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"STOPS"
Or, How to Punctuate
A Practical Handbook for Writers and Students
by
PAUL ALLARDYCE
"For a reader that pointeth ill,
A good sentence oft may spill."
--CHAUCER--_Romaunt of the Rose_
London
T. Fisher Unwin Ltd.
Adelphi Terrace
Eighteenth Impression
1895
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
THE FULL STOP
THE COMMA
THE SEMICOLON
THE COLON
THE POINT OF INTERROGATION
THE MARK OF EXCLAMATION
THE DASH
BRACKETS (OR THE PARENTHESIS)
INVERTED COMMAS
ITALICS
THE HYPHEN
THE APOSTROPHE
ELLIPSIS
REFERENCES TO NOTES
CORRECTION OF PROOFS
INTRODUCTION
_The Use of Punctuation._--Punctuation is a device for marking out the
arrangement of a writer's ideas. Reading is thereby made easier than
it otherwise would be.
A writer's ideas are expressed by a number of words arranged in
groups, the words in one group being more closely connected with one
another than they are with those in the next group. An example will
show this grouping in its simplest form:
He never convinces the reason, or fills the imagination,
----------------------------- ---------------------
or touches the heart.
-----------------
To understand what is written, the reader must group the words
together in the way intended by the writer; and in doing this he can
receive assistance in various ways. Partly by the inflection of the
words; partly by their arrangement; partly also by punctuation. As to
inflection, we see in Latin an adjective and a substantive standing
together, yet differing in gender, in number, or in case; and we know
that the adjective does not qualify the substantive. But English has
not the numerous inflections of Latin. More scrupulous care therefore
is needed in the arrangement of words in order to bring together in
position such as are connected in meaning. Yet this is not always
enough. Except in the very simplest sentences there are generally
several arrangements which are grammatically possible; and, though all
save one may be absurd in meaning, the reader may waver for a moment
before the absurdity strikes him. Some artificial aid is thus needed
to prevent him from thinking of any arrangement but the right one.
There is no fault, for instance, to be found with the arrangement of
the following words, yet, printed without points, they form a mere
puzzle:
He had arrived already prepossessed with a strong feeling of
the neglect which he had experienced from the Whigs his old
friends however all of them appeared ravished to see him
offered apologies for the mode in which they had treated him
and caught at him as at a twig when they were drowning the
influence of his talents they understood and were willing to
see it thrown into the opposite scale.
Of course, with a little effort the meaning can be discovered; but if
such a little effort had to be put forth in every page of a whole
book, reading would become a serious task. By means of points, or
"stops," we are spared much of this. The groups are presented
ready-made to the eye; and the mind, bent on understanding the
thought, is not distracted by having first to discover the connection
of the words.
The reader's task is more difficult where two or more ways of grouping
the words not only are grammatically possible, but lead each to a more
or less intelligible meaning. As a rule he can find out from the
context which way the writer meant him to take. One politician writes
to another: "I ask you as the recognized leader of our party what you
think of this measure;" and nobody accuses the writer of presumption.
We might even pass over the following startling sentence without
observing the reflection which it casts on a respectable body of men:
Hence he considered marriage with a modern political
economist as dangerous.
But when we read that "the State may impose restrictions on the
mothers of young children employed in factories," we may well have
some doubt whether it is the mothers or the children who are employed
in factories. And it would not be easy to give an answer, if we were
asked to state the precise meaning of Gray's line:
And all the air a solemn stillness holds.
In longer and more involved sentences the risk of ambiguity is obviously
much greater. Now by the judicious use of points ambiguous language can
occasionally be made clear. "The mothers-of-young-children employed in
factories" is no doubt a bold form, but it leaves us in no doubt as to
the meaning. So the ambiguous word "too" does not embarrass us when we
read: "This problem, too, easy as it may seem, remains unsolved." (See
other examples under Rules XIV. and XV.) Only occasionally, however,
can clearness be secured by punctuation. No pointing can help us much in
Gray's line, or could have given to Pyrrhus the true reading of "Credo
te Æacida Romanos vincere posse." And, even where it would make the
meaning clear, it is a lazy device, the over-use of which is the sure
sign of careless or unskilful composition. The true remedy for ambiguity
is not punctuation, but re-writing.
Punctuation, it is sometimes said, serves to mark the pauses that
would be made in speaking. This is so far true; for by the pause we
arrange our spoken words into proper groups, thereby enabling our
hearers readily to seize the meaning. But between the punctuation of
the pen and that of the voice there is a great difference in degree.
By the voice we can express the most delicate shades of thought, while
only in the roughest way can the comma, the semicolon, and the other
points, imitate its effects. As to how far the attempt at imitation
should be carried, every writer will have to use his own discretion;
but, whether we point freely or sparingly, we must for the reader's
sake point consistently. It should at the same time be borne in mind
that the lavish use of points often leads to confusion.
