Hudibras and the Champion Crowdero--George Herbert's references to
Music--Christopher Simpson's Trinity in Unity--Shakespeare's Sonnet
VIII.--Violins from a medical point of view--"A Musician"--Origin of
Tartini's "Sonato del Diavolo"--Dr. Johnson and the Violin--Dr.
Johnson on the Difficulty of Playing the Violin--Dr. Johnson's Epitaph
on Phillips, the Welsh Violinist--Dr. Johnson's Knowledge of
Music--Dr. Johnson on Fiddling and Freewill--Haydn in London: a "Sweet
Stradivari;" Letters of the Rev. Thomas Twining--Gainsborough as a
musician--Garrick and Cervetto--The King and the Player--Sir Walter
Scott on Music and Fiddles; the Duke of Hamilton's passion for the
Violin--A Cinderella Violoncello--A Stolen "Strad"--The Missing
Scroll--Another Wandering Scroll--A Montagnana Instrument shot through
the body--Fiddle Marks and the Credulous Dabblers--"Guarneri" at a
Discount--Dragonetti's Gasparo: Letter thereon by Mr. Samuel
Appleby--The Betts Stradivari: Letter by the late Charles Reade--Leigh
Hunt on Paganini--Thackeray on Orchestral Music--Spohr and his
Guarneri--Spohr and the Collector--The Ettrick Shepherd and the
Violin--The Fiddle Trade: "Old Borax" and "Michael Schnapps," the
Fiddle-ogre--The Prince and the "Fugal Vortex"--Sale of Cremonese
Instruments at Milan in 1790--An Indefatigable Violinist--A
Wish--Living Stradivaris--Pleasures of Imagination--A Royal
Amateur--Pius IX. and the Musician--Ole Bull and Fiddle
Varnish--Letter from Tartini on the Treatment of the Violin . 410-507
INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
FRONTISPIECE--Paganini's "Giuseppe Guarneri." 1743.
PLATE FACING PAGE
I. Stradivari Viola. 1672 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
II. Jacobus Stainer. 1669
Giuseppe Guarneri del Gesu
Niccolo Amati. Grand Pattern. 1641 . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
III. Violoncello by Antonio Stradivari . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
IV. Antonio Stradivari. 1734
The Gillott "Strad." 1715
Giuseppe Guarneri del Gesu. 1734 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
V. Carlo Bergonzi Violoncello. Grand Pattern . . . . . . . . . 84
VI. J. B. Guadagnini
Storioni. 1797 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
VII. Specimens of Scrolls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
VIII. Giuseppe Guarneri. 1742
Antonio Stradivari. 1711
Antonio Stradivari. 1703 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
IX. Giuseppe Guarneri del Gesu. 1737 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
X. Domenico Montagnana Violoncello . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
XI. Antonio Stradivari. Tenor. 1690
Antonio Stradivari. 1734 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
XII. Giuseppe Guarneri del Gesu. 1738
The "Dolphin" Strad. 1714
Antonio Stradivari. 1718 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
XIII. Antonio Stradivari. 1702
Antonio Stradivari. 1722
Antonio Stradivari. 1703 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
XIV. Stradivari Violoncello . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
XV. Chapel of the Rosary, Cremona . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
XVI. Antonio Stradivari. 1708
Antonio Stradivari. 1736
Giuseppe Guarneri del Gesu. 1735 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
XVII. The "Betts" Stradivari. 1704 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
XVIII. Giuseppe Guarneri del Gesu
Antonio Stradivari (Inlaid). 1687 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
XIX. Giuseppe Guarneri del Gesu. 1733
Giuseppe Guarneri del Gesu. 1741
Antonio Stradivari. 1726 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
XX. Gasparo da Salo
Giuseppe Guarneri del Gesu. 1735 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
XXI. Antonio Stradivari. 1690 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
"Marriage at Cana," by Paolo Veronese . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Tartini's Dream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
THE VIOLIN
ITS FAMOUS MAKERS AND THEIR IMITATORS
SECTION I
The Early History of the Violin
1.
The early history of the Violin is involved in obscurity, and in
consequence, much diversity of opinion exists with regard to it. The
chief object of the writer of these pages is to throw light upon the
instrument in its perfected state. It is, therefore, unnecessary to
enter at great length upon the vexed question of its origin. The
increased research attendant upon the development of musical history
generally could hardly fail to discover facts of more or less
importance relative to the origin of instruments played with a bow;
but although our knowledge in this direction is both deeper and wider,
the light shed upon the subject has not served to dissipate the
darkness attending it. Certain parts have been illumined, and
conclusions of more or less worth have been drawn therefrom; for the
rest, all remains more hopelessly obscured and doubtful than the
identity of the "Man in the Iron Mask" or the writer of the "Letters
of Junius."
It is satisfactory to know that the most valuable and interesting part
of our subject is comparatively free from that doubt and tradition
which necessarily attaches to the portion belonging to the Dark or
Middle Ages. When we reflect that Music--as we understand it--is a
modern art, and that all instruments of the Viol and Fiddle type, as
far as the end of the fifteenth century, were rude if not barbarous,
it can scarcely excite surprise that our interest should with
difficulty be awakened in subtle questions pertaining to the
archaeology of bowed instruments.
The views taken of the early history of the leading instrument have
not been more multiform than remote. The Violin has been made to
figure in history sacred and profane, and in lore classic and
barbaric. That an instrument which is at once the most perfect and the
most difficult, and withal the most beautiful and the most strangely
interesting, should have been thus glorified, hardly admits of wonder.
Enthusiasm is a noble passion, when tempered with reason. It cannot be
said, however, that the necessity of this qualification has been
invariably recognised by enthusiastic inquirers into the history of
instruments played with a bow. We have a curious instance of its
non-recognition in a treatise on the Viol,[1] written by a
distinguished old French Violist named Jean Rousseau. The author, bent
upon going to the root of his subject, begins with the Creation, and
speaks of Adam as a Violist. Perhaps Rousseau based his belief in the
existence of Fiddling at this early period of the world's history on
the words "and his brother's name was Jubal; from him descended the
Flute players and Fiddlers," as rendered by Luther.
[Footnote 1: "Traite de la Viole," Paris, 1687.]
The parts Orpheus and Apollo have been made to play in infantile
Fiddle history have necessarily been dependent upon the licence and
the imagination of the sculptor and the medallist. Inferences of
antiquity, however, have been drawn from such representations.
Tracings of a bow among the sculpture of the ancients have been sought
for in vain: no piece is known upon which a bow is distinguishable. A
century since, an important discovery was thought to have been made by
musical antiquarians in the Grand Duke's Tribuna at Florence, wherein
was a small figure of Apollo playing on a kind of Violin with
something of the nature of a bow. Inquiry, however, made it clear that
the figure belonged to modern art. Orpheus has been represented
holding a Violin in one hand and a bow in the other; inquiry again
showed that the Violin and the bow were added by the restorer of the
statue.
The views held by musical historians regarding the origin of the
Violin may be described by the terms Asiatic and Scandinavian. The
Eastern view, it need scarcely be said, is the most prolonged,
exceeding some five thousand years along the vista of time, where
little else is discoverable but what is visionary, mythical, and
unsubstantial. It is related--traditionally of course--that some three
thousand years before our era there lived a King of Ceylon named
Ravanon,[2] who invented a four-stringed instrument played with a bow,
and which was named after the inventor "the Ravanastron." If it were
possible to identify the instrument of that name, now known to the
Hindoos, as identical with that of King Ravanon--as M. Sonnerat
declares it to be--the Eastern view of our subject would be singularly
clear and defined. A declaration, however, resting on tradition,
necessarily makes the gathering of evidence in support of it a task
both dubious and difficult.[3]
[Footnote 2: M. Sonnerat, "Voyage aux Indes Orientales," 1806.]
[Footnote 3: In Mr. Engel's "Researches into the Early History of the
Violin Family," 1883--a book containing much valuable evidence on the
subject--the author rightly remarks: "Now, this may be true; still it
is likewise true that most of the Asiatic nations are gifted with a
remarkably powerful imagination, which evidently induces them
sometimes to assign a fabulously high age to any antiquity of theirs
the origin of which dates back to a period where history merges in
myth. At the present day the Hindoos possess, among their numerous
rude instruments of the Fiddle class, an extraordinarily primitive
contrivance, which they believe to be the instrument invented by
Ravanon. Their opinion has actually been adopted by some of our modern
musical historians as if it were a well established truth."]
It is said that Sanscrit scholars have met with names for the bow in
Sanscrit writings dating back nearly two thousand years. If this
information could be supplemented by reliable monumental evidence of
the existence of a bow of some rude kind among the nations of the East
about the commencement of the Christian era, its value would
necessarily be complete. In the absence of such evidence we are left
in doubt as to what was intended to be understood by the reported
references to a bow in ancient Sanscrit literature. The difficulty of
understanding what Greek and Roman authors meant, in reference to the
same subject, must be greatly intensified in the works of ancient
Eastern writers.[4]
[Footnote 4: In the "Reflections" at the end of Vol. I., "Burney's
History of Music," we read, "The ancients had instead of a bow, the
Plectrum." "It appears too clumsy to produce from the strings tones
that had either the sweetness or brilliancy of such as are drawn from
them by means of the bow or quill. But, notwithstanding it is
represented so massive, I should rather suppose it to have been a
quill, or piece of ivory in imitation of one, than a stick or blunt
piece of wood or ivory."]
The inquiry is simplified from the point of view of a Violinist if we
reject all bow-progenitors but those which have been strung with
fibre, silk, hair, or other material, the properties of which would
permit of the production of sustained sounds. Implements less
developed belong to a separate order of sound-producing contrivances,
namely plectra, and may be described as permitting strumming by
striking in place of twanging or twitching the strings. The imperfect
knowledge we have of instruments of the Fiddle kind in Europe,
belonging to a period many centuries later than that we are now
considering, points to their having been struck or strummed, and not
bowed with a view to the sounds being sustained.
The oldest known representation of a contrivance or instrument upon
which a string is stretched with a peg to adjust its tension, is
probably that described by Dr. Burney as having been seen by him at
Rome on an Egyptian obelisk. In a notice of Claudius Ptolemeus, an
Egyptian, who wrote upon harmonic sounds about the middle of the
second century, we have an illustration of an instrument of a similar
character to that found on the obelisk above noticed.[5] In all
probability neither of these contrivances was intended to be used as a
musical instrument further than for scientific purposes, as a means of
testing the tension of strings and the division of the scale: in
short, they were monochords and dichords.
[Footnote 5: Sir John Hawkins' History.]
In following the Eastern branch of our subject, it is necessary to
refer to the suggested Arabian origin of the Ribeca of the Italians
and the Rebec of the French--a little bowed instrument, shaped like
the half of a pear, and having therefore something of the character of
the mandoline. We have early mention of this particular view of Violin
history among the valuable and interesting manuscript notes of Sir
John Hawkins.[6] The author states that the Rebab was taken to Spain
by the Moors, "from whence it passed to Italy, and obtained the
appellation of Ribeca." He also refers to a work entitled "Shaw's
Travels," in which mention is made of the Rebeb or Rebab as an
instrument common in the East in the eighteenth century. It is,
however, upon turning to the dissertation on the invention and
improvement of stringed instruments by John Gunn, published in 1793,
that we first find a lucid account of Eastern influence in connection
with bowed instruments.[7] The author refers to the monochord as the
invention of the Arabians: he then says, "The early acquaintance which
it is probable the Egyptians had of the science and practice of music,
was the source whence the Arabians might derive their knowledge. There
is a remarkable correspondence between the dichord of the Egyptians
and an instrument of the like number of strings of the Arabians. This
instrument was played with a bow, and was probably introduced into
Europe by the Arabians of Spain, and well known from the Middle Ages
down to the last century by the name of the Rebec; it had probably, on
its first introduction, only two strings, as it still has among the
Moors, and soon after had the number increased to three. Dr. Shaw, who
had seen it, calls it a Violin with three strings, which is played on
with a bow, and called by the Moors Rebebb." In passing it may be said
that the translators of the Bible, historians, painters, and poets
have in many instances contributed greatly to the confusion attending
the history of bowed instruments from their inability to correctly
name and depict corded instruments. About a century after the
publication of Dr. Shaw's "Travels in the East," appeared Lane's
"Modern Egypt," wherein reference is made to an instrument named
Rebab. It is described as being made partly of parchment, and mounted
with one or two strings, played on with a bow. These instruments
appear to be identical. We do not usually look to the East for
progressiveness, and would therefore not expect to discover much
difference between a Rebab of the nineteenth century and one of the
eighth century. In taking this view we may therefore assume that the
existing Rebab has nearly all in common with its Eastern namesake of
the eighth century. The rude and gross character of the instrument is
remarkable, and renders any connection between it and the Rebec of
Europe in the Middle Ages somewhat difficult to realise. Having no
certain knowledge of the form of the ancient Rebab, our views
regarding its connection with the Rebec must necessarily be
speculative, and mainly dependent upon the etymological thread which
is drawn between the words Rebec and Rebab. It is worthy of notice in
relation to the opinion held by Sir John Hawkins and many other
musical historians as to a bowed instrument of the Fiddle kind having
been introduced into Spain from the East in the eighth century, that
we possess no certain evidence of bowed instrument cultivation in
Spain between the eighth and twelfth centuries, whilst we have proof
of the use of bowed instruments both in Germany and in England within
that period.[8] The evidence we have of the use of a description of
Viol at that time, from the carvings on the Portico della Gloria of
the Church of Santiago da Compostella, does not carry conviction that
a bow was used, since none is represented.[9]
[Footnote 6: Hawkins' "History of Music" was published in the year
1776. The MS. notes, which are attached to the author's copy in the
British Museum, were included in the edition published in 1853 by
Novello & Co.]
