas, to Golfo Dulce, his way being obstructed by
vast morasses, swollen streams, and flint-strewn mountains. In a single
province fifty bridges had to be constructed in a journey of as many
miles. In Chiapas it became necessary to bridge with trees a channel
five hundred paces wide. On the way the Aztec chieftains, including the
noble Cuauhtemoc, being charged with conspiracy, were hanged, an act
which is variously characterized as a "necessary punishment" and a "foul
murder." Leaving his cousin, Hernando Saavedra, in command as
captain-general in Trujillo, Cortes sent his men home by way of
Guatemala and returned by sea to Mexico in May, 1526. After attempting
for two years to explore on the South Sea, in 1528 he went to Spain to
refute his enemies, chief of whom was Nuno de Guzman, now president of
the recently established Audiencia of Mexico. He returned two years
later.
Yucatan.--The conquest of Yucatan was begun in 1527 by Francisco de
Montejo, an agent of Cortes. Initial success was followed by native
revolts, and it was 1541 before the conquest was made secure. There were
frequent rebellions thereafter, but never again united resistance.
Las Casas in Guatemala.--Thus far the conquest had been one of force.
But now an example of the power of gentleness was furnished by Father
Las Casas, the Dominican friar who had opposed encomiendas so vigorously
in Espanola. About 1532 he entered Nicaragua as a missionary, where he
attacked the ill-treatment of the Indians. Being opposed by the
governor, in 1536 he went to Guatemala. Shortly before this he had
written a treatise to prove that conversion by force was wrong, and that
only persuasion should be used. To test his views he was granted sole
control for five years of a hostile region known as "the Land of War,"
and by mild means he and his companions soon converted the district into
a land of True Peace (Vera Paz), as it is still called.
Guzman in Sinaloa.--While Cortes was in Spain Guzman, fearing his own
downfall, and hoping to save himself by offering new provinces to the
king, undertook the conquest of northern Jalisco and of Sinaloa. Leaving
Mexico in December, 1529, with ten thousand allies, he marched through
Michoacan and Jalisco, leaving behind a trail of fire and blood, for
which he has ever since been execrated. Part of Sinaloa was explored,
and Culiacan was founded as an outpost in 1531. The region subdued by
Guzman was named Nueva Galicia, of which the conqueror became governor
and Compostela the capital.
Buffer province of Queretaro.--At the coming of the Spaniards the
country north of the valley of Mexico had never been conquered by the
Aztecs. The Spaniards, in turn, adopted the policy of entrusting its
subjugation to native caciques, treating the region as a buffer Indian
state. The leading figure in the conquest was a Christianized Otomi
chief, named Nicolas de San Luis. By Charles V he was made a knight of
the Order of Santiago and a captain-general in the army. Another Otomi
cacique who played a similar though less conspicuous part was Fernando
de Tapia. The most notable event in the conquest was the reduction of
Queretaro in 1531. For thirty years San Luis served the Spaniards in the
control of the Queretaro border.
The Mixton War.--The first half century of expansion toward the north
was closed by a widespread native uprising in Nueva Galicia which for a
time checked advance in that direction and even caused a contraction of
the frontier. Guzman had left Nueva Galicia in a deplorable condition.
After several minor uprisings, the rebellious natives broke forth in
1541, during the absence of Governor Coronado and his army in New
Mexico. The Indians refused to pay tribute, killed their encomenderos
and the missionaries, destroyed the crops, and took refuge in the
_penoles_ or cliffs of Mixton, Nochistlan, Acatic, and other places near
Guadalajara. The defence fell to Cristobal de Onate, lieutenant governor
of Nueva Galicia. Pedro de Alvarado, who chanced to arrive from
Guatemala at Navidad with a force of men, led them against Nochistlan
and lost his life in the encounter. Viceroy Mendoza at last took the
field with four hundred and fifty Spaniards and thirty thousand allies,
and crushed the revolt.