_General Rules._--Keeping in view the use of punctuation, we can now
form two general rules to guide us when we are in doubt which point we
should insert, or whether we should insert a point at all.
(1) _The point that will keep the passage most free from
ambiguity, or make it easiest to read, is the right point to
use._
(2) _If the passage be perfectly free from ambiguity and be
not less easy to understand without any point, let no point
be used._
_The Relativity of Points._--In order to decide in any given case what
point ought to be used, we begin by considering the nature of the
pause in itself. But we must do more. We must consider how we have
pointed the rest of the passage. The pause that should be marked by a
comma in one case, may require a semicolon in another case; the colon
may take the place that the semicolon would generally fill. This will
be best understood by means of the examples that will afterwards be
given. (See Rules XXIII., XXV.)
_Usage._--Except within somewhat narrow limits, usage does not help us
much. Different writers have different methods, and few are
consistent. To some extent there is a fair degree of uniformity; for
instance, in the placing of colons before quotations, and in the use
of inverted commas. But in many cases there can hardly be said to be
any fixed usage, and in these we can freely apply the general rules
already laid down. Much might be said for a complete disregard of
usage, for a thorough recasting of our system of punctuation. Sooner
or later something must be done to relieve the overburdened comma of
part of the work which it is expected to perform. Not only is the
comma a less effective point than it might be, but the habit of using
it for so many purposes is exercising a really mischievous effect on
English style. In the meantime, and as a step towards a better system,
there is an evident advantage in giving to the existing vague usage a
more or less precise form. Nothing more than this has been aimed at in
the present work.
In giving rules of punctuation we cannot hope to deal with all, or
with nearly all, the cases that may arise in writing. Punctuation is
intimately connected with style. As forms of thought are infinite in
number, so are the modes of expression; and punctuation, adapting
itself to these, is an instrument capable of manipulation in a
thousand ways. We can therefore set forth only some typical cases,
forming a body of examples to which a little reflection will suggest a
variety both of applications and of exceptions.
It will be noticed that we do not take the points exactly in their
order of strength. It seemed better to deal with the full stop before
passing to the punctuation of the parts of a sentence. Again, it may
be said that, strictly speaking, italics do not form part of the
subject. But they are at any rate so intimately connected with it that
to have passed them over would have been merely pedantic. Even the
sections on references to notes and on the correction of proofs may
not be considered altogether out of place. As few grammatical terms as
possible have been made use of. Some have been found necessary in
order to secure the brevity of statement proper to a little work on a
little subject.
THE FULL STOP
I. A full stop is placed at the end of every sentence that is neither
exclamatory nor interrogative.
A penal statute is virtually annulled if the penalties which
it imposes are regularly remitted as often as they are
incurred. The sovereign was undoubtedly competent to remit
penalties without limit. He was, therefore, competent to
annul virtually a penal statute. It might seem that there
could be no serious objection to his doing formally what he
might do virtually.
How much should be put into a sentence is rather a matter of style
than of punctuation. The tendency of modern literature is in favour of
the short sentence. In the prose of Milton and of Jeremy Taylor, the
full stop does not come to release the thought till all the
circumstances have been grouped around it, and the necessary
qualifications made. In Macaulay the circumstances and the
qualifications are set out sentence by sentence. So the steps of
reasoning in the example which we have given are stated with that
distinct pause between each of them which the reader would make if he
thought them out for himself. They might be welded together thus:
Seeing that a penal statute is virtually annulled if the
penalties which it imposes are regularly remitted as often
as they are incurred, and seeing that the sovereign was
undoubtedly competent to remit penalties without limit, it
follows that he was competent to annul virtually a penal
statute; and it might seem that there could be no serious
objection to his doing formally what he might do virtually.
Both forms are correct in point of punctuation. Which is the better
form is a question of style. Take another example:
The sides of the mountain were covered with trees; the banks
of the brooks were diversified with flowers; every blast
shook spices from the rocks; and every mouth dropped fruits
upon the ground.
There is here an advantage in putting these four statements together,
instead of making four separate sentences. We can more easily combine
the details, and so form a single picture--a picture of fertility.
II. As a rule the full stop is not to be inserted till the sentence be
grammatically complete. But some parts of the sentence necessary to
make it grammatically complete may be left for the reader to supply.
It is well said, in every sense, that a man's religion is
the chief fact with regard to him. A man's or a nation of
men's. By religion I do not mean here the church-creed which
he professes, the articles of faith which he will sign and,
in words or otherwise, assert. Not this wholly, in many
cases not this at all.
III. When a sentence is purposely left unfinished, the dash takes the
place of the full stop. (See Rule XL.)
"Excuse me," said I, "but I am a sort of collector." "Not
Income-tax?" cried His Majesty, hastily removing his pipe
from his lips.
IV. A full stop is placed after most abbreviations, after initial
letters, and after ordinal numbers in Roman characters.
Gen. i. 20; two lbs.; A.D. 1883; 3 p.m.; &c., and etc.;
M.D., J. S. Mill; William III., King of England; MS., LL.D.
