MEANS OF SAVING.
"Self-reliance and self-denial will teach a man to drink out of his own
cistern, and eat his own sweet bread, and to learn and labour truly to
get his own living, and carefully to save and expend the good things
committed to his trust."--_Lord Bacon._
"Love, therefore, labour: if thou should'st not want it for food, thou
may'st for physic. It is wholesome for the body, and good for the mind;
it prevents the fruit of idleness."--_William Penn._
"The parent who does not teach his child a trade, teaches him to be a
thief."--_Brahminical Scriptures._
Those who say that "It can't be done," are probably not aware that many
of the working classes are in the receipt of incomes considerably larger
than those of professional men.
That this is the case, is not, by any means, a secret. It is published
in blue-books, it is given in evidence before parliamentary committees,
it is reported in newspapers. Any coal-owner, or iron-master, or
cotton-spinner, will tell you of the high wages that he pays to his
workpeople.
Families employed in the cotton manufacture are able to earn over three
pounds a week, according to the number of the children employed.[1]
Their annual incomes will thus amount to about a hundred and fifty
pounds a year,--which is considerably larger than the incomes of many
professional men--higher than the average of country surgeons, higher
than the average of the clergy and ministers of all denominations,
higher than the average of the teachers of common schools, and probably
higher than the average income of the middle classes of the United
Kingdom generally.
[Footnote 1: A return of seven families employed by Henry Ashworth, New
Cayley Mills, Lancashire, is given in the Blue Book, entitled, "Report
of the Paris Universal Exhibition, 1867, containing the Returns relative
to the New Order of Reward," p. 163. Of the seven families, the lowest
earnings per family amounted to £2 14s. 6d.; and the highest to £3 19s.
a week.]
An employer at Blackburn informs us that many persons earn upwards of
five pounds a week,--or equal to an average income of two hundred and
sixty pounds a year. Such families, he says, "ought not to expend more
than three pounds weekly. The rest should be saved. But most of them,
after feeding and clothing themselves, spend the rest in drink and
dissipation."
The wages are similar in the Burnley district, where food, drink, and
dress absorb the greater part of the workpeople's earnings. In this, as
in other factory districts, "the practice of young persons
(mill-workers) boarding with their parents is prevalent, and is very
detrimental to parental authority." Another reporter says, "Wages are
increasing: as there is more money, and more time to spend it in,
sobriety is not on the increase, especially amongst females."
The operatives employed in the woollen manufacture receive about forty
shillings a week, and some as much as sixty,[1] besides the amount
earned by their children.
A good mechanic in an engine shop makes from thirty-five to forty-five
shillings a week, and some mechanics make much larger wages. Multiply
these figures, and it will be found that they amount to an annual income
of from a hundred to a hundred and twenty pounds a year.
[Footnote 1: See the above Blue Book, p. 57, certifying the wages paid
by Bliss and Son, of Chipping Norton Woollen Factory.]
But the colliers and iron-workers are paid much higher wages. One of the
largest iron-masters recently published in the newspapers the names of
certain colliers in his employment who were receiving from four to five
pounds a week,--or equal to an annual income of from two hundred to two
hundred and fifty pounds a year.[1]
[Footnote 1: Richard Fothergill, Esq., M.P. He published a subsequent
letter, from which we extract the following:--
"No doubt such earnings seem large to clerks, and educated men, who
after receiving a costly education have often to struggle hard for
bread; but they are nevertheless the rightful earnings of steady manual
labour; and I have the pleasure of adding that, while all steady,
well-disposed colliers, in good health, could make equally good wages,
many hundreds in South Wales are quietly doing as much or more: witness
a steady collier in my employment, with his two sons living at home,
whose monthly pay ticket has averaged £30 for the past twelvemonth.
"Another steady collier within my information, aided by his son, h as
earned during the past five months upwards of £20 a month on the
average, and from his manual labour as an ordinary collier--for it is of
the working colliers and firemen I am speaking all along--he has built
fifteen good houses, and, disregarding all menaces, he continues his
habits of steady industry, whereby he hopes to accumulate an
independence for his family in all events."]
Iron-workers are paid a still higher rate of wages. A plate-roller
easily makes three hundred a year.[2] The rollers in rail mills often
make much more. In busy times they have made as much as from seven to
ten guineas a week, or equal to from three to five hundred a year.[3]
But, like the workers in cotton mills, the iron workers are often helped
by their sons, who are also paid high wages. Thus, the under-hands are
usually boys from fourteen years of age and upwards, who earn about
nineteen shillings a week, and the helpers are boys of under fourteen,
who earn about nine shillings a week.
