HISTORICAL SKETCH.
Although the written history of the Hawaiian Islands begins with their
discovery by Captain Cook in 1778, yet the aboriginal inhabitants had at
that time an oral traditional history which extended back for several
centuries.
ORIGIN.
As to their origin, these people formed but one branch of the Polynesian
race, which at a remote period settled all the groups of islands in the
central and Eastern Pacific, as far as New Zealand in the South and
Easter Island in the East. This is shown by the close physical and moral
resemblance between their inhabitants, as well as by the facts that they
all speak dialects of the same language, and have the same manners and
customs, the same general system of tabus, and similar traditions and
religious rites.
The evidence of both language and physical traits tends to show that
their remote ancestors came from the East Indian Archipelago, and that
they were still more distantly related to the pre-Arian races of
Hindostan.
It is also proved by concurrent traditions of the different groups that
there was a general movement of population throughout central Polynesia
during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries of the Christian Era, during
which the Harvey Islands and afterwards New Zealand were colonized, and
many voyages were made between the Hawaiian Islands and the Samoan and
Society groups. This intercourse, however, seems to have ceased for four
or five hundred years before the arrival of Captain Cook.
ARTS AND MANUFACTURES.
The ancient Hawaiians were not savages, in the proper sense of the term,
but barbarians of a promising type. When we consider that they occupied
the most isolated position in the world, and that they were destitute of
metals and of beasts of burden, as well as of the cereal grains, cotton,
flax and wool, we must admit that they had made a creditable degree of
progress towards civilization. Like the other Polynesians, they had not
invented the art of making pottery, or the use of the loom for weaving.
Their cutting tools were made of stone, sharks' teeth or bamboo. Their
axes were made of hard, fine grained lava, chiefly found on the mountain
summits. Their principal implement for cultivating the soil was simply a
stick of hard wood, either pointed or shaped into a flat blade at the
end. With these rude tools they cut and framed the timbers for their
houses, which were oblong with long sides and steep roofs, and were
thatched with _pili_ grass, ferns or _hala_ leaves. In the building as
well as in the management of canoes they were unsurpassed. For
containers they used a large gourd (_cucurbita maxima_, which was not
found elsewhere in the Pacific), and also cut out circular dishes of
wood as truly as if they had been turned in a lathe.
For clothing they beat out the inner bark of the paper mulberry and of
some other trees, until it resembled thick flexible paper, when it was
called _kapa_ or _tapa_. For insignia of rank, they made splendid
feather cloaks, and feather helmets, which were worn only by chiefs.
For lights they used the oily nuts of the _kukui_ or candle-nut tree.
For food they chiefly depended upon the tuberous roots of the _taro_
plant (_Colocasia antiquorum_), but sweet potatoes were cultivated in
the dry districts, and yams in Kauai and Niihau. They also cultivated
bananas and sugar cane and the _awa_ or _kava_ plant for its narcotic
properties.
Fishing was carried on with great ingenuity and skill. Extensive fish
ponds were built along the coasts, which must have cost immense labor.
Their food was cooked then, as now, by steaming it in an _imu_ or
underground oven with heated stones. Fire was produced by friction,
viz., by rubbing a hard, pointed stick in a groove made in a piece of
softer wood, until the little heap of fine powder collected at the end
of the groove took fire.
There was no circulating medium which served the purpose of money, and
all trade was conducted by barter.
CIVIL POLITY.
The civil polity of the ancient Hawaiians was far more despotic than
that of any other Polynesian tribe. The community was divided into three
classes, namely:
1. The nobility or _Alii_ (N. Z. _Ariki_), comprising the kings and
chiefs of various grades of rank.
2. The priests, _Kahuna_ (N. Z. _Tahunga_), including priests, sorcerers
and doctors.
3. The common people, _Makaainana_, or laboring class.
There was a wide and impassable gulch between the chiefs and common
people. In fact, the distinction between them was primarily of a sacred
and religious character. The chief was believed to be descended from the
gods, and to be allied to the invisible powers.
The contrast in stature and appearance as well as in bearing between the
chiefs and common people was very striking. Only a chief had the right
to wear the feather cloak and helmet, or the ivory clasp, _Niho Palaoa_;
his canoe and his sails were painted red, and on state occasions he was
attended by men carrying _kahilis_ or plumed staffs of various colors.
When the highest chiefs appeared abroad, all the common people
prostrated themselves with their faces upon the ground. It was death for
a common man to remain standing at the mention of the king's name in
song, or when the king's food, water or clothing was carried past; to
put on any article of dress belonging to him, to enter his enclosure
without permission, or to cross his shadow or that of his house. If a
common man entered the dread presence of the sovereign, he must crawl
prone on the ground, _kolokolo_, and leave in the same manner.
The head chief of an island was styled the _Moi_, and his dignity was
generally hereditary. There were usually at least four independent
kinglets in the group, and sometimes the single Island of Hawaii was
divided between several independent chiefs.
LAND TENURE.