(not M.S. and L.L.D.).
Note that the use of the full stop in these cases does not prevent
another point from being used immediately after it. But if they occur
at the end of a sentence, another full stop is not added; or, more
correctly, it may be said that Rule IV. does not apply at the end of a
sentence.
"Mr," "Messrs," "Dr"--abbreviations which retain the last letter of
the whole word--are written without a point.
THE COMMA
V. The comma indicates a short pause in a sentence. It is used when we
wish to separate words that stand together, and at the same time to
stop as little as possible the flow of the sentence.
When the earl reached his own province, he found that
preparations had been made to repel him.
Though it is difficult, or almost impossible, to reclaim a
savage, bred from his youth to war and the chase, to the
restraints and the duties of civilized life, nothing is more
easy or common than to find men who have been educated in
all the habits and comforts of improved society, willing to
exchange them for the wild labours of the hunter and the
fisher.
VI. Where there is no danger of obscurity, the subject must not be
separated from the predicate by any point.
The eminence of your station gave you a commanding prospect
of your duty.
VII. When the subject is long, a comma may be placed after it.
To say that he endured without a murmur the misfortune that
now came upon him, is to say only what his previous life
would have led us to expect.
In every sentence the subject, whether expressed in one word or in
several words, must be grasped as a whole; and, when the subject is
long, one is often assisted in doing this by having a point to mark
its termination. The eye at once observes the separating line. Note
the corresponding pause in the reading of such sentences.
VIII. When the subject consists of several parts, _e.g._, of several
nouns, a comma is placed after the last part.
A few daring jests, a brawl, and a fatal stab, make up the
life of Marlowe.
Time, money, and friends, were needed to carry on the work.
This rule will appear reasonable if we consider an apparent exception
to it. When the last noun sums up all the others, or marks the highest
point of a climax, no comma is placed after it.
Freedom, honour, religion was at stake.
If "religion" be regarded as marking the highest point of a climax,
the predicate is read with "religion," and with it alone. When so
great a thing as religion is said to be at stake, everything else is
dropped out of sight, or is held to be included. But write the three
names as if they were of equal importance; the comma should then be
inserted:
Freedom, honour, and religion, were at stake.
But it is not necessary to use a point in such a sentence as this:
"Time and tide wait for no man." For we see without the aid of a point
that the predicate is to be read with the two nouns equally.
The principle might be applied also in cases like the following,
though few writers carry it so far:
It was the act of a high-spirited, generous, just nation.
It was the act of a high-spirited, generous, and just,
nation.
IX. Dependent clauses are generally separated from the rest of the
sentence in which they occur. The usual point is the comma.
Be his motives what they may, he must soon disperse his
followers.
This relation of your army to the crown will, if I am not
greatly mistaken, become a serious dilemma in your politics.
Of course, this rule must be qualified by the rules for the stronger
points, especially by those for the semicolon and the colon. It is
often necessary to separate the clause from the rest of the sentence
by a strong point.
EXCEPTIONS.--(I) No point is needed if either the dependent clause or
the principal clause be short.
He would be shocked if he were to know the truth.
But if the dependent clause be inserted parenthetically, it is marked
off by commas or the other marks of parenthesis, however short it may
be. (See Rule X.)
If the sentence last quoted were inverted, a comma would be placed
after the dependent clause.
If he were to know the truth, he would be shocked.
In the first form of this example, "he would be shocked" is a
definite, finished statement, the necessary qualification to which
should follow with as little pause as possible. But in the inverted
form, the first part of the sentence--"if he were to know the
truth"--is not a finished statement, and the mind may pause for a
moment before going on to the consequence, knowing that the
consequence must follow.
(2) No point is needed if there be a very close grammatical connection
between the dependent clause and some word or words preceding it.
They had so long brooded over their own distresses that they
knew nothing of how the world was changing around them.
Note that by the word "so" the clause "that they knew nothing" is
joined very closely to the previous part of the sentence; and that the
two clauses "that they knew nothing" and "how the world was changing
around them," are even more closely joined to one another by the
preposition "of." For the same reason, where the object is a clause,
there is no point before it.
He confessed to us that he had not thought over the matter.
A useful distinction will afterwards be drawn between the different
kinds of relative clauses. (Rule XIV.)
X. Words thrown in so as to interrupt slightly the flow of a sentence
are marked off by commas.
He resolved, therefore, to visit the prisoner early in the
morning.
This, I think, is the right view of the case.
The first ideas of beauty formed by the mind are, in all
probability, derived from colours.
The following are some of the words and phrases that come under this
rule: _therefore_, _too_, _indeed_, _however_, _moreover_, _then_,
_accordingly_, _consequently_; _in short_, _in fine_, _in truth_, _in
fact_, _to a certain extent_, _all things considered_.
This rule of high pointing should be applied very sparingly, and might
really be restricted to cases like the "I think" of the second
example. Nowadays the tendency is against the pointing of such words
as "therefore" and "indeed."