[Footnote 7: It may be remarked that nineteen years prior to the
publication of John Gunn's dissertation was published the valuable
work of Martinus Gerbertus, "De Cantu et Musica Sacra," dated 1774.
The volumes of Gerbertus were evidently perused with care and
attention by Gunn. The references of John Gunn to the work are the
earliest I have met with.]
[Footnote 8: Mention is made by Ash-Shakandi, who wrote on Moorish
music in Spain in the thirteenth century, of the Rebab. If this
instrument was not more developed than its modern namesake, we have
evidence of the Saxons being in possession of bowed instruments
infinitely superior at a much earlier date.]
[Footnote 9: In "The Violin and its Music," 1881, page 50, I have
assumed their use by the performers on the above mentioned arch,
believing it not improbable that the use of the bow was introduced by
the settlers in Spain from the North.]
That the Spanish were influenced by their Moorish conquerors with
regard to music, minstrelsy, and dancing is certain. The origin of
such movements as the Saraband, the Morisca (or Morris dance), and the
Chaconne,[10] has been traced to the East. That such dances should
have been accompanied by instruments of Eastern origin of the Lute
kind may be assumed. Both in Spain and southern France accompanying
instruments struck with plectra or twanged with the fingers were
adopted at a very early period, and the people of those parts attained
to a high state of proficiency--so much so indeed as to have rendered
the cultivation of this description of music a national characteristic
with them in the use of such instruments. The usage of the bow,
however, does not appear to have been cultivated sufficiently, if at
all, to leave its traces in history, until about the twelfth century,
when the Troubadours sought the aid of the Trouveres and Jongleurs.
The Trouveres were minstrel poets belonging to Northern France. The
Jongleurs entertained their patrons with jests and arch sayings, and
were often joined by the Gigeours of Germany, to accompany their lays
with their Geigen and kindred instruments.
[Footnote 10: It need scarcely be said that the Eastern and Spanish
ancestor of Bach's Chaconne was terpsichorean, and was unconnected
with any kind of scientific musical treatment.]
The foregoing remarks point to the absence of reliable evidence of the
existence of a bow--worthy of the name from the point of view of a
Violinist--among the Asiatic nations in the early centuries of our
era. The Ravanastron of India, the Rebab of Arabia, and other stringed
instruments used by the Persians and the Chinese, hardly admit of
being looked upon as links in the genealogical Fiddle chain. Whatever
the shape and use of ancient Eastern instruments--having something in
common with the European Violin--may have been, the slight apparent
affinity is accidental, and no real relationship exists between the
European and the Asiatic Fiddle.[11]
[Footnote 11: Mr. Engel, "Researches into the Early History of the
Violin Family," page 104, remarks: "It is rarely that the name of an
Asiatic musical instrument can be traced to a European origin. There
are, however, one or two instances in which this seems to be possible.
Thus, the Chinese name Ye-Yia, by which they occasionally designate
their Fiddle, may possibly be a corruption of _giga_ or _geige_,
considering that the common name of the Chinese Fiddle is Unheen, and
that Macao, where this instrument is said to be called Ye-Yin, has
been above three hundred years in the possession of the Portuguese,
and in constant communication with European nations." This seems to
deprive the argument of the Eastern origin of the Fiddle of weight,
and favours the already strong evidence of Scandinavian origin centred
in the word Geige.]
2.
The survey of the early history of bowed instruments in the North of
Europe necessarily discovers a broader field of ostensible data than
is possible to be found in the Asiatic view of the subject. Tradition,
accompanied by its attendant uncertainties, gives place to facts
recorded in illuminated manuscripts of the Middle Ages, on sculptured
stone, on engraved brasses, in the lay of the minstrel, in the song of
the poet, and, finally, in the works of the painter and of the
musician. The information obtainable from these several sources is
often of the slightest kind, and admits of little else than a rude
historical outline being drawn. The varied character of the evidence,
however, serves in some instances to counterbalance the lack of
detail.
Enquiry into the history of any science seldom fails to make us
acquainted with men whose views and opinions were formulated prior to
the production of well-digested evidence in favour of their
premises--a condition of things resulting oftentimes in their
judgments being post-dated, and their names in consequence severed
from them; in short--
"Elder times have worn the same,
Though new ones get the name."
In relation to our subject, the Hon. Roger North, Attorney-General to
King James the Second, occupies a position of the kind described. In
his work entitled "Memoirs of Music," written in the early part of the
eighteenth century, we have the ingenious author's views as to the
source from whence sprung the progenitor of the long line of Fiddle
and Viol. His treatment of the subject displays a truly commendable
amount of skill and judgment, and more so when we consider the limited
sources of information at his disposal in comparison with those at the
service of subsequent musical authors. He says, "There is no hint
where the Viol kind came first in use." "But as to the invention which
is so perfectly novel as not to have been heard of before Augustulus,
the last of the Roman Emperors, I cannot but esteem it perfectly
Gothic." "I suppose that at first it was like its native country, rude
and gross, and at the early importation it was of the lesser kind
which they called Viola da Bracchia, and since the Violin." He
concludes by expressing his belief that the Hebrews did not sound
their "lutes and guitars with the scratch of an horse-tail bow." These
opinions of Roger North are for the most part identical with those
held by well-known promoters of the Northern view of our subject.[12]
[Footnote 12: Paul Lacroix remarks, in "The Arts of the Middle Ages":
"Stringed instruments that were played on by means of bows were not
known before the fifth century, and belonged to the Northern races."
Sir Gore Ouseley, in his English edition of Naumann's "History of
Music," commenting upon the author's statement that "the Rebab was
introduced by Arabs into Southern Europe, and may be the precursor of
all our modern stringed instruments," says, "From this view I am
compelled to dissent," and speaks in favour of the Northern origin.
William Chappell, "Popular Music of the Olden Times," remarks: "I will
not follow M. Fetis in his newly adopted Eastern theory of the bow.
The only evidence he adduces is its present use in the East, and the
primitive form of Eastern instruments." "I would ask how comes it that
the bow was unknown to the Greeks and the Romans? Did not Alexander
the Great conquer India and Persia? And were not those countries
better known to the ancients than to the modern until within the last
three hundred years? The Spaniards derived their instruments from the
Moors, but the bow was not among them."]
About fifty years later than the date of North's "Memoirs of Music"
appeared the famous work of Martinus Gerbertus, entitled, "De Cantu et
Musica Sacra." Among the valuable manuscripts referred to by the
author is one which supplies the earliest known representation of a
bow instrument of the Fiddle kind, and which may be accepted as a
description of German Fiddle. The date of this particular manuscript
has been ascribed by M. Fetis to the ninth century. It may possibly
have belonged to an earlier period.[13]
[Footnote 13: As the manuscript was destroyed by the fire which burnt
nearly the whole of the buildings, Abbey, Church, and Library of St.
Blasius in the Black Forest in 1768, the language of Gerbertus, who
examined the original manuscript, is worthy of some attention. After
referring to certain plates, copied from a manuscript of the year 600,
he says that "the other twenty-three representations on the following
eighth plate" (in which is included the early German Fiddle) "are from
a manuscript a _little more recent_." Whether the period of three
centuries named by M. Fetis can be considered recent is at least
questionable. The information taken from this manuscript is of
paramount importance, with reference to the Asiatic and Northern views
of the origin of the Violin. The view taken by some authorities, that
the Europeans received their earliest instructions in infantile
Fiddling from the Moors, when they conquered Spain in the eighth
century, is already overclouded by the representation of a Fiddle and
bow on this German Manuscript, even assuming it to be of the ninth
century; but if its date be given prior to the appearance of the Moors
in Europe, the Eastern view of the subject is naturally further
darkened.]
The instrument was described in the manuscript of St. Blasius as a
Lyre. Gerbertus rightly observes that it has only one string, and is
more like a Cheli.[14] He quotes writers of different epochs relative
to the meaning of the word Lyre as used by them, the tendency of his
remarks apparently being to establish a connection between the German
Fiddle named a Lyre in the manuscript and the Rebec. The
representation we have of the instrument certainly conveys the idea of
its having been a progenitor of the Rebec of the French, the Ribeca of
the Italians, and the Fithele and the Geige of the Germans. The
mention of an instrument of the kind in a German manuscript,
discovered in an ancient German monastery, together with the record
being dated by Gerbertus as not far removed from the sixth century,
lends much weight to the opinion of Roger North with regard to the
part played by the Teutonic race in the early history of bowed
instruments.
[Footnote 14: The ancient name of corded instruments of the Lute,
Mandoline, and Guitar kinds. Tradition has it that the Nile, having
overflowed Egypt, left on shore a dead _Cheli_ (tortoise), the flesh
of which being dried in the sun, nothing was left within the shell but
nerves and cartilages, and these being braced and contracted were
rendered sonorous. Mercury, in walking, struck his foot against the
shell of the tortoise, and was delighted with the sound produced,
which gave him the idea of a Lyre that he later constructed in the
form of a tortoise, and strung with the dried sinews of dead animals.
This account of the origin of Lutes, Fiddles, and catgut is classic
and picturesque. Tradition and myth have played parts of much
consequence in the work of civilisation: they have, however, at length
fallen upon a critical and remarkably sceptical age, and rapidly fade
and die under the inquisitorial torture of modern inquiry--a result at
least to be expected from the contact of their own dreamy and delicate
nature with unromantic matter. It is perhaps safer to refer the origin
of the name Cheli or tortoise, as applied to corded instruments, to
the fact of their having sound chambers, constructed with
tortoise-shell, as was the case with the Greek Lyre, or to the
circumstance of the bodies of the instruments being shaped like the
tortoise. The Germans used the word Chelys to designate their Viols;
and Christopher Simpson, in his famous treatise on the "Viol da
Gamba," names it Chelys. The application of the word Chelys to bowed
instruments is suggestive of their remote connection with the ancient
Lyre.]
[Illustration: _Plate I_. ANTONIO STRADIVARI VIOLA. 1672.]
It is now necessary to refer to the well-known representation of a
Saxon Fiddle contained in the Cottonian manuscripts in the British
Museum. Strutt, in his "Sports and Pastimes," supplies us with a copy
of the illustration, which is that of a juggler throwing balls and
knives to the accompaniment of an instrument of the Fiddle kind.
Strutt ascribes the manuscript to the tenth century. The form of this
Fiddle is in advance of that supplied in the St. Blasius manuscript,
there being four strings, but there is no bridge indicated, and, had
there been, it would not have evidenced a Saxon knowledge of tuning
the strings to given intervals, and playing upon each string. The
little light which has been thrown on the condition of instrumental
music at the time renders it doubtful whether any bowed instrument was
used, other than for the purpose of rendering a rude extemporaneous
accompaniment to the voice or the dance.
The chief authorities upon ancient minstrelsy agree that the Saxon's
love of music was cultivated for centuries with ardour by his Saxon
ancestors; it would therefore be reasonable to believe that his
knowledge of rude Fiddles was derived from the land of his
forefathers, and not from any instrument he discovered in Britain.[15]
The similarity of the instrument of the St. Blasius manuscript and of
that in the hands of the Saxon Gleeman in the Cottonian manuscript is
evidence of Teutonic origin. It is, moreover, strengthened by the fact
of the use of the word Fithele by the Anglo-Saxons for nearly two
centuries after the Norman Conquest, which name was adopted with but
little variation by the whole of the Teutonic race.[16] In Germany the
word was used as late as the twelfth century. About this period the
word Geige appears to have been applied in Germany to designate a
Fiddle. It is described as an improved Rebec, and strung with three
strings.[17] The use of the word Geige in Germany instead of Fithele
in the twelfth century, is worthy of attention as bearing upon
Teutonic origin. The earliest information we have of the use of the
Geige in France is in connection with the Jongleurs. The Geige was
popular in France until the fifteenth century, when, as M. Lacroix
says, it disappeared, leaving its name "as the designation of a joyous
dance, which for a considerable period was enlivened by the sound of
the instrument." The word Geige, I am inclined to think, is important
as furnishing evidence of historical value in relation to the ancestry
of the Violin. Lacroix believes that Germany created the Geige; other
authorities are of opinion that it originated among the people of
Provence. The former view is supported by the strongest evidence. Some
inquirers derive the word Geige from the French and Italian words for
leg of mutton.[18] Wigand, however, supposes it to be derived from the
old northern word _Geiga_, meaning trembling, or from _Gigel_, to
quiver. If we consider the nature and character of the instrument,
this view of the derivation of the word appears both ingenious and
correct. Roger North shrewdly conjectured that the "rude and gross"
Gothic Fiddle "used to stir up the vulgar to dancing, or perhaps to
solemnise their idolatrous sacrifices." In the Dark Ages dancing may
have been regarded as bi-pedal trembling. I have remarked in another
place,[19] "In the early ages of mankind dancing or jigging must have
been done to the sound of the voice, next to that of the pipe, and,
when the bow was discovered, to that of a stringed instrument which
was named the Geige from its primary association with dancing." The
evidence we have of the use to which the leading instrument was put in
the days of its adolescence is indicative of its having grown up among
dancers, jugglers, and buffoons. In Germany its players gave fame and
name to a distinct class of itinerant minstrels named the Gigeours,
who were often associated with the Jongleurs in their perambulations.