EXPLORATIONS IN THE NORTHERN INTERIOR AND ON THE PACIFIC
_FLORIDA_
De Leon.--While some conquerors were struggling in Central America,
Mexico, and Peru, others were trying to subdue the vast northern region
called Florida. In 1514 Juan Ponce de Leon secured a patent to colonize
Florida and Bimini, which he had explored in the previous year. Instead
of proceeding to the task, however, he engaged in a war against the
Caribs, and it was not until 1521 that he attempted to carry out his
project. In that year he led a colony of two hundred men to the
Peninsula, landed on the west coast, and tried to establish a
settlement. But he was attacked by natives, and driven back to Cuba,
mortally wounded.
Ayllon's colony on the Carolina coast.--To carry out his contract to
colonize Chicora, in July, 1526, Ayllon sailed from Espanola with six
vessels and a colony of five hundred men and women, Dominican friars,
and supplies, prepared to find a new home in Carolina. But the
experiment was doomed to be another failure. Landing was first made on
the river called the Jordan, perhaps Cape Fear River. On another
stream; perhaps the Peedee, the settlement of San Miguel de Gualdape was
begun. But supplies gave out, and at the end of two years Ayllon died
(October, 1528). Quarrels ensued, and in midwinter the survivors, only
about one hundred and fifty now, returned to Santo Domingo.
Narvaez.--At the same time the conquest of Florida was attempted by
Panfilo de Narvaez, the man who had been sent to Vera Cruz to arrest
Cortes. In 1526 he secured a patent to the lands of Ponce de Leon and
Garay. Raising a colony of six hundred persons in Spain, in 1528 he
reached Florida, landing near Tampa Bay. Hearing of a rich province
called Apalachen (Apalache), he sent his vessels along the coast and
himself marched up the peninsula at the head of three hundred men to
find the Promised Land. He found the place sought near modern
Tallahassee, but it proved to be a squalid Indian village of forty huts.
A few weeks having been spent in exploration and warfare, Narvaez went
to the coast near St. Marks Bay, built a fleet of horse-hide boats, and
set out for Panuco. After passing the mouth of the Mississippi a storm
arose, and all were wrecked on the coast of Texas.
Cabeza de Vaca.--In a short time most of the survivors of Narvaez's
party died of disease, starvation, and exposure, or at the hands of the
savages. Having passed nearly six years of slavery among the Indians,
Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca, the treasurer of the colony of Florida, with
three companions, escaped westward, crossed Texas, Coahuila, Chihuahua,
and Sonora, and in 1536 reached Culiacan, the northern outpost of
Sinaloa, after a most remarkable journey.
De Soto.--Vaca went to Spain (1537) to apply for the governorship of
Florida, but it had already been conferred on Hernando de Soto, who had
taken a prominent part in the conquest of both Central America and Peru.
In 1539 De Soto reached Florida with a colony of six hundred persons.
Landing at Tampa Bay, as Narvaez had done, he soon set out to look for a
rich province called Cale. This was the beginning of an expedition
lasting nearly four years, during which the Spaniards were led on by
tales of gold and treasure from one district to another, hoping to
repeat the exploits of Cortes and Pizarro. As he passed through the
country De Soto imitated those captains by capturing the chiefs,
holding them as hostages, and compelling them to provide food and men to
carry the baggage. Going to Apalachen he wintered there, meanwhile
discovering Pensacola Bay. From Apalachen he went to the Savannah River,
thence northwest to the North Carolina Piedmont, south toward Mobile
Bay, northwest to the Mississippi near modern Memphis, westward across
Arkansas into Oklahoma, thence down the Arkansas River to its mouth,
where he died, in May, 1542, being buried in the Mississippi.