Where the words thrown in make a very distinct break in the sentence,
they should be pointed off by means of the dash or of brackets.
XI. Where two parts of a sentence have some words in common, which are
not expressed for each of them, but are given only when the words in
which they differ have been separately stated, the second part is
marked off by commas.
His classification is different from, and more comprehensive
than, any other which we have met.
This foundation is a nursing-mother of lay, as distinguished
from religious, oratorios.
These examples come within the principle of Rule X.
XII. When words are common to two or more parts of a sentence, and are
expressed only in one part, a comma is often used to show that they
are omitted in the other parts.
London is the capital of England; Paris, of France; Berlin,
of Germany.
In the worst volume of elder date, the historian may find
something to assist or direct his enquiries; the
antiquarian, something to elucidate what requires
illustration; the philologist, something to insert in the
margin of his dictionary.
Though many writers constantly punctuate contracted sentences in this
way, it is well not to insert the comma when the meaning is equally
clear without it. It is unnecessary in the following sentence:
Saul hath slain his thousands, and David his ten thousands.
XIII. Words placed out of their natural position in the sentence are
often followed by a comma.
(1) The object is usually placed after the verb; when placed at the
beginning of the sentence, it should be separated from the subject by
a comma, unless the meaning would otherwise be perfectly clear and be
readily seized.
The proportions of belief and of unbelief in the human mind
in such cases, no human judgment can determine.
There is the same reason for inserting the comma in such cases as
there is for inserting it after a long subject. Moreover, there is
often need of some device to remove the ambiguities that are caused by
inversion. In English, the meaning of words is so greatly determined
by their position that, in altering the usual arrangement of a
sentence, there is risk of being misunderstood. The danger of
inserting the point in this case is that the object may be read with
the words going before, and not with its own verb. If there is a
possibility of this, the point should not be used.
Of course no point should be placed after the object in such a
sentence as the following:--"One I love, and the other I hate."
(2) An adverbial phrase, that is a phrase used as an adverb, is
usually placed after the verb; when it begins the sentence, a comma
follows it unless it is very short.
From the ridge a little way to the east, one can easily
trace the windings of the river.
In order to gain his point, he did not hesitate to use
deception.
In ordinary circumstances I should have acted differently.
No point would be used in the above sentences, if the adverbial
phrases occurred in their usual position.
He did not hesitate to use deception in order to gain his
point.
Nor is any point used when, as often happens in such sentences, the
verb precedes the subject.
Not very far from the foot of the mountain lies the village
we hope to reach.
(3) An adjective phrase, that is a phrase used as an adjective, is
usually placed immediately after the word which it qualifies; when it
appears in any other place, a comma is often usefully placed before
it.
A question was next put to the assembly, of supreme
importance at such a moment.
The phrase "of supreme importance at such a moment" is to be taken
along with "question"; the comma shows that it is not to be taken
along with "assembly." There is here a further reason for the point,
inasmuch as the phrase acquires from its position almost the
importance of an independent statement. But, where the connexion
between the adjective phrase and the substantive is very close, and
where there is no risk of ambiguity, no point is to be used. "The
morning was come of a mighty day"--such a sentence needs no point.
Observe also that co-ordinate adjective phrases take a comma before
them, wherever they are placed. (See next rule.)
XIV. Adjective clauses and contracted adjective clauses are marked off
by commas, if they are used parenthetically or co-ordinately; no point
is used if they are used restrictively.[1]
The "Religio Laici," which borrows its title from the
"Religio Medici" of Browne, is almost the only work of
Dryden which can be considered as a voluntary effusion.
That sentiment of homely benevolence was worth all the
splendid sayings that are recorded of kings.
The advocates for this revolution, not satisfied with
exaggerating the vices of their ancient government, strike
at the fame of their country itself.
The ships bound on these voyages were not advertised.
Chapter VII., where we stopped reading, is full of interest.
The chapter where we stopped reading is full of interest.
We must explain this distinction at some length; for, on the one hand,
it is hardly ever observed, and, on the other hand, almost every
sentence that we write furnishes an example of it.
[Footnote 1: To distinguish the different kinds of adjective clauses,
different names have been used: "co-ordinating" and "restrictive"
(Bain); "continuative" and "definitive," or "restrictive" (Mason).]
Examine the first sentence which we have quoted. It contains both a
co-ordinate clause, "Which borrows its title," &c., and a restrictive
clause, "Which can be considered as a voluntary effusion." In
distinguishing them we may begin by applying tests of almost a
mechanical nature.
(_a_) The first clause may be thrown into the form of an independent
statement; the second cannot. Thus: "The 'Religio Laici' borrows its
title from the 'Religio Medici' of Browne. It is almost the only
work," &c.; or, "The 'Religio Laici' (it borrows its title from the
'Religio Medici' of Browne) is almost the only work," &c. We cannot in
the same way destroy the close connexion of the second clause with
"the only work of Dryden."