In France, from the days of the Jongleurs to those of Henry IV., and
later to those of Louis XIV., the instrument was wedded to the dance.
In England to the time of Charles II. it was in the hands of the
Fiddler, who accompanied the jig, the hornpipe, the round, and the
North Country frisk.
[Footnote 15: In Carl Engel's "Researches into the Early History of
the Violin Family," 1883, the author disbelieves in the Crwth having
been the lineal ancestor of the Violin, and there can be but little
doubt of the correctness of his opinion.]
[Footnote 16: It is worthy of remark that the Northmen, who invaded
and gave their name to Normandy, carried from their Scandinavian homes
a love of minstrelsy.]
[Footnote 17: Sebastian Wirdung, a priest, published a work in 1511,
in which he describes the bow instruments of his time by the names
Gross-Geigen and Klein-Geigen. The illustration of the Klein-Geige
differs but little from the Rebec; it has three strings, whilst the
Gross-Geige has nine. Further information is supplied by the work of
Martin Agricola, published in 1529.--_Mendel's German Musical
Dictionary, article "Violine."_]
[Footnote 18: "Almost all our musical writers state, as if it were a
well-ascertained fact, that the German word Geige is derived from the
_Gigue_ of the French Minstrels, who, during the 13th and 14th
centuries, had a sort of _Rebec_ which they called by that name, and
which, according to some commentators, resembled in outward appearance
the shank of a goat or ram, called _Gigot_, and hence the origin of
all the similar words occurring in different European languages. These
commentators have, however, neglected to prove that the old French
word Gigue occurs before the 13th century, or that it is earlier than
the Middle High German _Gige_."--_Engel's "Researches into the History
of the Violin Family."_]
[Footnote 19: "The Violin and its Music," 1881, page 19.]
In pursuing the course of our subject, our inquiries have hitherto
been mainly concerned with the leading instrument in a barbarous and
semi-barbarous state. We now reach what may be termed the transition
stage of the question. The information relative to the appearance of
the Geige, or Violin tuned in fifths, is of the slenderest kind. To
obtain evidence of much worth it is necessary to reflect upon the
condition of instrumental music about the sixteenth century, together
with the form and character of bowed instruments belonging to the same
period. The manners and customs of peoples have also to be considered.
We have hitherto found the Geige or Fiddle among minstrels and
itinerant musicians in countries where music and minstrelsy had become
an institution with the people. The instrument was rude and gross, and
its office was to play extemporaneous accompaniments, with
considerable licence. At length domestic music began to be zealously
cultivated in Germany and the Low Countries, to which important
circumstance the rapid development of stringed instruments is
traceable. Viols of various kinds supported the voices, and an
important manufacture of such instruments took root in Nuremberg and
other German cities. In following the history of the Madrigal much
light is thrown upon that of the Viol, to which it is necessary to
give attention in order to follow in some degree the development of
the Violin.
The condition of music in Italy previous to the time when the father
of the Madrigal, Adrian Willaert, followed in the steps of his
countrymen and made Italy his home, presents a great contrast to the
state of the art in Germany and the Netherlands about the same period.
The love of music in these countries had been growing among the
people from the days of their minstrel poets and their wandering
musicians. In Italy minstrelsy received but little attention or
encouragement. The effect of this was probably felt when that
extraordinary love of culture and admiration for art manifested itself
amid the courts of her princes, about the middle of the fifteenth
century. The love of melody then, as now, was deeply rooted in the
nature of her people. Musical composition, however, of a high order,
and able executants, were to be found elsewhere, and in Flanders in
particular, and there the principal music and musicians were sought by
the Italian _dilettanti_. To this fortuitous combination of melody and
musical learning we owe the greatest achievements in the art of music.
Upon it was raised the work of Palestrina, Scarlatti, and Corelli,
which their distinguished followers utilised with such judgment and
effect. The progress and development of the Madrigal in Italy may be
said to have been co-equal with that of the Viol, for which its music
served, and to which the Italians gave the same beauty of form and
exquisite refinement. The ingenuity and skilfulness of the early
German Viol makers was not less speedily recognised by the Italians
than was the learning and power manifested by the Flemish motet
writers. The work of the Italians with regard to both the Madrigal and
the Viol was artistic in the highest degree, and such as could alone
have been accomplished by men nourished on the teachings of the
Renaissance, and surrounded by its chief glories.
There is evidence of German influence over the Italian Viol
manufacture at the end of the fifteenth century, in the
German-sounding names of makers located in Italy, and likewise in the
character and construction of the oldest Italian Viols: notably, there
is the crescent-shaped sound-hole common to the German Grosse-Geige
and Klein-Geige. The most ancient Viols in existence are those by
Hieronymus Brensius of Bologna, two of which are in the Museum of the
Academy of Music at Bologna, and a third is in my possession. They
have labels printed in Roman letters, and doubtless belong to the end
of the fifteenth century. These instruments serve to illustrate the
condition of the art of Viol-making in Italy at that period. They are
rude in form and workmanship, and present a marked contrast to the
high artistic work associated with the Italians in other branches of
industry. This rudeness is indicative of this particular manufacture
being of recent importation, and of its having been received from
Germany, and partly perhaps from the Low Countries, where instrumental
music was cultivated chiefly by the people, in which case utility
would naturally have priority of design and workmanship. With the
introduction of Viols, in connection with the Madrigal, into the
palaces of Italy, together with their increased use in connection with
the service of the Church, a demand speedily arose for instruments of
elegant design and finished workmanship, in keeping with the high
standard raised by Italian artists in every direction. The work on the
Viol by Silvestro Ganassi, published at Venice in 1543, furnishes us
with ample proof of the advance made by the Italians in Viol-making
since Brensius worked. We see from a representation of a Viol in the
above-mentioned work that the sound-holes are better formed, the
scroll is artistically designed, and the whole harmonious. These steps
towards perfection were mounted by Duiffoprugcar and Gasparo da Salo,
both of whom rapidly developed the art. With Gasparo da Salo, or a
contemporary, was witnessed the rejection of the crescent-formed
sound-hole, and the adoption of that which has held its own for
upwards of three centuries. The sound-holes of the Amati and of
Stradivari are but those of Gasparo and his contemporaries, marked
with their own individuality. All Viols until about 1520 were
furnished with pieces of gut tied round the neck and fingerboard to
mark the divisions of the scale--in short, were fretted. From the work
of Ganassi we learn that the use of these divisions was optional, thus
supplying us with authentic information of considerable value with
regard to the gradual emancipation of this class of instrument from
frets, and foreshadowing the union of the Geige or Fiddle with the
Viol. Passing to the question of form given by the Italians, early in
the sixteenth century, to Viols, we find the Violono or Bass Viol with
its upper and lower sides, middle bouts, belly, and sound-holes almost
identical with those of the Tenor Viols, the chief difference being in
the back of the latter, which is modelled, whilst the former is flat.
This was the form given to the Violono by Gasparo da Salo, and which
has been changed in the upper portion of the body of the instrument,
to permit of modern passages being executed with greater facility. The
original finger-board was short, and generally fretted. The number of
strings was five or more, and not as we now string them with three or
four. It will be seen that this form of instrument gives us what Mr.
Charles Reade describes as the invention of Italy, namely "the four
corners."[20] The same author in speaking of the order of invention
remarks that he is puzzled "to time the Violono, or as we childishly
call it (after its known descendant) the Double Bass. If I were so
presumptuous as to trust to my eye alone, I should say it was the
first of them all." With this opinion I entirely agree, and I am also
in unison with Mr. Reade in believing that the large Viola (played on
or between the knees) was the next creation, the design of which was
that of the Violono or Double Bass already referred to. The next and
most important step was in all probability to make the common Geige or
three-stringed Fiddle of the same shape as these Tenor and Contralto
Viols, thus handing to us the present-shaped Violin. In the MS. notes
of Lancetti, reference is made to a three-stringed Violin in the
collection of Count Cozio di Salabue, which throws some light upon the
question as to three-stringed Violins, of the form of the Italian
Viola, having been made prior to the introduction of those with four
strings tuned in fifths. The instrument to which Lancetti refers was
dated 1546, and was attributed to Andrea Amati. Until the beginning of
the present century, this instrument remained in its original
condition, when it was altered by the Brothers Mantegazza of Milan
into a Violin with four strings. Mention of this curious and valuable
fact furnishes us with the sole record of a three-stringed Violin
having been in existence during the nineteenth century, and also
supplies the link needful to connect the old type of Fiddle with the
perfect instrument of the great Italian makers. When or where the
four-stringed Violin tuned in fifths first appeared in Italy is a
question the answer to which must ever remain buried in the past. It
may have seen the light in Mantua, Bologna, or Brescia. The
last-mentioned town is usually associated with its advent, and to
Gasparo da Salo is given the credit of its authorship.
[Footnote 20: "Cremona Violins," _Pall Mall Gazette_, 1872. This
reference applies to the corners and corner-blocks as made by Gasparo
and all makers to the present time, in contradistinction to those seen
in the Viol da Gamba and early German Viols.]
SECTION II
The Construction of the Violin
The construction of the present form of the Violin has occupied the
attention of many scientific men. It cannot be denied that the subject
possesses a charm sufficiently powerful to induce research, as
endeavour is made to discover the causes for the vast superiority of
the Violin of the seventeenth century over the many other forms of bow
instruments which it has survived. The characteristic differences of
the Violin have been obtained at the cost of many experiments in
changing the outline and placing the sound-holes in various
incongruous positions. These, and the many similar freaks of inventors
in their search after perfection, have signally failed, a result to be
expected when it is considered that the changes mentioned were
unmeaning, and had nothing but novelty to recommend them. But what is
far more extraordinary is the failure of the copyist, who, vainly
supposing that he has truthfully followed the dimensions and general
features of the Old Masters, at last discovers that he is quite unable
to construct an instrument in any way deserving of comparison with the
works of the period referred to. The Violin has thus hitherto baffled
all attempts to force it into the "march of progress" which most
things are destined to follow. It seems to scorn complication in its
structure, and successfully holds its own in its simplicity. There is
in the Violin, as perfected by the great Cremonese masters, a
simplicity combined with elegance of design, which readily courts the
attention of thoughtful minds, and gives to it an air of mystery that
cannot be explained to those outside the Fiddle world. Few objects
possess so charming a display of curved lines as the members of the
Violin family. Here we have Hogarth's famous line of beauty worked to
perfection in the upper bouts,[1] in the lower bouts, in the outer
line of the scroll, in the sound-hole. Everywhere the perfection of
the graceful curve is to be seen. It has been asserted by Hogarth's
enemies that he borrowed the famous line from an Italian writer named
Lomazzo, who introduced it in a treatise on the Fine Arts. We will be
more charitable, and say that he obtained it from the contemplation of
the beauties of a Cremonese Violin.
[Footnote 1: A technical term for the sides.]
In looking at a Violin we are struck with admiration at a sight of
consummate order and grace; but it is the grace of nature rather than
of mechanical art. The flow of curved lines which the eye detects upon
its varied surface, one leading to another, and all duly proportioned
to the whole figure, may remind us of the winding of a gentle stream,
or the twine of tendrils in the trellised vine.
Often is the question asked, What can there be in a simple Violin to
attract so much notice? What is it that causes men to treat this
instrument as no other, to view it as an art picture, to dilate upon
its form, colour, and date? To the uninitiated such devotion appears
to be a species of monomania, and attributable to a desire of
singularity. It needs but little to show the inaccuracy of such
hypotheses. In the first place, the true study of the Violin is a
taste which needs as much cultivation as a taste for poetry or any
other art, a due appreciation of which is impossible without such
cultivation. Secondly, it needs, equally with these arts, in order to
produce proficiency, that spark commonly known as _genius_, without
which, cultivation, strictly speaking, is impossible, there being
nothing to cultivate. We find that the most ardent admiration for the
Violin regarded as a work of art, has ever been found to emanate from
those who possessed tastes for kindred arts. Painters, musicians, and
men of refined minds have generally been foremost among the admirers
of the Violin. Much interest attaches to it from the fact of its being
the sole instrument incapable of improvement, whether in form or in
any other material feature. The only difference between the Violin of
the sixteenth century and that of the nineteenth lies in the
arrangement of the sound-bar (which is now longer, in order to bear
the increased pressure caused by the diapason being higher than in
former times), and the comparatively longer neck, so ordered to obtain
increased length of string. These variations can scarcely be regarded
as inventions, but simply as arrangements. The object of them was the
need of adapting the instrument to modern requirements, so that it
might be used in concert with others that have been improved, and
allow the diapason to be raised. Lastly, it must be said that, above
all, the Violin awakens the interest of its admirers by the tones
which it can be made to utter in the hands of a skilful performer. It
is, without doubt, marvellous that such sounds should be derivable
from so small and simple-looking an instrument. Its expressiveness,
power, and the extraordinary combinations which its stringing admits
of, truly constitute it the king of musical instruments. These
somewhat desultory remarks may suffice to trace the origin of the
value set upon the Violin both as a work of art and as a musical
instrument.