As a rule, the chiefs were the only proprietors of the soil. They were
supposed to own not only the soil and all that grew upon it, not only
the fish of the sea, but also the time and labor of their people.
The accepted theory was that all the lands belonged to the king, of whom
they were held by the high chiefs in fief; _i. e._, on condition of
rendering him tribute and military service. Each of these district
chieftains divided up his territory among an inferior order of petty
chiefs, who owed to him the same service and obedience that he owed to
the king.
In this way the land was subdivided again and again, while at the bottom
of the scale were the miserable serfs who tilled the soil. These last
were simply tenants at will, liable to be dispossessed of their little
holdings at any time, or to be stripped of their personal property at
the requisition of the chief.
WAR.
Wars were frequent and cruel. There were numerous wars to settle the
succession to the sovereignty of an Island, as well as contests between
the head chiefs of the principal Islands. For example, the chiefs of
Oahu often contended with those of Maui for the possession of Molokai,
and there were frequent wars between the chiefs of Hawaii and those of
Maui for the district of Hana.
Their weapons consisted of long spears, _pololu_; javelins, _ihe_;
daggers, _pahoa_, and clubs made of hard wood. They never used the bow
in war, but slings made of cocoanut fiber or human hair were extensively
employed. They used no shields, but became wonderfully expert in
catching or parrying spears thrown at them.
Sometimes they engaged in sea fights, with large fleets of canoes
on each side. In general no quarter was given to the vanquished, but
there were certain sanctuaries called _puuhonuas_, which afforded an
inviolable refuge in time of war. Cannibalism was regarded by them with
horror and detestation.
RELIGION.
The religious system of the ancient Hawaiians was very similar to that
of other Polynesians. It consisted in a great measure of nature worship.
To their minds all the powers of nature, especially those that are
mysterious and terrible, were conceived of as living and spiritual
beings. Thus the volcano, the thunder, the whirlwind, the meteor and the
shark were feared as being either the embodiment or the work of
malevolent spirits (_akuas_).
The four great gods, Kane, Kanaloa, Ku and Lono, who were worshiped
throughout Polynesia, originally belonged to this class, as is shown by
the cosmogony of the New Zealand Maoris. Among these four Kane held the
primacy. The souls of great chiefs went to his abode after death.
Pele, the dread goddess of volcanoes, and her numerous family, dwelt in
the crater of Kilauea, but also caused the eruptions of Mauna Loa and
Hualalai. In Hawaii she was feared more than any other deity.
One large class of _akuas_ were supposed to be incarnated in certain
species of animals, which were feared or believed to have a supernatural
character, as the shark.
Another class of deities, which included most of the professional gods,
consisted of deified spirits of the dead. The _Aumakuas_ were tutelar
deities, attached to particular families, who were often deified
ancestors. Sickness and disease were generally caused by their
displeasure.
CEREMONIAL SYSTEM.
There were two hereditary orders of priests, endowed with lands, who
kept up the elaborate liturgy and ritual of the temples, and also
preserved whatever knowledge of astronomy, history, medicine, etc., had
been handed down to them.
The tabu system covered the entire daily life of the people with a vast
network of minute regulations and penalties. Thus, it was tabu for men
and women to eat together, or even to have their food cooked in the same
oven. Women were forbidden to eat pork, bananas, cocoanuts, or turtle
and certain kinds of fish, on pain of death. There were certain tabu
days when no canoe could be launched, no fire lighted, and when no sound
could be made, on pain of death. Even dogs had to be muzzled and fowls
shut up in calabashes for twenty-four hours at a time.
The human sacrifice was the crowning act of the ancient worship, offered
only on certain solemn occasions, and at the temples (_Heiaus_) of the
highest class.
Whenever a temple was to be dedicated, a new house to be built for the
chief, or a new war canoe to be launched, many of the people fled to the
mountains and lay hidden till the danger was past.
Besides the regular priesthood, there were many kinds of medicine men,
necromancers or mediums, sorcerers and diviners, who preyed upon the
superstition and credulity of their countrymen. The belief that all
forms of disease were caused by evil spirits, and their fear of being
"prayed to death" (_anaana_), kept the people in a state of abject fear.
There is too much reason to believe that during several centuries
preceding the discovery of the Islands they had been deteriorating in
many respects. As the historian Fornander has stated:
"It was an era of strife, dynastic ambitions, internal and external wars
on each Island, with all their deteriorating consequences of anarchy,
depopulation, social and intellectual degradation, loss of liberty, loss
of knowledge, loss of arts."
DISCOVERY OF THE ISLANDS.
It seems to be almost certain that one Juan Gaetano, a Spanish
navigator, saw Hawaii in 1555 A. D. A group of islands, the largest of
which was called La Mesa, was laid down in the old Spanish charts in the
same latitude as the Hawaiian Islands, but 10 degrees too far east.