(_b_) The first clause may be omitted and still leave a complete and
intelligent sentence; if we were to omit the second clause, the
sentence would cease to have any meaning.
These tests may be practically useful; but they are rough and by no
means infallible. Let us see the reason for the distinction.
The name "Religio Laici" of itself tells us what thing is spoken
about. It is the name of one thing, and only of one thing. The clause
that follows informs us, indeed, of a fact concerning the poem; but
the information is given purely as information, not in order to keep
us from confounding this "Religio Laici" with some other "Religio
Laici" that did not borrow its title. "Work of Dryden," however, is
the name of a class, for Dryden wrote many works. Now the whole class
is not here in question; it must be limited, narrowed, or restricted,
to one part of it, namely Dryden's voluntary effusions; and it is thus
limited, narrowed, or restricted, by the relative clause "which can be
considered as a voluntary effusion."
Take another example, where the name in both cases is that of a class,
and note the difference of meaning which results from different
pointing:--"The houses in London which are badly built, ought to be
pulled down." "The houses in London" expresses a class of objects; the
relative clause limits the name to a smaller class, the badly built
houses; and the meaning is, that houses of this smaller class ought to
be pulled down. Now insert the comma:--"The houses in London, which
are badly built, ought to be pulled down." The class is not narrowed;
and the meaning is, that all houses in London, seeing they are badly
built, ought to be pulled down.
The difference between the two kinds of relative clauses being
understood, there will be no difficulty in applying the rule where an
adjective clause is contracted. Compare the fourth example given under
the rule with the following sentence:--"People not satisfied with
their present condition, should strive to alter it." In this sentence
"not satisfied" limits the general name "people"; the advice is given
only to one section of the people: the dissatisfied as distinguished
from the satisfied people.
So a single adjective may be used co-ordinately:
"What!" replied the Emperor, "you do not see it? It is my
star, brilliant."
This is a case where a dash would be more expressive.
Note that the rule applies only where the adjunct immediately follows
the substantive. If the adjunct is placed elsewhere, different
considerations apply. See Rule XIII. (3).
Neither can any man marvel at the play of puppets, that
goeth behind the curtain and adviseth well of the motion.
XV. Words in apposition are generally marked off by commas.
James Watt, the great improver of the steam-engine, died on
the 25th of August, 1819.
But where the words in apposition are used in a limiting or
distinguishing sense, the principle of Rule XIV. applies, and no point
is used. Thus we should write "Burns, the poet," "Dickens, the
novelist"; but, if we wished to distinguish them from another Burns
and another Dickens, we should omit the comma.
It is of Pliny the naturalist, not of Pliny the
letter-writer, that we are now speaking.
Again, where the general name precedes, we should in most cases use no
point, for the special name will be restrictive: "the poet Burns,"
"the novelist Dickens."
There is, perhaps, not much authority for the consistent carrying out
of this distinction; but it seems useful and logical. Some cases, such
as "Paul the Apostle," "William the Conqueror," "Thomas the Rhymer,"
"Peter the Hermit," present no difficulty. The name and the
descriptive title are blended together, and form as distinctly one
name as does "Roderick Random."
XVI. A conjunction marks a transition to something new--enforcing,
qualifying, or explaining, what has gone before, and is therefore
generally preceded by some point. The proper point before a
conjunction is determined by many circumstances: among others, by the
more or less close connexion of the things joined, by the number of
words, and by the use of points for other purposes in the same
sentence. To deal with the different conjunctions one by one, would
involve a repetition of much that is said in other rules. For
instance, _if_, _unless_, _though_, _for_, _because_, _since_, and the
like, will be pointed in accordance with Rule IX. It will be well,
however, to lay down separate rules for the pointing of the common
conjunctions, _and_ and _or_.
1. _AND._--(a) Where "and" joins two single words, as a rule no point
is used.
No work has been so much studied and discussed.
Compare this with the following sentence, where groups of words are
joined.
The work has been much studied, and has been much discussed.
In the following sentence the insertion of a comma would change the
meaning.
On this shelf you will put books and pamphlets published in
the present year.
As the sentence stands, "published in the present year" applies both
to books and to pamphlets: books published in the present year, and
pamphlets published in the present year. If there were a comma before
"and," the meaning would be: "On this shelf you will put books of any
date, and pamphlets of the present year."
(b) When "and" joins the separate words of a series of three or more
words, a comma is placed before it.
Trees, and bridges, and houses, were swept down by the
flooded stream.
(c) But where the different words are intended to be combined quickly,
so as to present to the mind only one picture, they would be spoken
without any pause, and in writing must not be separated by any point.
Whirling and boiling and roaring like thunder, the stream
came down upon them.
(d) Two of the words of the series may be more closely connected with
one another than with the other words of the series, and are,
therefore, not to be separated by any point.
In the following sentence, "all" qualifies both "tracts" and
"pamphlets," and thus joins them closely.