Moscoso in Arkansas and Texas.--De Soto's followers, led by Luis de
Moscoso, now set out for Panuco, crossing Arkansas to the Red River,
then turning southwest through eastern Texas, perhaps reaching the
Brazos River. Giving up the attempt by land, they returned to the
Mississippi, built a fleet of boats, descended the river, and skirted
the Texas coast, reaching Panuco in 1543. Thus ended the fourth attempt
to colonize Florida.
_CIBOLA AND QUIVIRA_
Cortes on the South Sea and in California.--Another line of advance
toward the northern interior had been made by way of the Pacific slope.
The discovery of the South Sea was followed immediately by exploration
along the western coast. Balboa himself had begun that work, before his
death in 1519. Espinosa had reached Nicaragua in 1519, and three years
later Nino had reached Guatemala. By this time Cortes had also begun
operations on the South Sea by building a shipyard at Zacatula, hoping,
to discover a strait, find rich islands and mainland, reach India by way
of the coast, and open communication with the Moluccas. In 1527 he sent
three vessels under Saavedra across the Pacific: The operations of a new
fleet built by him were hindered by the Audiencia of Mexico, but in 1532
he sent an expedition north under Hurtado de Mendoza, which reached Rio
Fuerte in northern Sinaloa. In the following year another expedition
sent by Cortes, under Jimenez discovered Lower California, which was
thought to be an island and where pearls were found. The discovery of an
island with pearls confirmed the geographical ideas of Cortes, and in
1535 he himself led a colony to La Paz, but within a few months it was
abandoned. This was the first of a long series of efforts to colonize
California.
[Illustration: Explorations in the Northern Interior, 1513-1543.]
Friar Marcos discovers Cibola.--Interest in the north country, both in
Spain and America, was greatly quickened by the arrival of Cabeza de
Vaca in Mexico after his journey across the continent. He had seen no
great wonders, but he had heard of large cities to the north of his
path, and it was thought that they might be the famed Seven Cities. The
viceroy took into his service the negro Stephen, one of Vaca's
companions, and sent him with Friar Marcos, a Franciscan missionary, to
reconnoitre. In March, 1539, they set out with guides from Culiacan.
Going ahead, Stephen soon sent back reports of Seven Cities, called
Cibola, farther on. Friar Marcos hastened after him, and reached the
border of the Zuni pueblos in western New Mexico, where he learned that
Stephen had been killed. Returning to the settlement, he reported that
Cibola was larger and finer than Mexico. This story, of course, was the
signal for another "rush," like that to Peru a few years before.
Ulloa rounds the peninsula of California.--Rivalry between Cortes and
the viceroy regarding exploration was now keen, and about the time of
the return of Fray Marcos, Cortes, hoping to forestall his competitor,
sent three vessels north to explore under Francisco de Ulloa. One of the
vessels was lost, but with two of them Ulloa succeeded in reaching the
head of the Gulf of California, and learned that California was a
peninsula. Descending the Gulf he proceeded up the outer coast of
California to Cabo del Engano.
The contest for leadership.--While Ulloa's voyage was still in progress,
Cortes hurried to Spain to present his claim of exclusive right to
conquer the country discovered by Fray Marcos and Ulloa. He never
returned to Mexico. Other contestants arose. The agents of De Soto, who
at the time was in Florida, claimed Cibola as a part of the adelantado's
grant. Guzman claimed it on the basis of explorations in Sinaloa. Pedro
de Alvarado claimed it on the ground of a license to explore north and
west, for which purpose he had prepared a fleet.
The Coronado expedition.--But the royal council decided that the
exploration should be made on behalf of the crown, in whose name the
viceroy had already sent out an expedition under Francisco Vasquez
Coronado, governor of Nueva Galicia. To cooeperate with Coronado by
water, Alarcon was sent up the coast from Acapulco with two vessels.
In February, 1540, Coronado left Compostela with some two hundred
horsemen, seventy foot soldiers, and nearly one thousand Indian allies
and servants. So eager were the volunteers that it was complained that
the country would be depopulated. The expedition was equipped at royal
expense with a thousand horses, fine trappings, pack-mules, several
cannon, and with droves of cattle, sheep, goats, and swine for food.