We will now proceed to consider the acoustical properties of the
Violin. These are, in every particular, surprisingly great, and are
the results of many tests, the chief of which has been the adoption of
several varieties of wood in its construction. In Brescia, which was
in all probability the cradle of Violin manufacture, the selection of
the material of the sides and back from the pear, lemon, and ash trees
was very general, and there is every reason to believe that Brescia
was the first place where such woods were used. It is possible that
the makers who chose them for the sides and backs of their instruments
considered it desirable to have material more akin to that adopted for
the bellies, which was the finest description of pine, and that the
result was found to be a tone of great mellowness. If they used these
woods with this intention, their calculations were undoubtedly
correct. They appear to have worked these woods with but few
exceptions for their Tenors, Violoncellos, and Double Basses, while
they adopted the harder woods for their Violins, all which facts tend
to show that these rare old makers did not consider soft wood eligible
for the back and sides of the leading instrument; and later experiment
has shown them to have arrived at a correct conclusion on this point.
The experiments necessary to obtain these results have been effected
by cutting woods of several kinds and qualities into various sizes, so
as to give the sounds of the diatonic scale. By comparing the
intensity and quality of tone produced by each sample of wood,
plane-tree[2] and sycamore have been found to surpass the rest. The
Cremonese makers seem to have adhered chiefly to the use of maple,
varying the manner of cutting it. First, they made the back in one
piece, technically known as a "whole back"; secondly, the back in two
parts; thirdly, the cutting known as the "slab back." There being
considerable doubt as to the mode of dividing the timber, the woodcuts
given will assist the reader to understand it. Fig. 1 represents the
cutting for the back in two pieces--the piece which is separated from
the log is divided. Fig. 2 shows the method adopted to obtain the slab
form.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
[Footnote 2: The Germans call the plane-tree _morgenlandischer
ahorn_--_i.e._, "oriental maple." From the German word _ahorn_ is
probably derived the term "air wood," often corrupted into
"hair-wood." Thomas Mace says, respecting the lute, "the air-wood is
absolutely the best, and next to that our English maple."--_Engel_
("Researches into the Early History of the Violin Family").]
[Illustration: _Plate II_. JACOBUS STAINER. Date 1669. GIUSEPPE
GUARNERI DEL GESU. (THE "VIEUXTEMPS.") NICCOLO AMATI. _Grand Pattern_.
Date 1641. (J. S. COOKE, ESQ.)]
This mode of cutting is constantly met with in the works of the
Brescian makers, and likewise in those of the early Cremonese. Andrea
Amati invariably adopted this form. Stradivari rarely cut his wood
slab-form. Joseph Guarneri made a few Violins of his best epoch with
this cutting, the varnish on which is of an exquisite orange colour,
so transparent that the curls of the wood beneath resemble richly
illuminated clouds.
There can be no doubt whatever that the Cremonese and Brescian makers
were exceedingly choice in the selection of their material, and their
discrimination in this particular does not appear to have risen so
much from a regard to the beauty as to the acoustic properties of the
wood, to which they very properly gave the first place in their
consideration. We have evidence of much weight upon this interesting
question in the frequent piecings found on the works of Cremona
makers, pointing to a seeming preference on their part to retain a
piece of wood of known acoustic properties rather than to work in a
larger or better preserved portion at the probable expense of tone.
The time and care required for such a delicate operation must have
been sufficient to have enabled the maker, had he been so minded, to
have made a complete instrument. There is also ample proof that Joseph
Guarneri possessed wood to the exceptional qualities of which he was
fully alive, and the same may be said of Stradivari, Ruggeri, and
others. It is scarcely reasonable to suppose that in the seventeenth
century there was a dearth in Italy of timber suitable for the
manufacture of Violins, and that in consequence these eminent makers
were compelled to patch and join their material to suit their purpose.
They were men who were in the enjoyment of a patronage certainly
sufficient to enable them to follow their calling without privation of
any kind. Scarcity of pine and sycamore, good or bad, could not have
been the cause, since we find Italian cabinet-work of great beauty
that was manufactured at this same period. The plane-tree and pine
used by the Amati, Stradivari, and the chief masters in Italy, was
usually of foreign growth, and was taken from the Tyrol and Istria.
Its value was, therefore, in advance of Italian wood, but hardly so
much as to place it beyond the reach of the Cremonese masters. It is,
further, improbable that these masters of the art should have expended
such marvellous care and toil over their work, pieced as it frequently
was like mosaic, when for a trifling sum they could have avoided such
a task to their ingenuity by purchasing fresh wood. We are therefore
forced to admit that there must have been some cause of great weight
which induced them to apply so much time and labour, and that the
problem can only be accounted for by the solution before proposed,
viz., that external appearance was of less importance than the
possession of acoustic properties thoroughly adapted to the old
makers' purpose, and that the scarcity of suitable wood was such as to
make them hoard and make use of every particle. The selection of
material was hence considered to be of prime importance by these
makers; and by careful study they brought it to a state of great
perfection. The knowledge they gained of this vital branch of their
art is enveloped in a similar obscurity to that which conceals their
famous varnish, and in these branches of Violin manufacture rests the
secret of the Italian success, and until it is rediscovered the
Cremonese will remain unequalled in the manufacture of Violins.
We may now pass to the consideration of the various constituent parts
of a Violin. It will be found, if a Violin be taken to pieces, that it
is constructed of no less than fifty-eight separate parts, an
astonishing number of factors for so small and simple-looking an
instrument. The back is made of maple or sycamore, in one or two
parts; the belly of the finest quality of Swiss pine, and from a piece
usually divided; the sides, like the back, of maple, in six pieces,
bent to the required form by means of a heated iron; the linings,
which are used to secure the back and belly to the sides, are twelve
in number, sometimes made of lime-tree, but also of pine. The bass or
sound-bar is of pine, placed under the left foot of the bridge in a
slightly oblique position, in order to facilitate the vibrating by
giving about the same position as the line of the strings. The
divergence is usually one-twelfth of an inch, throughout its entire
length of ten inches. It is curious to discover that this system of
placing the bar was adopted by Brensius of Bologna, a Viol-maker of
the fifteenth century, and by Gasparo da Salo. The later
Violin-makers, however, for the most part, do not appear to have
followed the example, they having placed it in a straight line, thus
leaving the system to be re-discovered. The bar of the Violin not only
serves the purpose of strengthening the instrument in that part where
the pressure of the bridge is greatest, but forms a portion of the
structure at once curious and deeply interesting; it may indeed be
called the nervous system of the Violin, so exquisitely sensitive is
it to external touch. The slightest alteration in its position will
effect such changes in the tone as often to make a good Violin
worthless. Those troublesome notes technically known as "wolf notes"
by its delicate adjustment are sometimes removed, or passed to
intervals where the disagreeable sound is felt with less intensity.
Numerous attempts have been made to reduce these features to a
philosophy, but the realisation of the coveted discovery appears as
distant as ever. The most minute variation in the construction of the
instrument necessitates a different treatment of this active agent as
regards its conjunction with the bridge; and when it is considered
that scarcely two Violins can be found of exactly identical structure,
it must be admitted that the difficulties in the way of laying down
any set of hard and fast rules for their regulation seem to be
insuperable.
The next important feature of the internal organism is the sound-post,
which serves many purposes. It is the medium by which the vibratory
powers of the instrument are set in motion; it gives support to the
right side of the belly, it transmits vibrations, and regulates both
the power and quality of tone. The terms used for this vital factor of
a Violin on the Continent at once prove its importance. The Italians
and French call it the "Soul," and the Germans the "Voice." If we
accept the bass-bar as the nervous system of a Violin, the sound-post
may be said to perform the functions of the heart with unerring
regularity. The pulsations of sound are regulated by this admirable
contrivance. If mellowness of quality be sought, a slight alteration
of its position or form will produce a favourable change of singular
extent; if intensity of tone be requisite, the sound-post is again the
regulator. It must, of course, be understood that its power of
changing the quality of the tone is limited in proportion to the
constitutional powers of the instrument in each case. It is not
pretended that a badly constructed instrument can be made a good one
by means of this subtle regulator, any more than a naturally weak
person can be made robust by diet and hygiene.
The position of the sound-post is usually one-eighth to three-eighths
of an inch behind the right foot of the bridge, the distance being
variable according to the model of the instrument. If the Violin be
high-built, the post requires to be nearer the bridge, that its action
may be stronger; whilst flat-modelled instruments require that the
post be set further away from the bridge. It is not possible to have
any uniform arrangement of the sound-post in all instruments; as we
have remarked before in reference to the bass-bar, the variations in
the thickness, outline, model, &c., of the Violin are so frequent as
to defy identity of treatment; uniformity has been sought for, but
without success.
The post can only be adjusted by a skilful workman, who either plays
himself or has the advantage of having the various adjustments tested
by a performer. The necessity of leaving this exceedingly delicate
matter in practised hands cannot be too strongly impressed upon the
amateur, for the damage done in consequence of want of skill is often
irreparable.
There are two methods of setting the sound-post in the instrument: the
first fixes it in such a position as to place the grain of the post
parallel with the grain of the belly; the second sets it crosswise.
The next important feature to be mentioned is the bridge, which forms
no small part of the vibrating mechanism of the instrument, and needs
the utmost skill in its arrangement. Its usual position is exactly
between the two small niches marked in each sound-hole, but this
arrangement is sometimes altered in the case of the stop being longer
or shorter. Many forms of bridges have been in use at different
periods, but that now adopted is, without doubt, the best. In
selecting a bridge great care is requisite that the wood be suitable
to the constitution of the Violin. If the instrument is wanting in
brilliancy, a bridge having solidity of fibre is necessary; if wanting
in mellowness, one possessing soft qualities should be selected.
We now pass to the neck of the Violin, which is made of sycamore or
plane-tree. Its length has been increased since the days of the great
Italian masters, who seem to have paid but little attention to this
portion of the instrument, in regard to its appearance and as to the
wood used for its manufacture, which was of the plainest description.
It may be observed that in those times the florid passages which we
now hear in Violin music were in their infancy, the first and second
positions being those chiefly used; hence the little attention paid to
the handle of the instrument. Modern requirements have made it
imperative that the neck should be well shaped, neither too flat nor
too round, but of a happy medium. The difficulties of execution are
sensibly lessened when due attention is paid to this requirement.
The finger-board is of ebony, and varies a little in length according
to the position of the sound-holes. To form the board properly is a
delicate operation, for if it be not carefully made the strings jar
against it, and the movements of the bow are impeded. The nut, or
rest, is that small piece of ebony over which the strings pass on the
finger-board.
The purfling is composed of three strips of lime-tree, two of which
are stained black. Whalebone purfling has been frequently used,
particularly by the old Amsterdam makers.
The principal parts of the instrument have now been described, and
there remain only the pegs, blocks, strings, and tail-piece, the sum
of which makes up the number of fifty-eight constituent parts as
before mentioned. There is still, however, one item of the
construction to be mentioned which does not form a separate portion of
the Violin, but which is certainly worthy of notice, viz., the button,
which is that small piece of wood against which the heel of the neck
rests. The difficulty of making this apparently insignificant piece
can only be understood by those who have gone through the various
stages of Violin manufacture. The amount of finish given to the button
affects in a great measure the whole instrument, and if there is any
defect of style it is sure to be apparent here. It is a prominent
feature, and the eye naturally rests upon it: as the key-stone to the
arch, so is the button to the Violin.
The sound-holes, or _f_-holes, it is almost needless to remark, are
features of vital importance. Upon the form given to them, and the
manner of cutting them, largely depend the volume and quality of tone.
The Italian makers of Brescia and Cremona appear to have been aware of
the singular influence the formation of the sound-hole has upon the
production and quality of sound. The variety of original shapes they
gave to them is evidence of their knowledge. Appearance in keeping
with the outline of their design may have influenced them in some
measure, but not entirely. Most makers used patterns from which to cut
their sound-holes; Joseph Guarneri and some others appear to have
drawn them on the belly, and cut them accordingly.
From the foregoing remarks upon the various portions of the Violin it
may be assumed that the reader has gained sufficient insight into the
process of its manufacture to enable him to dispense with a more
minute description of each stage.