My unbound books, and all my tracts and pamphlets, are to be
tied up with pink tape.
(e) When "and" occurs only between the two last words of the series,
the comma is usually inserted before it.
Trumpets, drums, and kettle-drums, contended in noise with
the shouts of a numerous rabble.
Many writers omit this comma. But it seems useful in order to make the
previous rule (_d_) effective.
2. When "and" joins two phrases, a comma generally precedes it.
The ceremony was performed in the accustomed manner, and
with due solemnity.
If, as in the following sentence, a preposition is common to two
phrases, and is not repeated in the second, no comma is used.
With proper care and good instruments, the work may be
successfully carried out.
3. When "and" joins two clauses, the preceding point may be the
comma, the semicolon, or even the full stop. Which point is right in
any particular case, will depend upon considerations set out in other
rules.
The following example illustrates different cases:
Within that charmed rock, so Torridge boatmen tell, sleeps
now the old Norse Viking in his leaden coffin, with all his
fairy treasure and his crown of gold; and, as the boy looks
at the spot, he fancies, and almost hopes, that the day may
come when he shall have to do his duty against the invader
as boldly as the men of Devon did then. And past him, far
below, upon the soft south-eastern breeze, the stately ships
go sliding out to sea.
_OR._--The rules for the conjunction "and" apply with little change to
the conjunction "or"; but there are one or two special points to note.
(a) When "or" is preceded at no great distance by "either" or
"whether," the two words should be separated by no point.
They must either yield this point or resign.
It does not matter whether we go or stay.
But a point is inserted if the words stand farther apart, or if each
is followed by a complete clause.
Either this road leads to the town, or we have misunderstood
the directions.
(b) "Or," joining two alternatives, takes no point before it; but when
it joins two words that are used, not as real alternatives, but as
synonyms, a comma is inserted.
England or France might be asked to join the alliance.
Here "or" is used as a real alternative conjecture, and therefore
without any point. In the following examples, the "or" joins
equivalent expressions:
England, or the nation of shopkeepers, would never be asked
to join such an alliance.
We perceive, or are conscious of, nothing but changes, or
events.
As a reason for the insertion of the comma in these two examples, it
may be said that the repetition of an idea already expressed does for
a moment stop the flow of the sentence. A real alternative, on the
other hand, forms an essential part of it, and is within its current.
XVII. In cases where no point would be used before a conjunction, a
comma is inserted if the conjunction be omitted.
I pay this tribute to the memory of that noble, reverend,
learned, excellent person.
In the following examples no point occurs; for it cannot be said that
a conjunction is omitted. To insert the conjunction would be to
express a slightly different shade of meaning:
A grand old man.
Three tall young soldiers.
"Old man" is virtually a single word and in fact many languages use
only a single word to express the idea.
XVIII. Where a comma would be used if the conjunction were expressed,
some stronger point may be used if it be omitted.
Let us get an American revenue as we have got an American
Empire. English privileges have made it all that it is;
English privileges alone will make it all that it can be.
XIX. A comma is placed after a noun or a pronoun in the vocative case,
if a mark of exclamation be not used, or be reserved till the first
distinct pause in the sentence.
Yet I own, my lord, that yours is not an uncommon character.
I am, Sir, yours truly, John Smith.
O Italy, gather thy blood into thy heart!
O Thou, who in the heavens dost dwell!
Whether a comma or a mark of exclamation ought to be used after the
vocative case, depends entirely on the degree of emphasis with which
the words would be spoken. If, in speaking, a slight pause would be
made, the comma, not the mark of exclamation, is the proper point.
XX. If a word be repeated in order to give it intensive force, a comma
follows it each time that it occurs; but, in the case of an adjective
repeated before a noun, not after the last expression of it.
It was work, work, work, from morning till night.
He travelled a long, long way.
Dean Alford, in "The Queen's English," says that this mode of pointing
such expressions as "the wide wide world," "the deep deep sea," makes
them absolute nonsense. The suggestion of a pause seems to us to bring
out more effectively the intensive force of the repetition. And we
doubt whether Dean Alford himself would have omitted the comma in our
first example.
THE SEMICOLON
XXI. The semicolon is the point usually employed to separate parts of
a sentence between which there is a very distinct break, but which are
too intimately connected to be made separate sentences.
The patient dates his pleasure from the day when he feels
that his cure has begun; and, perhaps, the day of his
perfect re-establishment does not yield him pleasure so
great.
The author himself is the best judge of his own performance;
no one has so deeply meditated on the subject; no one is so
sincerely interested in the event.
Not one word is said, nor one suggestion made, of a general
right to choose our own governors; to cashier them for
misconduct; and to form a government for ourselves.
The semicolon is used in enumerations, as in the last example, in
order to keep the parts more distinctly separate.
XXII. When a sentence consists of two or more independent clauses not
joined by conjunctions, the clauses are separated by semicolons.