[Footnote 2: See Messrs. Fox, Head, and Co.'s return, in the Blue Book
above referred to. This was the rate of wages at Middlesborough, in
Yorkshire. In South Wales, the wages of the principal operatives engaged
in the iron manufacture, recently, were--Puddlers. 9_s_. a day; first
heaters on the rail mills. 8_s_. 9_d_. a day: second heaters, 11_s_.
7_d_.: roughers, 10_s_. 9_d_.: rollers, 13_s_. 2_d_., or equal to that
amount.]
[Footnote 3: Even at the present time, when business is so much
depressed, the mill-rollers make an average wage of £5 10_s_. a week.]
These earnings are far above the average incomes of the professional
classes. The rail rollers are able to earn a rate of pay equal to that
of Lieutenant-Colonels in Her Majesty's Foot Guards; plate-rollers equal
to that of Majors of Foot; and roughers equal to that of Lieutenants and
Adjutants.
Goldsmith spoke of the country curate as "passing rich with forty pounds
a year." The incomes of curates have certainly increased since the time
when Goldsmith wrote, but nothing like the incomes of skilled and
unskilled workmen. If curates merely worked for money, they would
certainly change their vocation, and become colliers and iron-workers.
When the author visited Renfrewshire a few years ago, the colliers were
earning from ten to fourteen shillings a day. According to the common
saying, they were "making money like a minting machine." To take an
instance, a father and three sons were earning sixty pounds a month,--or
equal to a united income of more than seven hundred pounds a year. The
father was a sober, steady, "eident" man. While the high wages lasted,
he was the first to enter the pit in the morning, and the last to leave
it at night. He only lost five days in one year (1873-4),--the loss
being occasioned by fast-days and holidays. Believing that the period of
high wages could not last long, he and his sons worked as hard as they
could. They saved a good deal of money, and bought several houses;
besides educating themselves to occupy higher positions.
In the same neighbourhood, another collier, with four sons, was earning
money at about the same rate per man, that is about seventy-five-pounds
a mouth, or nine hundred pounds a year. This family bought five houses
within a year, and saved a considerable sum besides. The last
information we had respecting them was that the father had become a
contractor,--that he employed about sixty colliers and "reddsmen,"[1]
and was allowed so much for every ton of coals brought to bank. The sons
were looking after their father's interests. They were all sober,
diligent, sensible men; and took a great deal of interest in the
education and improvement of the people in their neighbourhood.
[Footnote 1: "Reddsmen" are the men who clear the way for the colliers.
They "redd up" the _debris_, and build up the roof (in the long wall
system) as the colliery advances.]
At the same time that these two families of colliers were doing so well,
it was very different with the majority of their fellow-workmen. These
only worked about three days in every week. Some spent their earnings at
the public-house; others took a whisky "ploy" at the seaside. For that
purpose they hired all the gigs, droskies, cabs, or "machines," about a
fortnight beforehand. The results were seen, as the successive Monday
mornings come round. The magistrate sat in the neighbouring town, where
a number of men and women, with black eyes and broken heads, were
brought before him for judgment. Before the time of high wages, the
Court-house business was got through in an hour: sometimes there was no
business at all. But when the wages were doubled, the magistrate could
scarcely get through the business in a day. It seemed as if high wages
meant more idleness, more whisky, and more broken heads and faces.
These were doubtless "roaring times" for the colliers, who, had they
possessed the requisite self-denial, might have made little fortunes.
Many of the men who worked out the coal remained idle three or four days
in the week; while those who burnt the coal, were famished and frozen
for want of it. The working people who were _not_ colliers, will long
remember that period as the time of the _coal famine_. While it lasted,
Lord Elcho went over to Tranent--a village in East Lothian--to address
the colliers upon their thriftlessness, their idleness, and their
attempted combinations to keep up the price of coal.
He had the moral courage--a quality much wanted in these days--to tell
his constituents some hard but honest truths. He argued with them about
the coal famine, and their desire to prolong it. They were working three
days a week, and idling the other days. Some of them did not do a stroke
of work during a week or a fortnight; others were taking about a hundred
Bank holidays yearly. But what were they doing with the money they
earned? Were they saving it for a rainy day; or, when the "roaring
times" no longer existed, were they preparing to fall back upon the
poor-rates? He found that in one case a man, with his two sons, was
earning seven pounds in a fortnight. "I should like," he said, "to see
those Scotchmen who are in the mining business taking advantage of these
happy times, and endeavouring by their industry to rise from their
present position--to exercise self-help, to acquire property, and
possibly to become coal masters themselves."