In conclusion, I cannot refrain from cautioning possessors of good
instruments against entrusting them into the barbaric hands of
pretended repairers, who endeavour to persuade them into the belief
that it is necessary to do this, that, and the other for their
benefit. The quack doctors of the Violin are legion--they are found in
every town and city, ready to prey upon the credulity of the lovers of
Fiddles, and the injury they inflict on their helpless patients is
frequently irreparable. Unfortunately, amateurs are often prone to be
continually unsettling their instruments by trying different bars,
sound-posts, &c., without considering the danger they run of damaging
their property instead of improving it. Should your instrument need
any alteration, no matter how slight, consult only those who have made
the subject a special study. There are a few such men to be found in
the chief cities of Europe, men whose love for the instrument is of
such a nature that it would not permit them to recommend alterations
prejudicial to its well-being.
SECTION III
Italian and other Strings
Upon the strings of the Violin depends in a great measure the
successful regulation of the instrument. If, after the careful
adjustment of bridge, sound-post, and bass-bar, strings are added
which have not been selected with due care and regard to their
relative proportion, the labour expended upon the important parts
named is at once rendered useless. Frequently the strings are the
objects least considered when the regulation of a Violin is attempted;
but if this be the case, results anything but satisfactory ensue. It
is, therefore, important that every Violinist should endeavour to make
himself acquainted with the different varieties and powers of strings,
that he may arrange his instrument with due facility.
The remarkable conservatism attending the structural formation of the
Violin exists more or less in the appliances necessary for the
awakening of its dormant music. If we turn to its pegs, we find them
of the same character as the peg of its far-removed ancestor, the
monochord; and if we compare the Italian peg of the seventeenth
century with a modern one, the chief difference lies in the latter
being more gross and ugly. Upon turning to the bridge, we see that the
bridge of to-day is almost identical with the bridge of Stradivari;
and when we come to the strings of the Violin, we discover that we
have added but little, if anything, to the store of information
regarding them possessed by our forefathers.
In, perhaps, the earliest book on the Lute, that of Adrian Le Roy,
published in Paris in 1570, and translated into English in 1574,[1] we
read: "I will not omit to give you to understand how to know strings."
"It is needful to prove them between the hands in the manner set forth
in the figures hereafter pictured, which show on the finger and to the
eye the difference from the true with the false." The instructions
here given, it will be seen, are those set forth by Louis Spohr in his
"Violin School." In the famous musical work of Merseene, published in
1648, we find an interesting account of strings; he says they are of
"metal, and the intestines of sheep." "The thicker chords of the great
Viols and of Lutes are made of thirty or forty single intestines, and
the best are made in Rome and some other cities in Italy. This
superiority is owing to the air, the water, or the herbage on which
the sheep of Italy feed." He adds that "chords may be made of silk,
flax, or other material," but that "animal chords are far the best."
The experience of upwards of two centuries has not shaken the
soundness of Merseene's opinion of the superiority of gut strings over
those made of silk and steel. Although strings of steel and silk are
made to some extent on account of their durability and their fitness
for warm climates, no Violinist familiar with the true quality of tone
belonging to his instrument is likely to torture his ears with the
sound of strings made with thread or iron. Continuing our inquiries
among the old musical writers in reference to the subject of strings,
we find Doni says in his musical treatise, published in 1647: "There
are many particulars relating to the construction of instruments which
are unknown to modern artificers, as, namely, that the best strings
are made when the north and the worst when the south wind blows," a
truism well understood by experienced string manufacturers. Thomas
Mace, in his curious book on the Lute, enters at some length into the
question of strings, and speaks in glowing terms of his _Venetian
Catlins_. The above references to strings, met with in the writers of
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, indicate a full knowledge of
the most important facts concerning them on the part of the musicians
and makers of those days; and notwithstanding our superior mechanical
contrivances in the manufacture, it is doubtful whether modern strings
are generally equal to those made in times when leisure waited on
quality, in lieu of speed on quantity.
[Footnote 1: Fetis, in his notice of Le Roy, states that the first
edition of this rare book was published in 1557, and was translated by
J. Alford into English in 1568.]
[Illustration: Hands testing strings.]
Musical strings are manufactured in Italy, Germany, France, and
England. The Italians rank first, as in past times, in this
manufacture, their proficiency being evident in the three chief
requisites for string, viz., high finish, great durability, and purity
of sound. There are manufactories at Rome, Naples, Padua, and Verona,
the separate characteristics of which are definitely marked in their
produce. Those strings which are manufactured at Rome are exceedingly
hard and brilliant, and exhibit a slight roughness of finish. The
Neapolitan samples are smoother and softer than the Roman, and also
whiter in appearance. Those of Padua are highly polished and durable,
but frequently false. The Veronese strings are softer than the Paduan,
and deeper in colour. The variations described are distinct, and the
more remarkable that all the four kinds are produced by one and the
same nation; as, however, the raw material is identical throughout
Italy, the process of manufacture must be looked upon as the real
cause of the difference noticed. The German strings now rank next to
the Italian, Saxony being the seat of manufacture. They may be
described as very white and smooth, the better kinds being very
durable. Their chief fault arises from their being over-bleached, and
hence faulty in sound. The French take the third place in the
manufacture. Their strings are carefully made, and those of the larger
sizes answer well; but the smaller strings are wanting in durability.
The English manufacture all qualities, but chiefly the cheaper kinds;
they are durable, but unevenly made, and have a dark appearance.
The cause of variation in quality of the several kinds enumerated
arises simply from the difference of climate. In Italy an important
part of the manufacture is carried on in the open air, and the
beautiful climate is made to effect that which has to be done
artificially in other countries. Hence the Italian superiority.
Southern Germany adopts, to some extent, similar means in making
strings; France, to a less degree; while England is obliged to rely
solely on artificial processes. It therefore amounts to this--the
further from Italy the seat of manufacture, the more inferior the
string.
From the foregoing references we find that strings, although called
"catgut," are not made from the intestines of that domestic animal.
Whether they were originally so made, and hence derive their name, it
is impossible to learn. Marston, the old dramatist, says:
"How the musicians
Hover with nimble sticks o'er squeaking Crowds,[2]
Tickling the dried guts of a mewing cat."
We may be sure, however, that had the raw material been drawn from
that source up to the present time, there would have been no need to
check the supply of the feline race by destroying nine kittens out of
ten; on the contrary, the rearing of cats would indeed have been a
lucrative occupation. A time-honoured error is thus commemorated in a
word, the origin of which must be ascribed to want of thought. If the
number of cats requisite for the string manufacture be considered for
a moment, it is easy to see that Shylock's "harmless necessary"
domestics are under no contribution in this matter. Strings are made
from the intestines of the sheep and goat, chiefly of the former. The
best qualities are made from the intestines of the lamb, the strength
of which is very great if compared with those of a sheep more than a
year old. This being so, the chief manufacture of the year is carried
on in the month of September, the September string-makings being
analogous to October brewings. The demand for strings made at this
particular season far exceeds the supply, and notably is this the case
with regard to strings of small size, which have to bear so great a
strain that if they were not made of the best material there would be
little chance of their endurance. To enter into a description of the
various processes of the manufacture is unnecessary, as it would form
a subject of little interest to the general reader; we may therefore
conclude this brief notice of strings by a few rules to be observed in
their selection.
[Footnote 2: The old English name for a Fiddle.]
Endeavour to obtain strings of uniform thickness throughout, a
requisite which can only be insured by careful gauging. In selecting
the E string, choose those that are most transparent; the seconds and
thirds, as they are made with several threads, are seldom very clear.
The firsts never have more than a few threads in them, and hence,
absence of transparency in their case denotes inferior material.
Before putting on the first string, in particular, in order to test
its purity it will be well to follow Le Roy's advice, which is to hold
between the fingers of each hand a portion of the string sufficient to
stretch from the bridge to the nut, and to set it in vibration. If two
lines only be apparent, the string is free from falseness; but if a
third line be produced, the contrary conclusion must be assumed. In
the case of seconds and thirds we cannot always rely on this test, as
the number of threads used in their manufacture frequently prevents
the line from being perfectly clear. The last precaution of moment is
to secure perfect fifths, which can only be done by taking care that
the four strings are in true proportion and uniform with each other.
To string a violin correctly is a very difficult undertaking, and
requires considerable patience. The first consideration should be the
constitution of the Violin: the strings that please one instrument
torture another. Neither Cremonese Violins nor old instruments in
general require to be heavily strung: the mellowness of the wood and
their delicate construction require the stringing to be such as will
assist in bringing out that richness of tone which belongs to
first-rate instruments. If the bridge and sound-board be heavily
weighted with thick strings, vibration will surely be checked. In the
case of modern instruments, heavy in wood, and needing constant use to
wear down their freshness, strings of a larger size may be used with
advantage, and particularly when such instruments are in use for
orchestral purposes.
[Illustration: _Plate III_. VIOLONCELLO BY ANTONIO STRADIVARI.
PRESENTED TO SIGNOR PIATTI BY GENERAL OLIVER. (Herr Robert
Mendelssohn.)]
Vast improvements have been effected in the stringing of Violins
within the last thirty years. Strings of immense size were used alike
on Violins, Violoncellos, Tenors, and Double Basses. Robert Lindley,
the king of English Violoncellists, used a string for his first very
nearly equal in size to the second of the present time, and the same
robust proportion was observed in his other strings. The Violoncello
upon which he played was by Forster, and would bear much heavier
stringing than an Italian instrument; and, again, he was a most
forcible player, and his power of fingering quite exceptional.
Dragonetti, the famous Double-Bass player, and coadjutor of Lindley,
possessed similar powers, and used similar strings as regards size.
Their system of stringing was adopted indiscriminately. Instruments
whether weakly or strongly built received uniform treatment, the
result being in many cases an entire collapse, and the most
disappointing effects in tone. It was vainly supposed that the
ponderous strings of Dragonetti and Lindley were the talisman by use
of which their tone would follow as a matter of course, whereas in
point of fact it was scarcely possible to make the instruments utter a
sound when deprived of the singular muscular power possessed by those
famous players. After Lindley's death his system passed away
gradually, and attention was directed to the better adaptation of
strings to the instrument, and also to the production of perfect
fifths.
We have now only to speak of covered strings, in which it is more
difficult to obtain perfection than in the case of those of gut. There
are several kinds of covered strings. There are those of silver wire,
which are very durable, and have a soft quality of sound very suitable
to old instruments, and are therefore much used by artistes; there are
those of copper plated with silver, and also of copper without
plating, which have a powerful sound; and, lastly, there are those
which are made with mixed wire, an arrangement which prevents in a
measure the tendency to rise in pitch, a disadvantage common to
covered strings and caused by expansion of the metals; these strings
also possess a tone which is a combination of that produced by silver
and copper strings. Here again, however, great discrimination is
needed, viz., before putting on the fourth string. The instrument must
be understood. There are Violins which will take none but fourths of
copper, there are others that would be simply crippled by their
adoption. It cannot be too much impressed upon the mind of the player
that the Violin requires deep and patient study with regard to every
point connected with its regulation. So varied are these instruments
in construction and constitution, that before their powers can be
successfully developed they must be humoured, and treated as the child
of a skilful educator, who watches to gain an insight into the
character of his charge, and then adopts the best means for its
advancement according to the circumstances ascertained.
The strain and pressure of the strings upon a Violin being an
interesting subject of inquiry, I give the annexed particulars (_see_
Table below) from experiments made in conjunction with a friend
interested in the subject, and possessed of the necessary knowledge to
arrive at accurate results.
* * * * *
The Violin being held in a frame in a nearly upright position, so that
the string hung just clear of the nut to avoid friction, the note was
obtained by pressing the string to the nut.
When the Violin was laid in a horizontal position, and the string
passed over a small pulley, an additional weight of two or three
pounds was required to overcome the friction on the nut and that of
the pulley. Therefore it is probable that the difference in the
results obtained by other experiments may have arisen from the
different methods employed. But with a dead weight hung on the end of
each string there could be no error.
TENSION OF VIOLIN STRINGS.
_Ascertained by Hanging a Dead Weight on the End of the String_.
+-------+--------+------------+------------+------------+------------+
| | |Tension in | | | |
| | |lbs. Weight,| | | |
| | |hung on the | | Downward | Downward |
| | |end of the | | Pressure | Pressure |
| | |String to | Downward | on the | on the |
|Number | |bring it to | Pressure | Treble Foot| Bass Foot |
|of the | |Concert | on the | of the | of the |
|String.| SIZE. |Pitch. | Bridge. | Bridge. | Bridge. |
+-------+--------+------------+------------+------------+------------+
| | | lb. | lb. oz. | lb. oz. | lb. oz. |
| 1st | Thick | 23 | 10 3-1/4 | 10 3-1/4 | ---- |
| " | Medium | 22 | 9 12 | 9 12 | ---- |
| " | Small | 18 | 8 0 | 8 0 | ---- |
| | | | | | |
| 2nd | Thick | 15-1/2 | 6 14 | 4 9-1/2 | 2 4-1/2 |
| " | Medium | 15-1/4 | 6 11-1/4 | 4 7-1/4 | 2 4 |
| " | Small | 13-1/2 | 6 0 | 4 0 | 2 0 |
| | | | | | |
| 3rd | Thick | 13-1/4 | 5 14 | 1 15-1/4 | 3 14-3/4 |
| " | Medium | 12-3/4 | 5 10-1/2 | 1 13-3/4 | 3 12-3/4 |
| " | Small | 11 | 4 14 | 1 10 | 3 4 |
| | | | | | |
| 4th | Thick | 11 | 4 14 | ---- | 4 14 |
| " | Medium | 10-1/2 | 4 10-1/2 | ---- | 4 10-1/2 |
| " | Small | Say 10 | 4 7 | ---- | 4 7 |
| | | | | |
| The total of | | | | |
| four thick | | | | |
| strings is | 62-3/4 | 27 13-1/4 | 16 12 | 11 1-1/4 |
| | | | | |
| The total of | | | | |
| four small | | | | |
| strings is | 52-1/2 | 23 5 | 13 10 | 9 11 |
+----------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+
B A C is the average angle formed by a string passing over the bridge
of a Violin, and the tension acts equally in the direction A B, A C.