To command a crime is to commit one; he who commands an
assassination, is by every one regarded as an assassin.
His knowledge was too multifarious to be always exact; his
pursuits were too eager to be always cautious.
If the conjunction "and" were inserted in the last sentence, the comma
would be used instead of the semicolon. A conjunction forms a bridge
over the gap between two statements, and, where they are neither long
nor complicated, we pass from one to the other without noticing any
distinct break. But there is such a break when the conjunction is
omitted, and therefore we use a stronger point. The two parts of an
antithesis are generally separated in this way.
XXIII. A pause generally indicated by a comma may be indicated by a
semicolon when commas are used in the sentence for other purposes.
(See _Introduction: Relativity of Points_.)
I got several things of less value, but not all less useful
to me, which I omitted setting down before: as, in
particular, pens, ink, and paper; several parcels in the
captain's, mate's, gunner's, and carpenter's keeping; three
or four compasses, some mathematical instruments, dials,
perspectives, charts, and books of navigation.
In this I was certainly in the wrong too, the honest,
grateful creature having no thought but what consisted of
the best principles, both as a religious Christian and as a
grateful friend; as appeared afterward to my full
satisfaction.
In the first sentence the semicolon enables us to group the objects
enumerated. Had commas been used throughout, the reader would have
been left to find out the arrangement for himself.
THE COLON
XXIV. The colon is used to indicate pauses more abrupt than those
indicated by the semicolon.
God has willed it: submit in thankfulness.
The wind raged, and the rain beat against the window: it was
a miserable day.
Nevertheless, you will say that there must be a difference
between true poetry and true speech not poetical: what is
the difference?
The first example contains two clauses that are connected in such a
way as to justify us in putting them into one sentence; that it is
God's will, is a reason for submitting. The proper point therefore
should be something less than the full stop. But there is a striking
difference between the clauses; for we pass from an affirmation to a
command. Therefore something more than the semicolon is needed. Had
the clauses been similar in construction, the pause would have been
sufficiently indicated by the semicolon: "God has willed it; man has
resisted."
In the second example there is not the same change of grammatical
construction, but the change in thought is equally great; we pass from
a statement of details to a statement of the general result. The colon
is frequently used in sentences of this kind, where the phrase "in
short" is implied but is not expressed.
Many writers indicate such abrupt changes by means of the dash.
XXV. A pause generally indicated by a semicolon may be indicated by a
colon, when the semicolon is used in the sentence for pauses of a
different nature.
The "Essay" plainly appears the fabric of a poet: what
Bolingbroke supplied could be only the first principles; the
order, illustration, and embellishments, must all be Pope's.
Not that we are to think that Homer wanted judgment, because
Virgil had it in a more eminent degree; or that Virgil
wanted invention, because Homer possessed a larger share of
it: each of these great authors had more of both than,
perhaps, any man besides, and are only said to have less in
comparison with one another.
Homer hurries and transports us with a commanding
impetuosity; Virgil leads us with an attractive majesty:
Homer scatters with a generous profusion; Virgil bestows
with a careful magnificence.
Compare these examples with those given to show how the semicolon
replaces the comma. (Rule XXIII.) Note also how the last sentence is
divided in the middle into two parts, and that each of these two parts
is itself divided into two parts. By Rule XXII. the second division is
indicated by the semicolon; and we bring out the grouping of the
sentence by using a colon for the first division.
XXVI. The colon is used before enumerations, especially where
"namely," or "viz.," is implied but is not expressed; and when so used
it is sometimes followed by the dash.
Three nations adopted this law: England, France, and
Germany.
One thing thou lackest: go thy way, sell whatsoever thou
hast, and give to the poor.
Dr Johnson's chief works are the following:--"Rasselas," The
Dictionary, "The Lives of the Poets," and "The Vanity of
Human Wishes."
When, as in the last example, a list of things is given in a formal
way, the dash is generally added. The combination of the two points is
partly an attempt to find a point stronger than the colon and not so
strong as the full stop, partly, perhaps, an imitation of a
finger-post.
XXVII. The colon is generally placed before a quotation, when notice
of the quotation is given by some introductory words. In this case
also the dash is sometimes used.
In this passage exception may fairly be taken to one short
sentence, that in which he says: "The law ought to forbid
it, because conscience does not permit it."
On the last morning of his life he wrote these words:--"I
have named none to their disadvantage. I thank God He hath
supported me wonderfully."
The colon and the dash are used together where the quotation is
introduced by formal words such as the following:--"He spoke these
words," "he spoke as follows," "he made this speech." But, in the
first sentence quoted above, the introductory words are grammatically
incomplete without the quotation, which forms the object of the verb
"says"; the colon accordingly is the strongest point that can be used.
Sometimes the connexion between the introductory words and the
quotation may be so close, or the quotation itself may be so short, as
to make the comma sufficient.
He kept repeating to us, "The world has sadly changed."
Short phrases quoted in the course of the sentence need not have any
point before them.