It had been said in a newspaper, that a miner was earning wages equal to
that of a Captain, and that a mining boy was earning wages equal to that
of a Lieutenant in Her Majesty's service. "I only know," said Lord
Elcho, "that I have a boy who, when he first joined Her Majesty's
service, was an Ensign, and that his wage--to earn which, remember, he
had, under the purchase system, to pay five hundred pounds,--was not the
wage you are now receiving, but the wage which you were receiving in bad
times,--and that was only five shillings a day." It might be said that
the collier risks his life in earning his wages; but so does the
soldier; and the gallant boy to whom Lord Elcho referred, afterwards
lost his life in the Ashantee campaign.
The times of high wages did not leave a very good impression on the
public mind. Prices became higher, morals became lower, and the work
done was badly done. There was a considerable deterioration in the
character of British workmanship. "We began to rely too much upon the
foreigner. Trade was to a large extent destroyed, and an enormous loss
of capital was sustained, both by the workmen and by the masters. Lord
Aberdare was of opinion that three millions sterling were lost by _the
workmen alone_, during the recent strike in South Wales. One hundred and
twenty thousand workmen were in enforced idleness at once, and one
hundred and fifty thousand pounds were lost every week in wages during
the time that they remained idle.
What the employers think of the recent flash of "prosperity," can easily
be imagined. But it may not be unnecessary to quote some of the
statements of correspondents. A large employer of labour in South
Lancashire says: "Drunkenness increases, and personal violence is not
sufficiently discouraged. High wages and household suffrage came upon
the people before education had prepared them for the change."
In a large iron-work near Newcastle, where the men were paid the highest
wages for rolling plates and rails--and where they were earning between
three and four hundred pounds a year--the proprietors observe: "Except
in a few instances, we are afraid that workmen and their families spend
most of their earnings." Another employer in South Staffordshire says:
In the majority of cases, the men employed in the iron-work spend the
whole of their wages before the end of the following week. There are, of
course, some exceptions; but they are, unhappily, very few." Another, in
South Wales, says: "As to the thrifty habits of the men, a small
minority are careful and saving; they generally invest their money in
cottage property. But the great majority of the men spend their money
often before they earn it, and that in the most reckless way. Large sums
are spent in drink: this leads to idleness; and, owing to drinking and
idling, the works are kept short of men until about Wednesday in each
week, when the greater part of the most idly disposed have become
sobered down. Of course, when wages are low, the men work more
regularly. There is less drinking, and altogether the condition of the
place is healthier in every respect both in a moral and physical sense."
Another observer remarks, that the miners of Bilston are about six
thousand in number, and they spend more than fifty thousand pounds
annually in the purchase of ale and liquors. Their improvidence may be
studied with advantage in the Bilston Market. No other market is
supplied with finer poultry, or comparatively to the population, in
greater abundance; and this is chiefly, if not entirely, for, the
consumption of the labouring classes,--for the resident inhabitants, not
directly associated with those classes are few in number. Sordid and
ill-favoured men may there be seen buying on Saturday, chickens, ducks,
and geese, which they eat for supper; and in some instances, bottled
porter and wine. Yet, so little have they beforehand in the world, that
if the works were to stop, they would begin within a fortnight to pawn
the little furniture of their cottages, and their clothes, for
subsistence and for drink.
Mr. Chambers, of Edinburgh, in his description of the working classes of
Sunderland makes these remarks: "With deep sorrow I mention that
everywhere one tale was told. Intemperance prevails to a large extent;
good wages are squandered on mean indulgences; there is little care for
the morrow, and the workhouse is the ultimate refuge. One man, a skilled
worker in an iron-foundry, was pointed out as having for years received
a wage of one guinea a day, or six guineas a week; he had spent all,
mostly in drink, and was now reduced to a lower department at a pound a
week."
Another illustration occurs. A clerk at Blackburn took a house for
twenty pounds a year, and sublet the cellars underneath to a factory
operative at a rental of five pounds a year. The clerk had a wife, four
children, and a servant; the operative had a wife and five children. The
clerk and his family were well dressed, their children went to school,
and all went to church on Sundays. The operative's family went, some to
the factory, others to the gutter, but none to school; they were
ill-dressed, excepting on Sundays, when they obtained their clothes from
the pawnshop. As the Saturdays came round, the frying-pan in the cellar
was almost constantly at work until Monday night; and as regularly as
Thursday arrived, the bundle of clothes was sent to the pawnshop. Yet
the income of the upper-class family in the higher part of the house was
a hundred a year; and the income of the lower class family in the cellar
was fifty pounds more--that is, a hundred and fifty pounds a year!
An employer in the same neighbourhood used to say, "I cannot afford
lamb, salmon, young ducks and green peas, new potatoes, strawberries and
such-like, until after my hands have been consuming these delicacies of
the season for some three or four weeks."