[Illustration of angles of the strings.]
Take A C=A B.
From the point B draw B D parallel to A C. And from the point C draw
C D parallel to A B, cutting B D at D.
Join A D.
Then, if a force acting on the point A, in the direction of A B, be
represented in magnitude by the line A B, an equal force acting in the
direction A C will be represented by the line A C, and the diagonal
A D will represent the direction and magnitude of the force acting on
the point A, to keep it at rest.
N.B.--The bridge of a Violin does not divide the angle B A C quite
equally, but so nearly that A D may be taken as the position of the
bridge.
Also, the plane passing through the string of a Violin, on both sides
of the bridge, is not quite perpendicular to the belly. To introduce
this variation into the calculation would render that less simple, and
it will be sufficient to state that about the 150th part must be
deducted from the downward pressures given in the above table from the
first and fourth strings, and about the 300th part for the second and
third strings. The total to be deducted for the four strings will not
exceed three ounces.
On the line A B or A C set off a scale of equal parts, beginning at A,
and on A D a similar scale beginning at A.
Mark off on the scale A B as many divisions as there are lbs. in the
tension of a string, for example 18, and from that point draw a line
parallel to B D, cutting A D at the point 8 in that scale. Then, if
the tension of a string be 18 lb., the downward pressure on the bridge
will be 8 lb.; and therefore for the above angle the downward pressure
of any string on the bridge will be 8/18=4/9 of the tension of that
string.
The whole of the downward pressure of the first string falls upon the
Treble Foot of the Bridge.
The downward pressure of the second string is about 2/3 the Treble
Foot of the Bridge, and 1/3 on the Bass Foot.
The downward pressure of the third string is about 1/3 on the Treble
Foot, and 2/3 on the Bass Foot.
The whole of the downward pressure of the fourth string falls upon the
Bass Foot of the Bridge.
SECTION IV
The Italian School
The fifteenth century may be considered as the period when the art of
making instruments of the Viol class took root in Italy, a period rich
in men labouring in the cause of Art. The long list of honoured names
connected with Art in Italy during the fifteenth, sixteenth, and
seventeenth centuries is a mighty roll-call indeed! The memory dwells
upon the number of richly-stored minds that have, within the limits of
these three centuries, bequeathed their art treasures to all time; and
if here we cannot suppress a comparison of the art world of the
present Italy with that of the periods named, still less can we fail
to be astonished as we discover the abyss into which Italy must be
judged to have sunk in point of merit, when measured by the high
standard which in former days she set herself. But perhaps the
greatest marvel of all is the rapidity of the decadence when it once
set in, as it did immediately after the culminating point of artistic
fame had been reached.
To reflect for a moment upon the many famous men in Italy engaged in
artistic vocations contemporary with the great Viol and Violin makers
cannot fail to be interesting to the lovers of our instrument, for it
has the effect of surrounding their favourite with an interest
extending beyond its own path. It also serves to make prominent the
curious fact that the art of Italian Violin-making emerged from its
chrysalis state when the painters of Italy displayed their greatest
strength of genius, and perfected itself when the Fine Arts of Italy
were cast in comparative darkness. It is both interesting and
remarkable that the art of Italian Violin-making--which in its infancy
shared with all the arts the advantage attending the revival of art
and learning--should have been the last to mature and die.
Whilst the artist, scientist, and musician, Leonardo da Vinci, was
painting, inventing, and singing his sonnets to the accompaniment of
his Lute; whilst Raphael was executing the commands of Leo X., and
Giorgio was superintending the manufacture of his inimitable majolica
ware, the Viol-makers of Bologna were designing their instruments and
assimilating them to the registers of the human voice, in order that
the parts of Church and chamber madrigals might be played instead of
sung, or that the voices might be sustained by the instruments.[1]
[Footnote 1: The importance of this epoch in its bearings upon
instrumental music generally, and stringed instrument music in
particular, can hardly be over-estimated. It may be said that in the
Middle Ages no written music for instruments existed. The melodies and
accompaniments produced from instruments were either extemporaneous or
parrot-like imitations of vocal music. Madrigals and a few dances
constituted the food upon which instruments were nursed until towards
the close of the sixteenth century, when Gabrielli, or a contemporary
musician, prepared a special and distinct aliment, the outcome of
which is found in the symphonies of Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven.]
If we turn to the days of Gasparo da Salo, Maggini, and Andrea Amati,
we find that while they were sending forth their Fiddles, Titian was
painting his immortal works, and Benvenuto Cellini, the greatest
goldsmith of his own or any age, was setting the jewels of popes and
princes, and enamelling the bindings of their books. Whilst the
master-minds of Antonio Stradivari and Giuseppe Guarneri del Gesu were
occupied with those instruments which have caused their names to be
known throughout the civilised world (and _un_civilised too, for many
thousands of Violins are yearly made into which their cherished names
are thrust, after which they are despatched for the negro's use),
Canaletto was painting his Venetian squares and canals, Venetians
whose names are unrecorded were blowing glass of wondrous form and
beauty. At the same time, in the musical world, Corelli was writing
his jigs and sarabands, Geminiani penning one of the first instruction
books for the Violin, and Tartini dreaming his "Sonata del Diavolo";
and while Guadagnini and the stars of lesser magnitude were exercising
their calling, Viotti, the originator of a school of Violin-playing,
was writing his concertos, and Boccherini laying the foundation of
classical chamber-music of a light and pleasing character. It would be
easy to continue this vein of thought, were it not likely to become
irksome to the reader; enough has been said to refresh the memory as
to the flourishing state of Italian art during these times. What a
mine of wealth was then opened up for succeeding generations! and how
curious is the fact that not only the Violin, but its music, has been
the creature of the most luxurious age of art; for in that golden age
musicians contemporary with the great Violin-makers were writing music
destined to be better understood and appreciated when the Violins then
made should have reached their maturity.
That Italy's greatest Violin-makers lived in times favourable to the
production of works possessing a high degree of merit, cannot be
doubted. They were surrounded by composers of rare powers, and also by
numerous orchestras. These orchestras, composed mainly of stringed
instruments, were scattered all over Italy, Germany, and France, in
churches, convents, and palaces, and must have created a great demand
for bow instruments of a high class.
The bare mention of a few of the names of composers then existing will
be sufficient to bring to the mind of the reader well versed in
musical matters the compositions to which they owe their fame. In the
sixteenth century, Orlando di Lasso, Isaac, and Palestrina were
engaged in writing Church music, in which stringed instruments were
heard; in the seventeenth, lived Stradella, Lotti, Bononcini, Lully,
and Corelli. In the eighteenth century, the period when the art of
Violin-making was at its zenith, the list is indeed a glorious one. At
this point is the constellation of Veracini, Geminiani, Vivaldi,
Locatelli, Boccherini, Tartini, Viotti, Nardini, among the Italians;
while in France it is the epoch of Leclair and Gavinies, composers of
Violin music of the highest excellence. Surrounded by these men of
rare genius, who lived but to disseminate a taste for the king of
instruments, the makers of Violins must certainly have enjoyed
considerable patronage, and doubtless those of tried ability readily
obtained highly remunerative prices for their instruments, and were
encouraged in their march towards perfection both in design and
workmanship. Besides the many writers for the Violin, and executants,
there were numbers of ardent patrons of the Cremonese and Brescian
makers. Among these may be mentioned the Duke of Ferrara, Charles IX.,
Cardinal Ottoboni (with whom Corelli was in high favour), Cardinal
Orsini (afterwards Pope Benedict XIII.), Victor Amadeus Duke of Savoy,
the Duke of Modena, the Marquis Ariberti, Charles III. (afterwards
Charles VI., Emperor of Germany), and the Elector of Bavaria, all of
whom gave encouragement to the art by ordering complete sets of
stringed instruments for their chapels and for other purposes. By the
aid of such valuable patronage the makers were enabled to centre their
attention on their work, and received reward commensurate with the
amount of skill displayed. This had the effect of raising them above
the status of the ordinary workman, and permitted them as a body to
pass their lives amid comparative plenty. There are, without doubt,
instances of great results obtained under trying circumstances, but
the genius required to combine a successful battle with adversity with
high proficiency in art is indeed a rare phenomenon. Carlyle says of
such minds: "In a word, they willed one thing, to which all other
things were subordinate, and made subservient, and therefore they
accomplished it. The wedge will rend rocks, but its edge must be sharp
and single; if it be double, the wedge is bruised in pieces, and will
rend nothing." It may, therefore, be affirmed that the greatest
luminaries of the art world have shone most brightly under
circumstances in keeping with their peaceful labours, it not being
essential to success that men highly gifted for a particular art
should have this strength of will unless there were immediate call for
its exercise.
Judging from the large number of bow-instrument makers in Italy, more
particularly during the seventeenth century, we should conclude that
the Italians must have been considered as far in advance of the makers
of other nations, and that they monopolised, in consequence, the chief
part of the manufacture. The city of Cremona became the seat of the
trade, and the centre whence, as the manufacture developed itself,
other less famous places maintained their industry. In this way there
arose several distinct schools of a character marked and thoroughly
Italian, but not attaining the high standard reached by the parent
city. Notwithstanding the inferiority of the makers of Naples,
Florence, and other homes of the art as compared with the Cremonese,
they seem to have received a fair amount of patronage, the number of
instruments manufactured in these places of lesser fame being
considerable.
To enable the reader to understand more readily the various types of
Italian Violins, they may be classed as the outcome of five different
schools. The first is that of Brescia, dating from about 1520 to 1620,
which includes Gasparo da Salo, Maggini, and a few others of less
note. The next, and most important school, was that of Cremona, dating
from 1550 to 1760, or even later, and including the following makers:
Andrea Amati, Girolamo Amati, Antonio Amati, Niccolo Amati, Girolamo
Amati, son of Niccolo; Andrea Guarneri, Pietro Guarneri, Giuseppe
Guarneri, the son of Andrea; Giuseppe Guarneri ("del Gesu"), the
nephew of Andrea; Antonio Stradivari, and Carlo Bergonzi. Several
well-known makers have been omitted in the foregoing list simply
because they were followers of those mentioned, and therefore cannot
be credited with originality of design. The makers of Milan and Naples
may be braced together as one school, under the name of _Neapolitan_,
dating from 1680 to 1800. This school contains makers of good repute,
viz., the members of the Grancino family, Carlo Testore, Paolo
Testore, the Gagliano family, and Ferdinando Landolfi. The makers of
Florence, Bologna, and Rome may likewise be classed together in a
school that dates from 1680 to 1760, and includes the following names:
Gabrielli, Anselmo, Tecchler, and Tononi. The Venetian school, dating
from 1690 to 1764, has two very prominent members in Domenico
Montagnana and Santo Seraphino; but the former maker may, not
inappropriately, be numbered with those of Cremona, for he passed his
early years in that city, and imbibed all the characteristics
belonging to its chief makers.
Upon glancing at this imposing list of makers, it is easy to
understand that it must have been a lucrative trade which in those
days gave support to so many; and, further, that Italy, as compared
with Germany, France, or England at that period, must have possessed,
at least, more makers by two-thirds than either of those three
countries. And this goes far to prove, moreover, that the Italian
makers received extensive foreign patronage, their number being far in
excess of that required to supply their own country's wants in the
manufacture of Violins. Roger North, in his "Memoirs of Musick,"
evidences the demand for Italian Violins in the days of James II. He
remarks: "Most of the young nobility and gentry that have travelled
into Italy affected to learn of Corelli, and brought home with them
such favour for the Italian music, as hath given it possession of our
Parnassus. And the best utensil of Apollo, _the Violin_, is so
universally courted and sought after, to be had of the best sort, that
some say England hath dispeopled Italy of Violins." We also read of
William Corbett, a member of the King's band, having formed about the
year 1710 a "gallery of Cremonys and Stainers" during his residence in
Rome.