It was a usual saying of his own, that he had "no genius for
friendship."
XXVIII. The colon may be placed after such words and phrases as the
following, when used in marking a new stage in an argument:--Again,
further, to proceed, to sum up, to resume.
To sum up: If you will conform to the conditions I have
mentioned, I will sign the agreement.
But to bring this sermon to its proper conclusion: If
Astrea, or Justice, never finally took her leave of the
world till the day that, &c.
After these words, we have a choice of the comma, the colon, and the
full stop. The comma will generally be used if the argument be
contained in a single sentence; the full stop, if the argument be of
very considerable length.
THE POINT OF INTERROGATION
XXIX. The point of interrogation is placed after a direct question.
Where are you going, my pretty maid?
Whether of them twain did the will of his father?
The question may end in the middle of a sentence:
Is he happy? you ask.
We have sometimes the choice of putting the point of interrogation in
the middle or at the end of the sentence.
You would not consent to that, by whomsoever proposed.
You would not consent to that?--by whomsoever proposed.
There is a slight shade of difference in meaning; in the second form,
"by whomsoever proposed" is added as an afterthought.
XXX. Indirect questions are not strictly questions at all, and
therefore should not be followed by a point of interrogation.
He asked me whether I had seen his friend; whether I had
spoken to him; and how I liked him.
If we restore these questions to the direct form, the point of
interrogation is inserted.
He asked me: "Have you seen my friend? Have you spoken to
him? How do you like him?"
XXXI. When a sentence contains more than one question, sometimes the
point of interrogation is placed after each of them, sometimes it is
placed only at the end of the sentence. It is placed after each, if
each is in reality a distinct question; it is placed only at the end,
if the separate questions so unite as to need but a single answer.
In many cases it will be a matter of individual taste to say whether
they do so unite.
Is it better that estates should be held by those who have
no duty than by those who have one? by those whose character
and destination point to virtues than by those who have no
rule and direction in the expenditure of their estates but
their own will and appetite?
Do you imagine that it is the Land Tax Act which raises your
revenue, that it is the annual vote in the Committee of
Supply which gives you your army, or that it is the Mutiny
Bill which inspires it with bravery and discipline? No!
surely no!
Oh! why should Hymen ever blight
The roses Cupid wore?
Or why should it be ever night
Where it was day before?
Or why should women have a tongue,
Or why should it be cursed,
In being, like my Second, long,
And louder than my First?
XXXII. Exclamations in an interrogative form take a mark of
exclamation after them, not a point of interrogation. (See Rule XXXV.)
XXXIII. A point of interrogation enclosed within brackets is sometimes
used to indicate that there is a doubt whether the statement preceding
it is true, or whether the expression preceding it is well applied,
or that some statement or expression is made or used ironically.
While you are revelling in the delights (?) of the London
season, I am leading a hermit life, with no companions save
my books.
THE MARK OF EXCLAMATION
XXXIV. The mark of exclamation is placed after interjections and words
used interjectionally; that is to say, after expressions of an
exclamatory nature. The exclamation may be one of surprise or of fear,
or the utterance of a wish, a command, or a prayer.
Quick! Begone! Out of my sight!
Heaven preserve us!
Would that better feelings moved them!
O Lord, be merciful unto me, a sinner!
Interjections are not always followed immediately, and are sometimes
not allowed at all, by a mark of exclamation. No rule can be given
more precise than this: (1) That we should not insert a mark of
exclamation immediately after an interjection, unless we should make a
distinct pause after it in speaking; and (2) that no mark of
exclamation is to be used at all, unless the exclamatory nature of the
sentence is more or less strongly marked. It is useful to notice the
difference between "O" and "Oh." The former is used only before the
vocative case, and never has a mark of exclamation, or indeed any
point, placed immediately after it.
Alas! all our hopes are blasted.
Lo, he cometh!
O Dido, Dido, most unhappy Dido!
Unhappy wife, still more unhappy widow!
Oh, do not reckon that old debt to my account to-day!
XXXV. The mark of exclamation is placed after sentences which, though
interrogatory in form, are really exclamatory.
How could he have been so foolish!
And shall he never see an end to this state of things! Shall
he never have the due reward of labour! Shall unsparing
taxation never cease to make him a miserable dejected being,
a creature famishing in the midst of abundance, fainting,
expiring with hunger's feeble moan, surrounded by a
carolling creation!
This rule might be put in another way by saying that a mark of
exclamation, and not a point of interrogation, is placed after what
are called rhetorical questions, or statements made more striking by
being put in the form of questions. They are not asked for the sake of
receiving a direct answer, and are in reality exclamations. Still all
rhetorical questions are not thus punctuated; the point of
interrogation is sometimes more effective. The sentences quoted under
Rule XXXI. would lose much of their force if marks of exclamation were
used. In each case we must decide whether the sentence strikes us most
as a question or as the expression of emotion.
XXXVI. The mark of exclamation is sometimes placed after an ironical
statement.