The intense selfishness, thriftlessness, and folly of these highly paid
operatives, is scarcely credible. Exceptions are frequently taken to
calling the working classes "the lower orders;" but "the lower orders"
they always will be, so long as they indicate such sensual indulgence
and improvidence. In cases such as these, improvidence is not only a
great sin, and a feeder of sin, but it is a great _cruelty_. In the case
of the father of a family, who has been instrumental in bringing a
number of helpless beings into the world, it is heartless and selfish in
the highest degree to spend money on personal indulgences such as drink,
which do the parent no good, and the mother and the children, through
the hereditary bad example, an irreparable amount of mischief. The
father takes sick, is thrown out of work, and his children are at once
deprived of the means of subsistence. The reckless parent has not even
taken the precaution to enter a Provident or a Benefit Society; and
while he is sick, his wife and children are suffering the pangs of
hunger. Or, he dies; and the poor creatures are thrown upon the charity
of strangers, or on the miserable pittance wrung from the poor-rates.
It would seem to be of little use preaching up an extension of rights to
a people who are so supinely indifferent to their own well-being,--who
are really unconcerned about their own elevation. The friends of the
industrious should faithfully tell them that they must exercise
prudence, economy, and self-denial, if they would really be raised from
selfish debasement, and become elevated to the dignity of thinking
beings. It is only by practising the principles of self-dependence that
they can achieve dignity, stability, and consideration in society; or
that they can acquire such influence and power as to raise them in the
scale of social well-being.
Brown, the Oxford shoemaker, was of opinion that "a good mechanic is the
most independent man in the world." At least he ought to be such. He has
always a market for his skill; and if he be ordinarily diligent, sober,
and intelligent, he may be useful, healthy, and happy. With a thrifty
use of his means, he may, if he earns from thirty to forty shillings a
week, dress well, live well, and educate his children creditably.
Hugh Miller never had more than twenty-four shillings a week while
working as a journeyman stonemason, and here is the result of his
fifteen years' experience:--
"Let me state, for it seems to be very much the fashion to draw dolorous
pictures of the condition of the labouring classes, that from the close
of the first year in which I worked as a journeyman until I took final
leave of the mallet and chisel, I never knew what it was to want a
shilling; that my two uncles, my grandfather, and the mason with whom I
served my apprenticeship--all working men--had had a similar experience;
and that it was the experience of my father also. I cannot doubt that
deserving mechanics may, in exceptional cases, be exposed to want; but I
can as little doubt that the cases _are_ exceptional, and that much of
the suffering of the class is a consequence either of improvidence on
the part of the competently skilled, or of a course of trifling during
the term of apprenticeship, quite as common as trifling at school, that
always lands those who indulge in it in the hapless position of the
inferior workman."
It is most disheartening to find that so many of the highest paid
workmen in the kingdom should spend so large a portion of their earnings
in their own personal and sensual gratification. Many spend a third, and
others half their entire earnings, in drink. It would be considered
monstrous, on the part of any man whose lot has been cast among the
educated classes to exhibit such a degree of selfish indulgence; and to
spend even one-fourth of his income upon objects in which his wife and
children have no share.
Mr. Roolmck recently asked, at a public meeting,[1] "Why should the mail
who makes £200 or £300 a year by his mechanical labour, be a rude,
coarse, brutal fellow? There is no reason why he should be so.
[Footnote 1: Meeting of the Mechanics' Institutes at Dewsbury,
Yorkshire.]
Why should he not be like a gentleman? Why should not his house be like
my house? When I go home from my labour, what do I find? I find a
cheerful wife--I find an elegant, educated woman. I have a daughter; she
is the same. Why should not you find the same happy influences at home?
I want to know, when the working man comes from his daily labour to his
home, why he should not find his table spread as mine is spread; why he
should not find his wife well dressed, cleanly, loving, kind, and his
daughter the same?... We all know that many working men, earning good
wages, spend their money in the beerhouse and in drunkenness, instead of
in clothing their wives and families. Why should not these men spend
their wages as I spend my small stipend, in intellectual pleasures, in
joining with my family in intellectual pursuits? Why should not working
men, after enjoying their dinners and thanking God for what they have
got, turn their attention to intellectual enjoyments, instead of going
out to get drunk in the nearest pothouse! Depend on it these things
ought to go to the heart of a working man; and he is not a friend to the
working man who talks to him and makes him believe that he is a great
man in the State, and who don't tell him what are the duties of his
position."