From Culiacan Coronado went ahead with about one hundred picked men and
four friars. Following behind their leader, the main army moved up to
Corazones, in the Yaqui River valley, where the town of San Geronimo was
founded and left in charge of Melchor Diaz.
Zuni, Moqui, the Colorado, and the Rio Grande.--In July Coronado reached
the Zuni pueblos, which he conquered with little difficulty. But the
country was disappointing and the expedition resulted only in
explorations. These, however, were of great importance. At Culiacan
Alarcon procured a third vessel, then continued to the head of the Gulf,
and ascended the Colorado (1540) eighty-five leagues, perhaps passing
the Gila River. Shortly afterward Melchor Diaz went by land from San
Geronimo to the Colorado to communicate with Alarcon, but failed and
lost his life. During the journey, however, he crossed the Colorado and
went some distance down the Peninsula of California.
Hearing of the Moqui pueblos, to the north of Zuni, in July Coronado
sent Tobar to find them, which he succeeded in doing. Shortly afterward
Cardenas went farther northwest and reached the Grand Canyon of the
Colorado. Moving to the Rio Grande, Coronado visited the pueblos in its
valley and camped at Tiguex above Isleta. In the course of the winter
the Indians revolted and were put down with great severity.
Gran Quivira.--Meanwhile Coronado heard of a rich country northeastward
called Gran Quivira, and in April, 1541, he set out to find it. Crossing
the mountains and descending the Pecos, he marched out into the
limitless buffalo-covered plains, the "Llanos del Cibola," inhabited by
roving Apaches. Near the upper Brazos he turned north, crossed the Texas
Panhandle and Oklahoma, and reached Quivira in eastern Kansas. It was
probably a settlement of Wichita Indians. Disappointed, and urged by
his men, Coronado now returned to Mexico. Three fearless missionaries
remained to preach the gospel, and soon achieved the crown of martyrdom.
Coronado had made one of the epochal explorations of all history.
The Pueblo Indians of New Mexico.--Coronado found large parts of New
Mexico and adjacent regions inhabited by Indians who dwelt in
substantial towns (pueblos) and possessed a civilization similar to that
of the Aztecs. Their terraced dwellings, which were also fortifications,
were built of stone or adobe, and were several stories high. The
inhabitants lived a settled life, practiced agriculture by means of
irrigation, and raised cotton for clothing. They were constantly beset
by the more warlike tribes all about them, and were already declining
under their incursions. At the time of the conquest there were some
seventy inhabited pueblos, whose population may have been from 30,000 to
60,000. The principal pueblo regions were the upper Rio Grande, the
upper Pecos, Acoma, and the Zuni and Moqui towns. Remains of prehistoric
pueblos occupy a much wider range in the Southwest, and are now the
scene of important archaeological research.
_CALIFORNIA AND THE PHILIPPINES_
Alvarado's fleet.--Shortly after Coronado left New Mexico, two important
expeditions were despatched by Viceroy Mendoza to explore in the
Pacific. Magellan's voyage had been a signal for a bitter conflict
between Spain and Portugal in the East, in which Portugal long had the
upper hand. After the failures of Loaisa (1525) and Saavedra (1527)
Charles V sold Spain's claims on the Moluccas to Portugal, but continued
to claim the Philippines. In spite of former disasters to eastern
expeditions, both Cortes and Pedro de Alvarado planned discoveries in
the South Sea. In 1532 Alvarado made a contract for the purpose, but was
led off by the gold "rush" to Peru. In 1538 he obtained a new grant,
authorizing him to explore "in the west toward China or the Spice
Islands," or toward the north at the "turn of the land to New Spain."