Brescia was the cradle of Italian Violin-making, for the few makers of
bowed instruments (among whom were Gaspard Duiffoprugcar, who
established himself at Bologna; Dardelli, of Mantua; Linarolli and
Maller, of Venice) cannot be counted among Violin-makers. The only
maker, therefore, of the Violin of the earliest date, it remains to be
said, was Gasparo da Salo, to whom belongs the credit of raising the
manufacture of bowed instruments from a rude state to an art. There
may be something in common between the early works of Gasparo da Salo
and Gaspard Duiffoprugcar, but the link that connects these two makers
is very slight, and in the absence of further information respecting
the latter as an actual maker of Violins, the credit of authorship
must certainly belong to Gasparo da Salo.
We are indebted to Brescia for the many grand Double-basses and Tenors
that were made there by Gasparo da Salo and Maggini. These instruments
formed the stepping-stones to Italian Violin-making, for it is evident
that they were in use long before the first era of the Violin. The
Brescian Violins have not the appearance of antiquity that is
noticeable in the Double-basses or Tenors, and for one Brescian Violin
there are ten Double-basses, a fact which goes far to prove that the
latter was the principal instrument at that time.
[Illustration: _Plate IV_. ANTONIO STRADIVARI. Date 1734. (LATE LORD
AMHERST OF HACKNEY.) THE EMPEROR "STRAD." Date 1715. (LATE GEO.
HADDOCK, ESQ.) GUARNERI DEL GESU. Date 1734. (LATE LORD AMHERST OF
HACKNEY.)]
From Brescia came the masters who established the School of Cremona.
The Amatis took the lead, their founder being Andrea Amati, after whom
each one of the clan appears to have gained a march on his
predecessor, until the grand masters of their art, Antonio Stradivari
and Giuseppe Guarneri del Gesu, advanced far beyond the reach of their
fellow-makers or followers. The pupils of the Amati, Stradivari, and
Guarneri settled in Milan, Florence, and other cities previously
mentioned as centres of Violin-making, and thus formed the distinct
character or School belonging to each city. A close study of the
various Schools shows that there is much in common among them. A
visible individuality is found throughout the works of the Italian
makers, which is not to be met with in anything approaching the same
degree in the similar productions of other nations. Among the
Italians, each artist appears to have at first implicitly obeyed the
teaching of his master, afterwards, as his knowledge increased,
striking out a path for himself. To such important acts of
self-reliance may be traced the absolute perfection to which the
Italians at last attained. Not content with the production of
instruments capable of producing the best tone, they strove to give
them the highest finish, and were rewarded, possibly beyond their
expectation. The individuality noticed as belonging in a high degree
to Italian work is in many instances very remarkable. How
characteristic the scroll and the sound-hole of each several maker!
The work of master and pupil differs here in about the same degree as
the handwriting of father and son, and often more. Although Stradivari
was a pupil of Niccolo Amati, yet how marked is the difference between
the scrolls and sound-holes of these two makers; Carlo Bergonzi worked
with Stradivari, yet the productions of these two are more easily
known apart. A similarly well-defined originality is found, in a more
or less degree, to pervade the entire series of Italian Violins, and
forms a feature of much interest to the connoisseur.
In closing my remarks upon the Italian School of Violin-making, I
cannot withhold from the reader the concluding sentences of the
Cremonese biographer, Vincenzo Lancetti, as contained in his
manuscript relative to the makers of Cremona. He says: "I cannot help
but deeply deplore the loss to my native city (where for two centuries
the manufacture of stringed instruments formed an active and
profitable trade) of the masterpieces of its renowned Violin-makers,
together with the drawings, moulds, and patterns, the value of which
would be inestimable to those practising the art. Is it not possible
to find a citizen to do honour to himself and his city by securing the
collection of instruments, models, and forms brought together by Count
Cozio di Salabue, before the treasure be lost to Italy? I have the
authority of Count Cozio to grant to such a patron every facility for
the purchase and transfer of the collection, conditionally that the
object be to resuscitate the art of Violin-making in Cremona, which
desire alone prompted the Count in forming the collection." These
interesting remarks were written in the year 1823, with a view to
their publication at the end of the account of Italian Violin-makers
which Lancetti purposed publishing. As the work did not see the light,
the appeal of the first writer on the subject of Italian Violins was
never heard. Had it been, in all probability Cremona would at this
moment have been in possession of the most remarkable collection of
instruments and models ever brought together, and be maintaining in at
least some measure the prestige belonging to its past in
Violin-making.
SECTION V
The Italian Varnish
A word or two must be said upon the famous varnish of the Italians,
which has hitherto baffled all attempts to solve the mystery of its
formation. Every instrument belonging to the school of Cremona has it,
more or less, in all its marvellous beauty, and to these instruments
the resolute investigator turns, promising himself the discovery of
its constituent parts. The more its lustre penetrates his soul, the
more determined become his efforts. As yet, however, all such
praiseworthy researches have been futile, and the composition of the
Cremonese varnish remains a secret lost to the world--as much so as
the glorious ruby lustre of Maestro Giorgio, and the blue so coveted
by connoisseurs of china. Mr. Charles Reade truly says: "No wonder,
then, that many Violin-makers have tried hard to discover the secret
of this varnish: many chemists have given anxious days and nights to
it. More than once, even in my time, hopes have run high, but only to
fall again. Some have even cried 'Eureka' to the public; but the
moment others looked at their discovery and compared it with the real
thing,
'Inextinguishable laughter shook the skies.'
At last despair has succeeded to all that energetic study, and the
varnish of Cremona is sullenly given up as a lost art."
Declining, therefore, all speculation as to what the varnish is or
what it is not, or any nostrums for its re-discovery, we will pass on
at once to the description of the different Italian varnishes, which
may be divided into four distinct classes, viz., the Brescian,
Cremonese, Neapolitan, and Venetian. These varnishes are quite
separable in one particular, which is, the depth of their colouring;
and yet three of them, the Brescian, Cremonese, and Venetian, have to
all appearance a common basis. This agreement may be accounted for
with some show of reason by the supposition that there must have been
a depot in each city where the varnish was sold in an incomplete form,
and that the depth of colour used, or even the means adopted for
colouring, rested with the maker of the instrument. If we examine the
Brescian varnish, we find an almost complete resemblance between the
material of Gasparo da Salo and that of his coadjutors, the colouring
only being different. Upon turning to the Cremonese, we find that
Guarneri, Stradivari, Carlo Bergonzi, and a few others, used varnish
having the same characteristics, but, again, different in shade;
possibly the method of laying it upon the instrument was peculiar to
each maker. Similar facts are observable in the Venetian specimens.
The varnish of Naples, again, is of a totally different composition,
and as it was chiefly in vogue after the Cremonese was lost, we may
conclude that it was probably produced by the Neapolitan makers for
their own need.
If we reflect for a moment upon the extensive use which these makers
made of the Cremonese varnish, it is reasonable to suppose that it was
an ordinary commodity in their days, and that there was then no secret
in the matter at all. To account for its sudden disappearance and
total loss is, indeed, not easy. After 1760, or even at an earlier
date, all trace of it is obliterated. The demand for it was certainly
not so great as it had been, but quite sufficient to prevent the
supply from dying out had it been possible. The problem of its sudden
disappearance may, perhaps, be accounted for without overstepping the
bounds of possibility, if we suppose that the varnish was composed of
a particular gum quite common in those days, extensively used for
other purposes besides the varnishing of Violins, and thereby caused
to be a marketable article. Suddenly, we will suppose, the demand for
its supply ceased, and the commercial world troubled no further about
the matter. The natural consequence would be non-production. It is
well known that there are numerous instances of commodities once in
frequent supply and use, but now entirely obsolete and extinct.
While, however, our attention has been mainly directed to the basis of
the celebrated varnish, it must not be supposed that its colouring is
of no importance. In this particular each maker had the opportunity of
displaying his skill and judgment, and probably it was here, if
anywhere, that the secret rested. The gist of the matter, then, is
simply that the varnish was common to all, but the colouring and mode
of application belonged solely to the maker, and hence the varied and
independent appearance of each separate instrument. With regard,
however, to the general question as to what the exact composition of
the gum was or was not, I shall hazard no further speculation, and am
profoundly conscious of the fact that my present guesses have gained
no nearer approaches to the re-discovery of the buried treasure.
A description, however, of the various Italian varnishes may not be
inappropriate. The Brescian is mostly of a rich brown colour and soft
texture, but not so clear as the Cremonese. The Cremonese is of
various shades, the early instruments of the school being chiefly
amber-coloured, afterwards deepening into a light red of charming
appearance, later still into a rich brown of the Brescian type, though
more transparent, and frequently broken up, while the earlier kinds
are velvet-like. The Venetian is also of various shades, chiefly light
red, and exceedingly transparent. The Neapolitan varnish (a generic
term including that of Milan and a few other places) is very clear,
and chiefly yellow in colour, but wanting the dainty softness of the
Cremonese. It is quite impossible to give such a description of these
varnishes as will enable the reader at once to recognise them; the eye
must undergo considerable exercise before it can discriminate the
various qualities; practice, however, makes it so sharp that often
from a piece of varnishing the size of a shilling it will obtain
evidence sufficient to decide upon the rank of the Violin.
And here, before we dismiss the subject of the varnish, another
interesting question occurs: What is its effect, apart from the beauty
of its appearance, upon the efficiency of the instrument? The idea
that the varnish of a Violin has some influence upon its tone has
often been ridiculed, and we can quite understand that it must appear
absurd to those who have not viewed the question in all its bearings.
Much misconception has arisen from pushing this theory about the
varnish either too far or not far enough. What seems sometimes to be
implied by enthusiasts is, that the form of the instrument is of
little importance provided the varnish is good, which amounts to
saying that a common Violin may be made good by means of varnishing
it. The absurdity of such a doctrine is self-evident. On the other
hand, there are rival authorities who attach no importance to varnish
in relation to tone. That the varnish does influence the tone there is
strong proof, and to make this plain to the reader should not be
difficult. The finest varnishes are those of oil, and they require the
utmost skill and patience in their use. They dry very slowly, and may
be described as of a soft and yielding nature. The common varnish is
known as spirit varnish; it is easily used and dries rapidly, in
consideration of which qualities it is generally adopted in these days
of high pressure. It may be described as precisely the reverse of the
oil varnish; it is hard and unyielding. Now a Violin varnished with
fine oil varnish, like all good things, takes time to mature, and will
not bear forcing in any way. At first the instrument is somewhat
muffled, as the pores of the wood have become impregnated with oil.
This makes the instrument heavy both in weight and sound; but as time
rolls on the oil dries, leaving the wood mellowed and wrapped in an
elastic covering which yields to the tone of the instrument and
imparts to it much of its own softness. We will now turn to spirit
varnish. When this is used a diametrically opposite effect is
produced. The Violin is, as it were, wrapped in glass, through which
the sound passes, imbued with the characteristics of the varnish. The
result is, that the resonance produced is metallic and piercing, and
well calculated for common purposes; if, however, richness of tone be
required, spirit-varnished instruments cannot supply it. From these
remarks the reader may gather some notion of the vexed question of
varnish in relation to tone, and be left to form his own opinion.
The chief features of the Italian School of Violin-makers having been
noticed, it only remains to be said that the following list of makers
is necessarily incomplete. This defect arises chiefly from old
forgeries. Labels used as the trade marks of many deserving makers
have from time to time been removed from their lawful instruments in
order that others bearing a higher marketable value might be
substituted. In the subjoined list will be found all the great names,
and every care has been taken to render it as complete as possible.
Several names given are evidently German, most of which belong to an
early period, and are chiefly those in connection with the manufacture
of Lutes and Viols in Italy. These are included in the Italian list,
in order to show that many Germans were engaged in making stringed
instruments in Italy, about the period when Tenor and Contralto Viols
with four strings were manufactured there--a circumstance worthy of
note in connection with the history of Viol and Violin making in
Italy, bearing in mind that four-string Viols were used in Germany
when Italy used those having six strings.
SECTION VI
Italian Makers
ABATI, Giambattista, Modena, about 1775 to 1793.
ACEVO, Saluzzo. Reference is made in the "Biographie Universelle des
Musiciens" to this maker having been a pupil of Gioffredo Cappa, and
M. Fetis mentions his having seen a Viol da Gamba dated 1693 of this
make, which belonged to Marin Marais, the famous performer on the
Viol.[1]
[Footnote 1: There seems good reason to question the existence of such
a person, at all events as a maker of Violins.--EDITORS.]
ALBANESI, Sebastiano, Cremona, 1720-1744. The pattern is bold and the
model flat. Although made at Cremona, they do not properly belong to
the school of that place, having the characteristics of Milanese work.
The varnish is quite unlike that of Cremona.
ALBANI, Paolo, Palermo, 1650-80. Is said to have been a pupil of
Niccolo Amati. The pattern is broad and the work carefully executed.
ALESSANDRO, named "Il Veneziano," 16th century.
ALETZIE, Paolo, Munich, 1720-36. He made chiefly Tenors and
Violoncellos, some of which are well-finished instruments. The varnish
is inferior, both as regards quality and colour. The characteristics
of this maker are German, and might be classed with that school.
ALVANI, Cremona. Is said to have made instruments in imitation of
those of Giuseppe Guarneri.