It is difficult to account for the waste and extravagance of working
people. It must be the hereditary remnant of the original savage. It
must be a survival. The savage feasts and drinks until everything is
gone; and then he hunts or goes to war. Or it may be the survival of
slavery in the State. Slavery was one of the first of human
institutions. The strong man made the weak man work for him. The warlike
race subdued the less warlike race, and made them their slaves. Thus
slavery existed from the earliest times. In Greece and Rome the righting
was done by freemen, the labour by helots and bondsmen. But slavery also
existed in the family. The wife was the slave of her husband as much as
the slave whom he bought in the public market.
Slavery long existed among ourselves. It existed when Caesar lauded. It
existed in Saxon times, when the household work was done by slaves. The
Saxons were notorious slave-dealers, and the Irish were their best
customers. The principal mart was at Bristol, from whence the Saxons
exported large numbers of slaves into Ireland so that, according to
Irish historians, there was scarcely a house in Ireland without a
British slave in it.
When the Normans took possession of England, they continued slavery.
They made slaves of the Saxons themselves whom they decreed villeins and
bondsmen. Domesday Book shows that the toll of the market at Lewes in
Sussex was a penny for a cow, and fourpence for a slave--not a serf
(_adscriptus glebae_), but an unconditional bondsman. From that time
slavery continued in various forms. It is recorded of "the good old
times," that it was not till the reign of Henry IV. (1320--1413) that
villeins, farmers, and mechanics were permitted by law to put their
children to school; and long after that, they dared not educate a son
for the Church without a licence from the lord.[1] The Kings of England,
in their contests with the feudal aristocracy, gradually relaxed the
slave laws. They granted charters founding Royal Burghs; and when the
slaves fled into them, and were able to conceal themselves for a year
and a day, they then became freemen of the burgh, and were declared by
law to be free.
[Footnote 1: _Henry's History of England_, Book v., chap. 4]
The last serfs in England were emancipated in the reign of Queen
Elizabeth; but the last serfs in Scotland, were not emancipated until
the reign of George III, at the end of last century. Before then, the
colliers and salters belonged to the soil. They were bought and sold
with it. They had no power to determine what their wages should be. Like
the slaves in the Southern States of America, they merely accepted such
sustenance as was sufficient to maintain their muscles and sinews in
working order.
They were never required to save for any purpose, for they had no right
to their own savings. They did not need to provide for to-morrow; their
masters provided for them. The habit of improvidence was thus formed;
and it still continues. The Scotch colliers, who were recently earning
from ten to fourteen shillings a day, are the grandsons of men who were
slaves down to the end of last century. The preamble of an Act passed in
1799 (39th Geo. III., c. 56), runs as follows: "Whereas, before the
passing of an Act of the fifteenth of his present Majesty, many
colliers, coal-bearers, and salters _were bound for life to, and
transferable with, the collieries and salt-works where they worked_, but
by the said Act their bondage was taken off and they were declared to be
free, notwithstanding which many colliers and coalbearers and salters
still continue in a state of bondage from not having complied with the
provisions, or from having become subject to the penalties of that Act,"
etc. The new Act then proceeds to declare them free from servitude. The
slaves formerly earned only enough to keep them, and laid by nothing
whatever for the future. Hence we say that the improvidence of the
colliers, as of the iron-workers, is but a survival of the system of
slavery in our political constitution.
Matters have now become entirely different. The workman, no matter what
his trade, is comparatively free. The only slavery from which he
suffers, is his passion for drink. In this respect he still resembles
the Esquimaux and the North American Indians. Would he be really free?
Then he must exercise the powers of a free, responsible man. He must
exercise self-control and self-constraint,--and sacrifice present
personal gratifications for prospective enjoyments of a much higher
kind. It is only by self-respect and self-control that the position of
the workman can be really elevated.
The working man is now more of a citizen than he ever was before. He is
a recognized power, and has been admitted within the pale of the
constitution. For him mechanics' institutes, newspapers, benefit
societies, and all the modern agencies of civilization, exist in
abundance. He is admitted to the domain of intellect; and, from time to
time, great thinkers, artists, engineers, philosophers, and poets, rise
up from his order, to proclaim that intellect is of no rank, and
nobility of no exclusive order. The influences of civilization are
rousing society to its depths; and daily evidences are furnished of the
rise of the industrious classes to a position of social power.
Discontent may, and does, exhibit itself; but discontent is only the
necessary condition of improvement; for a man will not be stimulated to
rise up into a higher condition unless he be first made dissatisfied
with the lower condition out of which he has to rise. To be satisfied is
to repose; while, to be rationally dissatisfied, is to contrive, to
work, and to act, with an eye to future advancement.