Early in 1539 he left Spain with equipment nor a fleet, which he
transported across Honduras and Guatemala on the backs of natives. On
hearing of the discoveries of Fray Marcos, he hastened north with his
fleet, but stopped in Mexico, where he and Mendoza, who had already sent
out Coronado, made an agreement, as mutual insurance, to divide the
profits of their respective explorations. Before continuing his
expedition Alvarado was killed in the Mixton War (1541). This left the
fleet in Mendoza's hands, and with it he carried out Alvarado's plans by
despatching two expeditions, one up the California coast, the other
across the Pacific.
Cabrillo and Ferrelo.--The coast voyage was conducted by Juan Rodriguez
Cabrillo, and was especially designed to look for a northern strait.
Leaving Navidad in June, 1542, Cabrillo explored the outer coast of the
Peninsula, discovered San Diego Bay, reached Northwest Cape (latitude
38 deg.31'), descended to Drake's Bay, and then returned to the Santa
Barbara Channel, where he died. Sailing north again in 1543, his pilot,
Ferrelo, reached the Oregon coast (42 1/2 deg.), returning thence to
Navidad. Cabrillo and Ferrelo had explored the coast for more than
twenty-three degrees, but had missed both San Francisco and Monterey
bays.
Villalobos.--The other expedition was led by Lopez de Villalobos, who
was instructed to explore the Philippines and to reach China, but not to
touch at the Moluccas. Sailing in November, 1542, he took possession of
the Philippines, but, being forced to leave on account of native
hostility, he was captured by the Portuguese. Villalobos died in the
Moluccas, where the enterprise went to pieces. The expeditions of
Coronado, De Soto, Cabrillo, and Villalobos brought to an end a
remarkable half century of Spanish expansion in North America and in the
Pacific Ocean.
THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE VICEROYALTY OF NEW SPAIN
Cortes as administrator.--Cortes was not a mere conqueror. He appointed
officers, and issued general ordinances affecting nearly all lines of
activity. Encomenderos were required to equip themselves for defense and
to promote agriculture. Cortes himself became a great planter, notably
at Oaxaca. He introduced agricultural implements, opened a port at Vera
Cruz, and established markets in Mexico City. In 1523 the king had
forbidden encomiendas, but Cortes made so strong a protest on the
grounds of policy and royal interest that the order was withdrawn.
Royal officials arrive.--In 1524 a corps of royal officials arrived to
take the places of those appointed by Cortes. Estrada came as treasurer,
Salazar as factor, Albornoz, as contador, and Chirinos as veedor. They
came empowered to interfere in the government of Cortes, especially in
matters of finance, a policy quite in keeping with the general Spanish
practice of setting one officer to watch another.
The powers of Cortes curtailed.--The new officials were not slow to make
trouble for Cortes. While he was in Honduras his enemies set about
undermining him, both in Mexico and Spain. Salazar and Chirinos usurped
authority, persecuted the conqueror's partisans, confiscated his
property, and spread reports that he was dead. At last the friends of
Cortes rebelled, overthrew the usurpers, Salazar and Chirinos, and sent
for Cortes to return from Honduras. In May, 1526, he reached Vera Cruz.
Two years of investigation and persecution by other crown officials
followed.
In response to complaints in Spain, Luis Ponce de Leon was sent early in
the same year as governor and to hold a _residencia_ of Cortes, while
the latter's jurisdiction as captain-general was lessened by the
appointment of Nuno de Guzman as governor of Panuco. Ponce de Leon died
in July, leaving Aguilar as governor. Aguilar died early in 1527 and
Estrada became governor. He interfered with Cortes's explorations in the
South Sea, and banished him from Mexico City as dangerous, but the
breach was soon healed when both were threatened by the usurpations of
Guzman. It was at this time that Cortes, finding his position
unbearable, went to Spain for redress and to answer charges.