AMATI, Andrea, Cremona. The date of birth is unknown. It is supposed
to have occurred about 1520. M. Fetis gave this date from evidence
furnished by the list of instruments found in the possession of the
banker Carlo Carli, which belonged to Count Cozio di Salabue. Mention
is made of a Rebec, attributed to Andrea Amati, dated 1546. Upon
reference to the MSS. of Lancetti, I find the following account of the
Rebec: "In the collection of the said Count there exists also a Violin
believed to be by Andrea Amati, with the label bearing the date 1546,
which must have been strung with only three strings, and which at that
epoch was called Rebec by the French. The father of Mantegazza altered
the instrument into one of four strings, by changing the neck and
scroll." From these remarks we gather that the authorship of this
interesting Violin is doubtful. There is, however, some show of
evidence to connect Andrea Amati with Rebecs and Geigen, in the
notable fact that most of his Violins are small, their size being that
known as three-quarter, which was, I am inclined to believe, about the
size of the instruments which the four-stringed Violin succeeded. As
to the time when Andrea Amati worked, I am of opinion that it was a
little later than has hitherto been stated. We have evidence of his
being alive in the year 1611, from an entry recently discovered in the
register of the parish in which Andrea Amati lived, to the effect that
his second wife died on April 10, 1611, and that Andrea was then
living. The discovery of this entry (together with many important and
interesting ones to which I shall have occasion to refer) we owe to
the patience and industry of Monsignor Gaetano Bazzi, Canon of the
Cathedral of Cremona.[2] Andrea Amati claims attention not so much on
account of his instruments, as from his being regarded as the founder
of the school of Cremona. There is no direct evidence as to the name
of the master from whom he learnt the art of making stringed
instruments. If his work be carefully examined, it will appear that
the only maker to whose style it can be said to bear any resemblance
is Gasparo da Salo, and it is possible that the great Brescian may
have instructed him in his art. It is unfortunate that there are no
data for our guidance in the matter. These men often, like their
brothers in Art, the painters of olden times, began to live when they
were dead, and their history thus passed without record. Andrea Amati
may possibly have been self-taught, but there is much in favour of the
view given above on this point. His early works are so Brescian in
character as to cause them to be numbered with the productions of that
school. For a general designation of the instruments of this maker the
following notes may suffice. The work is carefully executed. The model
is high, and, in consequence, lacks power of tone; but the Violins
possess a charming sweetness. The sound-hole is inelegant, has not the
decision of Gasparo da Salo, although belonging to his style, and is
usually broad. His varnish may be described as deep golden, of good
quality. His method of cutting his material was not uniform, but he
seems to have had a preference for cutting his backs in slab form,
according to the example set for the most part by the Brescian makers.
The sides were also made in a similar manner, the wood used being both
sycamore and that known to makers as pear-tree. The instruments of
Andrea Amati are now very scarce. Among the famous instruments of this
maker were twenty-four Violins (twelve large and twelve small
pattern), six Tenors, and eight Basses, made for Charles IX., which
were kept in the Chapel Royal, Versailles, until October, 1790, when
they disappeared. These were probably the finest instruments by Andrea
Amati. On the backs were painted the arms of France and other devices,
with the motto, _Pietate et Justitia_. In the "Archives Curieuses de
l'Histoire de France," one Nicolas Delinet, a member of the French
King's band, appears to have purchased in 1572 a Cremona Violin for
his Majesty, for which he paid about ten pounds--a large sum, it must
be confessed, when we think of its purchasing power in the sixteenth
century. Mr. Sandys, who cites this curious entry, rightly conjectures
it may have included incidental expenses. No mention is made of the
maker of the Violin in question; we find, however, that in the
collection of instruments which belonged to Sir William Curtis there
was a Violoncello having the arms of France painted on the back,
together with the motto above noticed. The date of the instrument was
1572. We may therefore assume that the Violin purchased by Nicolas
Delinet in the same year was the work of Andrea Amati, and belonged to
the famous Charles IX. set.
[Footnote 2: The extracts were published by Signor Piccolellis at
Florence in 1886.]
AMATI, Niccolo, Cremona, brother of Andrea. Very little is known of
this maker or of his instruments.
AMATI, Antonio and Girolamo, sons of Andrea Amati, Cremona.
Antonius et Hieronymus Fr. Amati
Cremonen Andrae fil. F.
There does not exist certain evidence as to the date of the birth and
death of Antonio Amati. We have information of the dates on which his
brother Girolamo died in extracts from parish registers; also the date
of his marriages, which took place in the year 1576, and on May 24,
1584. By his second wife, Girolamo had a family of nine children; the
fifth child was Niccolo, who became the famous Violin-maker. The
mother of Niccolo died of the plague on October 27, 1630, and her
husband, Girolamo, died of the same disease six days later, viz.,
November 2, 1630, and was buried on the same day. Girolamo is
described in the register as "Misser Hieronimo Amati detto il leutaro
della vic di S. Faustino" (viz., maker to the Church). Vincenzo
Lancetti states that "Count Cozio kept a register of all the
instruments seen by him, from which it appeared that the earliest
reliable date of the brothers Amati is 1577, and that they worked
together until 1628; that Antonio survived Jerome and made instruments
until after the year 1648--a fine Violin bearing the last-named date
having been recently seen with the name of Antonio alone." This
information serves in some measure to set at rest much of the
uncertainty relative to the period when these makers lived. These
skilful makers produced some of the most charming specimens of
artistic work. To them we are indebted for the first form of the
instrument known as "Amatese." The early efforts of the brothers Amati
have many of the characteristics belonging to the work of their father
Andrea; their sound-hole is similar to his, and in keeping with the
Brescian form, and the model which they at first adopted is higher
than that of their later and better instruments.
Although these makers placed their joint names in their Violins, it
must not be supposed that each bore a proportionate part of the
manufacture in every case; on the contrary, there are but few
instances where such association is made manifest. The style of each
was distinct, and one was immeasurably superior to the other. Antonio
deviated but little from the teaching of his father. The sound-holes
even of his latest instruments partake of the Brescian type, and the
model is the only particular in which it may be said that a step in
advance is traceable; here he wisely adopted a flatter form. His work
throughout, as regards finish, is excellent.
Girolamo Amati possessed in a high degree the attributes of an artist.
He was richly endowed with that rare power--_originality_. It is in
his instruments that we discover the form of sound-hole which Niccolo
Amati improved, and, after him, the inimitable Stradivari perfected.
Girolamo Amati ignored the pointed sound-hole and width in the middle
portions observable in his predecessor's Violins, and designed a model
of extremely elegant proportions. How graceful is the turn of the
sound-hole at both the upper and lower sections! With what nicety and
daintiness are the outer lines made to point to the shapely curve!
Niccolo Amati certainly improved even upon Girolamo's achievements,
but he did not add more grace; and the essential difference between
the instruments of the two is, that there is more vigour in the
sound-hole of Niccolo than that of his father Girolamo.
The purfling of the brothers Amati is very beautifully executed. The
scrolls differ very much, and in the earlier instruments of these
makers are of a type anterior to that of the bodies. Further, the
varnish on the earlier specimens is deeper in colour than that found
on the later ones, which have varnish of a beautiful orange tint,
sparingly laid on, and throwing up the markings of the wood with much
distinctness. The material used by these makers and the mode of
cutting it also varies considerably. In some specimens we find that
they used backs of the slab form; in others, backs worked whole; in
others, backs divided into two segments. The belly-wood is in every
case of the finest description. The tone is far more powerful than
that of the instruments of Andrea, and this increase of sound is
obtained without any sacrifice of the richness of the quality.
[Illustration: _Plate V_. CARLO BERGONZI. _Grand Pattern_. (GEO.
GUDGEON, ESQ.)]
AMATI, Niccolo, Cremona, born December 3, 1596, died April 12, 1684.
Nicolaus Amatus Cremonen, Hieronymi
Fil. ac Antonij Nepos Fecit. 16--
Son of Girolamo Amati. It is gratifying in the notice of this famous
Violin-maker to be able to supply dates of his birth, marriage, and
death. Niccolo was christened on December 6, 1596. His marriage took
place on May 23, 1645, and it is interesting to record that his pupil
Andrea Guarneri witnessed the ceremony, and signed the register. The
information recently supplied by Canon Bazzi of Cremona, relative to
the pupils and workmen of Niccolo Amati, who were duly registered in
the books of the parish of SS. Faustino and Giovita, is fraught with
interest. It seems to carry us within the precincts, if not into the
workshop, of the master. Andrea Guarneri heads the list in the year
1653, age twenty-seven, and married; next comes Leopoldo Todesca, age
twenty-eight; and Francesco Mola, age twelve. In the following year
Leopoldo Todesca appears to have been the only name registered as
working with Amati. In the year 1666 we have the name Giorgio Fraiser,
age eighteen. In 1668 no names of workmen seem to have been
registered. In 1680 the name of Girolamo Segher appears, age
thirty-four, and Bartolommeo Cristofori, age thirteen. In 1681 another
name occurs, namely Giuseppe Stanza, a Venetian, age eighteen. In the
following year the only name entered was that of Girolamo Segher, age
thirty-six. Niccolo Amati was the greatest maker in his illustrious
family, and the finest of his instruments are second only to those of
his great pupil, Antonio Stradivari. His early efforts have all the
marks of genius upon them, and clearly show that he had imbibed much
of the taste of his father Girolamo. He continued for some time to
follow the traditional pattern of the instruments, with the label of
Antonius and Hieronymus Amati, and produced many Violins of small
size, of which a large number are still extant. He appears to have
laboured assiduously during these early years, with the view of making
himself thoroughly acquainted with every portion of his art. We find
several instances in which he has changed the chief principles in
construction (particularly such as relate to the arching and
thicknesses), and thereby shown the intention which he had from the
first of framing a new model entirely according to the dictates of his
own fancy. The experienced eye may trace the successive steps taken in
this direction by carefully examining the instruments dating from
about 1645 downwards. Prior to this period, there is a peculiarly
striking similarity in his work and model to that of his father, but
after this date we can watch the gradual change of form and outline
which culminated in the production of those exquisite works of the art
of Violin-making known as "grand Amatis"--a name which designates the
grand proportions of the instruments of this later date. It may be
said that the maker gained his great reputation from these famous
productions. They may be described as having an outline of extreme
elegance, in the details of which the most artistic treatment is
visible. The corners are drawn out to points of singular fineness, and
this gives them an appearance of prominence which serves to throw
beauty into the entire work. The model is raised somewhat towards the
centre, dipping rather suddenly from the feet of the bridge towards
the outer edge, and forming a slight groove where the purfling is
reached, but not the exaggerated scoop which is commonly seen in the
instruments of the many copyists. This portion of the design has
formed the subject of considerable discussion among the learned in the
Violin world, the debatable points being the appearance of this
peculiarity and its acoustic effect. As regards the former question,
the writer of these pages feels convinced that the apparent
irregularity is in perfect harmony with the general outline of the
great Amati's instrument; and it pleases the eye. From the acoustical
point of view, it may be conceded that it does not tend to increase of
power; but, on the other hand, probably, the sweetness of tone so
common to the instruments of Niccolo Amati must be set to its credit;
for, in proportion as the form is departed from, the sweetness is
found to decrease. The sound-hole has all the character of those of
the preceding Amati, together with increased boldness; in fact, it is
a repetition of that of Girolamo, with this exception. The sides are a
shade deeper than those of the brothers Amati. The scroll is
exquisitely cut. Its outline is perhaps a trifle contracted, and thus
is robbed of the vigour which it would otherwise possess. From this
circumstance it differs from the general tenor of the body, which is
certainly of broad conception. The maker would seem to have been aware
of this defect, if we may judge from the difference of form given to
his earlier scrolls, as compared with those of a later date, in which
he seems to have attempted to secure increased boldness, as more in
keeping with the character of the body of the instrument. It must be
acknowledged, however, that these efforts did not carry him far
enough. The surface of the scroll is usually inclined to flatness. The
wood used by Niccolo Amati for his grand instruments is of splendid
quality, both as regards acoustical requirements and beauty of
appearance. The grain of some of his backs has a wave-like form of
much beauty, others have markings of great regularity, giving to the
instrument a highly finished appearance. The bellies are of a soft
silken nature, and usually of even grain. A few of them are of
singular beauty, their grain being of a mottled character, which,
within its transparent coat of varnish, flashes light here and there
with singular force. The colour of the varnish varies in point of
depth; sometimes it is of a rich amber colour, at others
reddish-brown, and in a few instances light golden-red.
These, then, are the instruments which are so highly esteemed, and
which form one of the chief links in the Violin family. The highest
praise must be conceded to the originator of a design which combines
extreme elegance with utility; and, simple as the result may appear,
the successful construction of so graceful a whole must have been
attended with rare ingenuity and persevering labour.
Here, again, is evidence of the master mind, never resting, ever
seeking to improve--evidence, too, that mere elaboration of work was
not the sole aim of the Cremonese makers. They designed and created as
they worked, and their success, which no succeeding age has aspired to
rival, entitles them to rank with the chief artists of the world.