The working classes very much under-estimate themselves. Though they
receive salaries or wages beyond the average earnings of professional
men, yet many of them have no other thought than that of living in mean
houses, and spending their surplus time and money in drink. They seem
wanting in respect for themselves as well as for their class. They
encourage the notion that there is something degrading in labour,--than
which nothing can be more false. Labour of all kinds is dignifying and
honourable; it is the idler, above all others, who is undignified and
dishonourable.
"Let the working man," says Mr. Sterling, "try to connect his daily
task, however mean, with the highest thoughts he can apprehend, and he
thereby secures the rightfulness of his lot, and is raising his
existence to his utmost good. It is because the working man has failed
to do this, and because others have failed to help him as they ought,
that the lot of labour has hitherto been associated with what is mean
and degrading."
With respect to remuneration, the average of skilled mechanics and
artisans, as we have already said, are better paid than the average of
working curates. The working engineer is better paid than the ensign in
a marching regiment. The foreman in any of our large engineering
establishments is better paid than an army surgeon. The rail-roller
receives over a guinea a day, while an assistant navy surgeon receives
fourteen shillings, and after three years' service, twenty-one
shillings, with rations. The majority of dissenting ministers are much
worse paid than the better classes of skilled mechanics and artizans;
and the average of clerks employed in counting-houses and warehouses
receive wages very much lower.
Skilled workmen might--and, if they had the will, they would--occupy a
social position as high as the educated classes we refer to. What
prevents them rising? Merely because they will not use their leisure to
cultivate their minds. They have sufficient money; it is culture that
they want. They ought to know that the position of men in society does
not depend so much upon their earnings, as upon their character and
intelligence. And it is because they neglect their abundant
opportunities,--because they are thriftless and spend their earnings in
animal enjoyments,--because they refuse to cultivate the highest parts
of their nature,--that they are excluded, or rather self-excluded, from
those social and other privileges in which they are entitled to take
part.
Notwithstanding their high wages, they for the most part cling to the
dress, the language, and the manners of their class. They appear, during
their leisure hours, in filthy dresses, and unwashed hands. No matter
how skilled the workman may be, he is ready to sink his mind and
character to the lowest level of his co-workers. Even the extra money
which he earns by his greater skill, often contributes to demoralize and
degrade him. And yet he might dress as well, live as well, and be
surrounded by the physical comforts and intellectual luxuries of
professional men. But no! From week to week his earnings are wasted. He
does not save a farthing; he is a public-house victim; and when work
becomes slack, and his body becomes diseased, his only refuge is the
workhouse.
How are these enormous evils to be cured? Some say by better education;
others by moral and religious instruction; others by better homes, and
better wives and mothers. All these influences will doubtless contribute
much towards the improvement of the people. One thing is perfectly
clear, that an immense amount of ignorance prevails, and that such
ignorance must be dissipated before the lower classes can be elevated.
Their whole character must be changed, and they must be taught in early
life habits of forecast and self-control.
We often hear that "Knowledge is Power;" but we never hear that
Ignorance is Power. And yet Ignorance has always had more power in the
world than Knowledge. Ignorance dominates. It is because of the evil
propensities of men that the costly repressive institutions of modern
governments exist.
Ignorance arms men against each other; provides gaols and
penitentiaries; police and constabulary. All the physical force of the
State is provided by Ignorance; is required by Ignorance; is very often
wielded by Ignorance. We may well avow, then, that Ignorance is Power.
Ignorance is powerful, because Knowledge, as yet, has obtained access
only to the minds of the few. Let Knowledge become more generally
diffused; let the multitude become educated, thoughtful, and wise; and
then Knowledge may obtain the ascendancy over Ignorance. But that time
has not yet arrived.
Look into the records of crime, and you will find that, for one man
possessed of wisdom or knowledge who commits a crime, there are a
hundred ignorant. Or, into the statistics of drunkenness and
improvidence of all sorts; still Ignorance is predominant. Or, into the
annals of pauperism; there, again, Ignorance is Power.
The principal causes of anxiety in this country, are the social
suffering and disease which proceed from Ignorance. To mitigate these,
we form associations, organize societies, spend money, and labour in
committees. But the power of Ignorance is too great for us. We almost
despair while we work. We feel that much of our effort is wasted. We are
often ready to give up in dismay, and recoil from our encounter with the
powers of evil.
"How forcible are right words!" exclaimed Job. Yes! But, with equal
justice, he might have said, "How forcible are wrong words!" The wrong
words have more power with ignorant minds than the right words. They fit
themselves into wrong heads, and prejudiced heads, and empty heads; and
have power over them. The right words have often no meaning for them,
any more than if they were the words of some dead language. The wise
man's thoughts do not reach the multitude, but fly over their heads.
Only the few as yet apprehend them.