The first Audiencia of New Spain.--In view of the disturbed conditions
in New Spain, in 1528 Charles V created an Audiencia or supreme court
for Mexico, and empowered it to investigate the disorders and hold the
_residencia_ of Cortes. It was composed of four _oidores_ and a
president. To the latter office was appointed Nuno de Guzman. He proved
to be an extreme partisan against Cortes, and so avaricious that he soon
won the hatred of almost everyone except a few favorites. The old
friends of Cortes stood by him and he secured the support of Bishop
Zumarraga.
Cortes made Marquis of the Valley.--The arrival of Cortes in Spain
caused his detractors to slink from sight, and he was conducted to court
with almost royal honors. In consideration of his brilliant services, in
1529 he was granted twenty-two towns, with twenty-three thousand
vassals, with full civil and criminal jurisdiction and rentals for
himself and his heirs. With these honors he was given the titles of
Marquis of the Valley of Oaxaca, captain-general of New Spain, and
governor of such islands as he might still discover in the South Sea. In
1530 he returned to New Spain, where he was acclaimed by the people,
though opposed by the Audiencia.
The second Audiencia.--The abuses of the first Audiencia led to its
replacement in 1530 by a new corps of judges, of whom the president was
Sebastian Ramirez de Fuenleal. The oidores appointed were Salmeron,
Maldonado, Ceynos, and Quiroga. They were especially instructed to hold
the _residencias_ of their predecessors, restore the estates of Cortes,
and consider the abolition of encomiendas. To replace control by
encomenderos, local magistrates called _corregidores_ were introduced. A
few of these functionaries were appointed, but the colonists raised such
a cry that little change was accomplished, and the Audiencia confined
itself, in this particular, to checking abuses of the encomienda system.
Quiroga later became bishop and civilizer of Michoacan, where he is
still gratefully remembered.
The viceroyalty established.--The difficulties of government and the
spread of conquests made closer centralization necessary, and New Spain
was now made a viceroyalty. The first incumbent of the office of viceroy
was Antonio de Mendoza, a nobleman of fine character and ability. He
arrived in 1535. As viceroy he was president of the Audiencia, governor,
and captain-general, personally representing the king in all branches of
government.
The Audiencias of Panama and Guatemala.--Alvarado served as governor and
captain-general of Guatemala through appointment by Cortes till 1528,
when he was commissioned directly by the emperor. Though frequently
absent, he continued in office till his death in 1541. In 1537 Panama
and Veragua were erected into the Audiencia of Panama, which was later
attached to the viceroyalty of Peru, because the commerce of Peru
crossed the Isthmus. Six years later the Audiencia of the Confines of
Panama and Nicaragua was established. After various changes, by 1570
Guatemala became the seat of an Audiencia embracing all of Central
America except Panama, Veragua, and Yucatan.
The New Laws.--Las Casas and others continued to oppose the encomienda
system. In 1539 the great missionary returned to Spain to conduct the
fight. While there he wrote his celebrated works called _The Destruction
of the Indies_ and the _Twenty Reasons_ why Indians should not be
enslaved. His pleadings were not in vain, for in 1542 the Council issued
a new Indian code called the _New Laws_, which provided that encomiendas
should be abolished on the death of the present holders. But so great
was the opposition that in 1545 the vital clauses of the ordinance were
repealed. In Peru the attempt to enforce the laws even led to bloodshed.
Mendoza sent to Peru.--Viceroy Mendoza continued to rule for fifteen
years. He proved to be a wise, able, and honest administrator, who tried
to improve the condition of both the colonists and the helpless natives.
He prohibited the use of the Indians as beasts of burden. In 1536 he
established the printing press in Mexico, the first book published on
the continent appearing in 1537. In that year he founded the college of
Santa Cruz de Tlatelalco for the education of noble Indians. He opened
roads from Mexico to Oaxaca, Tehuantepec, Acapulco, Michoacan, Colima,
Jalisco, and other distant points. In 1550 he was sent to rule in
troubled Peru, where the Spaniards were duplicating the brilliant
exploits of Cortes and his followers.