The physiologist may discuss the laws of health, and the Board of Health
may write tracts for circulation among the people; but half the people
cannot so much as read; and of the remaining half, but a very small
proportion are in the habit of _thinking_. Thus the laws of health are
disregarded; and when fever comes, it finds a wide field to work upon:
in undrained and filthy streets and back-yards,--noisome, pestilential
districts,--foul, uncleansed dwellings,--large populations ill-supplied
with clean water and with pure air. There death makes fell havoc; many
destitute widows and children have to be maintained out of the
poor's-rates; and then we reluctantly confess to ourselves that
Ignorance is Power.
The only method of abating this power of Ignorance, is by increasing
that of Knowledge. As the sun goes up the sky, the darkness disappears;
and the owl, the bat, and the beasts of prey, slink out of sight. Give
the people knowledge,--give them better education,--and thus, crime will
be abated,--drunkenness, improvidence, lawlessness, and all the powers
of evil, will, to a certain extent, disappear.[1]
[Footnote 1: The recent reports of Mr. Tremenheere to the Secretary of
State for the Home Department, with respect to the condition of the
population in the iron and coal districts, show that he places
considerable reliance upon the effect of Education. The evidence which
he brought together from all parts of the country, shows that the
increase of immorality with the increase of wages was attributed to the
low tastes and desires of the people.--that the obstinate refusal of the
men to exert more than two-thirds of their fair powers of work, by which
the cost of production is largely enhanced, capital crippled, and the
public mulcted, was due to the same cause,--that their readiness to
become the prey of unionists and agitators is traceable to their want of
the most elementary principles of thought,--that most of the accidents,
which are of weekly occurrence, are occasioned by their stupidity and
ignorance,--that wherever they have advanced in intelligence, they have
become more skilful, more subordinate, and more industrious. These facts
have convinced the more thoughtful and far-sighted masters, that the
only sure means of maintaining their ground under increasing foreign
competition, and averting a social crisis, is to reform the character of
the rising generation of operatives by _education_,]
It must, however, be admitted that education is not enough. The clever
man may be a clever rogue; and the cleverer he is, the cleverer rogue he
will be. Education, therefore, must be based upon religion and morality;
for education by itself will not eradicate vicious propensities. Culture
of intellect has but little effect upon moral conduct. You may see
clever, educated, literary men, with no conduct whatever,--wasteful,
improvident, drunken, and vicious. It follows, therefore, that education
must be based upon the principles of religion and morality.
Nor has the poverty of the people so much to do with their social
degradation as is commonly supposed. The question is essentially a moral
one. If the income of the labouring community could be suddenly doubled,
their happiness will not necessarily be increased; for happiness does
not consist in money. In fact, the increased wages might probably prove
a curse instead of a blessing. In the case of many, there would be an
increased consumption of drink, with the usual results,--an increase of
drunken violence, and probably an increase of crime.
The late Mr. Clay, chaplain of the Preston House of Correction, after
characterizing drunkenness as the GREAT SIN, proceeds: "It still rises
in savage hostility, against everything allied to order and religion; it
still barricades every avenue by which truth and peace seek to enter the
poor man's home and heart.... Whatever may be the predominant cause of
crime, it is very clear that ignorance, religious ignorance, is the
chief ingredient in the character of the criminal. This combines with
the passion for liquor, and offences numberless are engendered by the
union."
The late Sir Arthur Helps, when speaking of high and low wages, and of
the means of getting and spending money, thus expresses himself on the
subject, in his "Friends in Council":"My own conviction is, that
throughout England every year there is sufficient wages given, even at
the present low rate, to make the condition of the labouring poor quite
different from what it is. But then these wages must be well spent. I do
not mean that the poor could of themselves alone effect this change; but
were they seconded by the advice, the instruction, and the aid (not
given in money, or only in money lent to produce the current interest of
the day) of the classes above them, the rest the poor might accomplish
for themselves. And, indeed, all that the rich could do to elevate the
poor could hardly equal the advantage that would be gained by the poor
themselves, if they could thoroughly subdue that one vice of
drunkenness, the most wasteful of all the vices.
"In the living of the poor (as indeed of all of us) there are two things
to be considered; how to get money, and how to spend it. Now, I believe,
the experience of employers will bear me out in saying, that it is
frequently found that the man with 20s. a week does not live more
comfortably, or save more, than the man with 14s.,--the families of the
two men being the same in number and general circumstances. It is
probable that unless he have a good deal of prudence and thought, the
man who gets at all more than the average of his class does not know
what to do with it, or only finds in it a means superior to that which
his fellows possess of satisfying his appetite for drinking."
Notwithstanding, however, the discouraging circumstances to which we
have referred, we must believe that in course of time, as men's nature
becomes improved by education--secular, moral, and religious--they may
be induced to make a better use of their means, by considerations of
prudence, forethought, and parental responsibility. A German writer
speaks of the education given to a child as _a capital_--equivalent to a
store of money--placed at its disposal by the parent. The child, when
grown to manhood, may employ the education, as he might employ the
money, badly; but that is no argument against the possession of either.
Of course, the value of education, as of money, chiefly consists in its
proper use. And one of the advantages of knowledge is, that the very
acquisition of it tends to increase the capability of using it aright;
which is certainly not the case with the accumulation of money.
Education, however obtained, is always an advantage to a man. Even as a
means of material advancement, it is worthy of being sought after,--not
to speak of its moral uses as an elevator of character and intelligence.
And if, as Dr. Lyon Playfair insists, the composition between industrial
nations must before long become a competition mainly of intelligence, it
is obvious that England must make better provision for the education of
its industrial classes, or be prepared to fall behind in the industrial
progress of nations.
"It would be of little avail," said Dr. Brewster of Edinburgh, "to the
peace and happiness of society, if the great truths of the material
world were confined to the educated and the wise. The organization of
science thus limited would cease to be a blessing. Knowledge secular,
and knowledge divine, the double current of the intellectual life-blood
of man, must not merely descend through the great arteries of the social
frame; it must be taken up by the minutest capillaries before it can
nourish and purify society. Knowledge is at once the manna and the
medicine of our moral being. Where crime is the bane, knowledge is the
antidote. Society may escape from the pestilence and may survive the
famine; but the demon of ignorance, with his grim adjutants of vice and
riot, will pursue her into her most peaceful haunts, destroying our
institutions, and converting into a wilderness the paradise of social
and domestic life. The State has, therefore, a great duty to perform. As
it punishes crime, it is bound to prevent it. As it subjects us to laws,
it must teach us to read them; and while it thus teaches, it must teach
also the ennobling truths which display the power and the wisdom of the
great Lawgiver, thus diffusing knowledge while it is extending
education; and thus making men contented, and happy, and humble, while
it makes them quiet and obedient subjects."
A beginning has already been made with public school education. Much
still remains to be done to establish the system throughout the empire.
At present we are unable to judge of the effects of what has been done.
But if general education accomplish as much for England as it has
already accomplished for Germany, the character of this country will be
immensely improved during the next twenty years. Education has almost
banished drunkenness from Germany; and had England no drunkenness, no
thriftlessness, no reckless multiplication, our social miseries would be
comparatively trivial.
We must therefore believe that as intelligence extends amongst the
working class, and as a better moral tone pervades them, there will be a
rapid improvement in their sober, thrifty and provident habits; for
these form the firmest and surest foundations for social advancement.
There is a growing desire, on the part of the more advanced minds in
society, to see the working men take up their right position. They who
do society's work,--who produce, under the direction of the most
intelligent of their number, the wealth of the nation,--are entitled to
a much higher place than they have yet assumed. We believe in this "good
time coming," for working men and women,--when an atmosphere of
intelligence shall pervade them--when they will prove themselves as
enlightened, polite, and independent as the other classes of society;
and, as the first and surest step towards this consummation, we counsel
them to PROVIDE--to provide for the future as well as for the
present--to provide, in times of youth and plenty, against the times of
adversity, misfortune, and old age.
"If any one intends to improve his condition," said the late William
Felkin, Mayor of Nottingham, himself originally a working man, "he must
earn all he can, spend as little as he can, and make what he does spend,
bring him and his family all the real enjoyment he can. The first saving
which a working man makes out of his earnings is the first step,--and
because it is the first, the most important step towards true
independence. Now independence is as practicable in the case of an
industrious and economic, though originally poor, workman, as in that of
the tradesman or merchant,--and is as great and estimable a blessing.
The same process must be attended to,--that is, the entire expenditure
being kept below the clear income, all contingent claims being carefully
considered and provided for, and the surplus held sacred, to be employed
for those purposes, and those only, which duty or conscience may point
out as important or desirable. This requires a course of laborious
exertion and strict economy, a little foresight, and possibly some
privation. But this is only what is common to all desirable objects. And
inasmuch as I know what it is to labour with the hands long hours, and
for small wages, as well as any workman to whom I address myself, and to
practise self-denial withal, I am emboldened to declare from experience
that the gain of independence, or rather self-dependence, for which I
plead, is worth infinitely more than all the cost of its attainment;
and, moreover, that to attain it in a greater or less degree, according
to circumstances, is within the power of by far the greater number of
skilled workmen engaged in our manufactories."