READINGS
SPAIN DURING THE CONQUEST
Armstrong, E., _The Emperor Charles V._; Bourne, E.G., _Spain in
America_, Ch. I; Chapman, Charles E., _A History of Spain_, 1-246,
especially Chapters X-XXII; Cheyney, E.P., _European Background of
American History_, Ch. V; Hume, M.A.S., _Spain, its Greatness and
Decay_; Hume, M.A.S., _The Spanish People_; Lane-Poole, S., _The Moors
in Spain_; Lowery, W., _Spanish Settlements within the present limits of
the United States_, 1513-1565, pp. 79-101; Merriman, R.B., _The Rise of
the Spanish Empire_; Prescott, W.H., _Ferdinand and Isabella_; Haring,
C.H., _Trade and Navigation between Spain and the Indies in the Time of
the Hapsburgs_.
THE WEST INDIES, CENTRAL AMERICA, AND MAGELLAN
Altolaguirre y Davale, D. Angel de, _D. Pedro de Alvarado, Conquistador
de Guatemala y Honduras_; _Vasco Nunez de Balboa_; Bancroft, H.H.,
_Central America_, I, 183-247, 321-412, 478-511; Bourne, E.G., _Spain in
America_, 20-53; 115-132; Fiske, John, _The Discovery of America_, I,
465-512, II, 184-212; Fortier, A., and Ficklen, J.R., _Mexico and
Central America_, 1-102; Guardia, R.F., _History of the Discovery and
Conquest of Costa Rica_; Guillemand, F.H.H, _Life of Magellan_; Helps,
Arthur, _The Spanish Conquest_, I, 89-142, 193-320; Lowery, Woodbury,
_Spanish Settlements within the present Limits of the United States_,
102-122; Richman, L.B., _The Spanish Conquerors_, 64-91, 139-154;
Wright, L.A., _The early History of Cuba_, 1492-1586.
CORTES AND HIS FOLLOWERS
Bancroft, H.H., _Central America_, I, 522-643; Diaz del Castillo,
Bernal, _True History of the Conquest of New Spain_; Fortier and
Ficklen, _Mexico and Central America_, 181-238; Helps, Arthur, _Life of
Cortes_; _Life of Las Casas_; _The Spanish Conquest_, III, 23-67,
164-289; McNutt, F.A., _Cortes and the Conquest of Mexico_, 43-67; _The
Letters of Cortes to Charles V._; Prescott, W.H., _The Conquest of
Mexico_, Bks. II-IV; Bolton, H.E., The Spanish Borderlands; Means, P.A.,
_History of the Spanish Conquest of Yucatan and of the Itzas_.
EXPLORATIONS TO THE NORTH AND IN THE PACIFIC
Bancroft, H.H., _History of California_, I, 64-81; Bandelier, A.D.F.,
_The Gilded Man; Journey of Cabeza de Vaca (Trail Makers' Series)_;
Blair and Robertson, _The Philippine Islands_, I-II; Bolton, H.E.,
_Spanish Exploration in the Southwest, 1542-1706 (Original Narratives
Series)_, 1-39; Bourne, E.G., _Spain in America_, 158-174; _Narratives
of the Career of Hernando de Soto (Trail Makers' Series)_; Brittain,
Alfred, _Discovery and Exploration_, 343-361; Hodge, F.W., and Lewis,
T.H., _The Spanish Explorers in the Southern United States, 1528-1543
(Original Narratives Series)_; Irving, Theodore, _The Conquest of
Florida_; Lowery, Woodbury, _Spanish Settlements within the present
Limits of the United States_, 130-350; Richman, L.B., _California under
Spain and Mexico_, 3-11; Schafer, Joseph, _Pacific Coast and Alaska_,
3-23; Winship, G.P., _The Coronado Expedition_ (Bureau of American
Ethnology, _14th Report_, Part I.); _The Journey of Coronado (Trail
Makers' Series)_, Richman, I.B., _The Spanish Conquerors_, 91-139.