On the eighteenth of January, 1778, Captain Cook, the great navigator,
while sailing due north from the Society Islands, discovered the Islands
of Oahu and Kauai. The next day he landed at Waimea, Kauai, where he
held friendly intercourse with the natives, and afterwards laid in
supplies at Niihau. He finally sailed for Alaska, Feb. 2d. The Hawaiians
looked upon him as an incarnation of the god Lono, and upon his crew as
supernatural beings. Returning from the Arctic the following winter, he
anchored in Kealakekua bay, January 17th, 1779. Here he received
divine honors and was loaded with munificent presents of the best that
the islands could produce. By his rash and arbitrary conduct, however,
he involved himself in an affray with the natives, in which he was
killed on February 14th, 1779.
The spot where he fell is now marked by an appropriate monument.
[Illustration: LUNALILO HOME, FOR AGED HAWAIIANS.]
[Illustration: KAMEHAMEHA SCHOOL.]
EARLY TRADERS.
For seven years after the death of Captain Cook no foreign vessel
ventured to touch at the Islands. After that time many of the vessels
engaged in the fur trade on the northwest coast of America called at the
Islands for supplies on their way to Canton or ran down here to spend
the winter. Waimea, Kauai, and Kealakekua bay were the two harbors most
frequented by them. Fire arms, powder and shot were the articles most in
demand among the natives.
THE RISE OF KAMEHAMEHA.
At the death of Kalaniopuu, _Moi_, of Hawaii, in 1782, a civil war broke
out, which rent the Island into three petty sovereignties, which were
presently reduced to two.
The districts of Kohala and Kona were held by Kamehameha, a nephew of
the late king, while the other districts were loyal to his son, Keoua.
After a sanguinary war lasting nine years (during which Kamehameha had
ravaged West Maui and conquered the district of Hamakua), he became
master of the whole of the Island of Hawaii by the assassination of his
rival, Keoua, at Kawaihae, in 1791.
VISITS OF VANCOUVER.
The name of Capt. George Vancouver is still cherished as that of a wise
and generous benefactor to these Islands. During his survey of the
northwest coast of America in 1792-1794, he made three visits to the
Islands. He uniformly refused to sell fire arms or ammunition to the
chiefs, but gave them useful plants and seeds, and presented Kamehameha
with the first cattle and sheep ever landed in the Islands. On the 25th
of February, 1794, Kamehameha and his chiefs voluntarily placed Hawaii
under the protection of Great Britain, in token of which the British
flag was hoisted on shore at Kealakekua.
CONQUEST OF OAHU.
After the death of Kahekili, the sovereign of the leeward Islands, in
1794, a civil war broke out between his brother Kaeo and his son
Kalanikupule, in which the former was killed. Soon after Kalanikupule
treacherously massacred Captains Brown and Gordon, who had assisted him
in the late war, and seized their vessels in the harbor of Honolulu.
Having put his guns and ammunition on board, he proposed to sail
immediately for Hawaii, in company with a fleet of war canoes, to attack
Kamehameha. But the English sailors who had been reserved to navigate
the two vessels, suddenly rose at midnight, recaptured them, and sailed
for Hawaii, where they informed Kamehameha of all that had occurred.
Kamehameha saw that his opportunity had now come, and lost no time in
mustering all the war canoes and fighting men of Hawaii.
After overrunning West Maui and touching at Molokai, he landed in
Waialea bay, Oahu, in the latter part of April, 1795. There he spent a
few days in organizing his army before marching up the valley of Nuuanu,
where Kalanikupule had prepared to make his last stand. The Oahu
warriors were soon routed and pursued up the valley. Some of the
fugitives were hemmed in and driven over the "_Pali_," or precipice, at
the head of Nuuanu, a little north of the present road.
This victory made Kamehameha master of all the Islands except Kauai and
Niihau. With the exception of a short insurrection in Hawaii, there was
peace during the rest of his reign.
DECREASE OF POPULATION.
The decrease of the population during this period must have been very
rapid. Vancouver in 1792, Broughton in 1796, and Trumbull in 1801, were
strongly impressed with the misery of the common people and their rapid
decrease in numbers. This was partly the result of wars, but was still
more due to the diseases and vices introduced by foreigners. In the
summer of 1804 a pestilence, supposed to have been the cholera, carried
off half of the population of Oahu. Botany Bay convicts had introduced
the art of distilling liquor before the year 1800, and drunkenness had
become very prevalent.
THE SANDAL-WOOD TRADE.
During the first quarter of the present century the sandal-wood trade
was at its height. This wood was in great request at Canton, where it
was sold for incense and the manufacture of fancy articles. It was
purchased by the picul of 133-1/2 pounds, the price varying from eight
to ten dollars for the picul. This wood, while it lasted, was a mine of
wealth for the chiefs, by means of which they were enabled to buy fire
arms, liquor, boats and schooners, as well as silks and other Chinese
goods, for which they paid exorbitant prices.
THE CESSION OF KAUAI.
In March, 1810, Kaumualii, the last King of Kauai, visited Honolulu in
the ship Albatross, Capt. Nathan Winship, in order to have an interview
with Kamehameha. It was then arranged between the two chiefs that
Kaumualii should continue to hold his Island in fief of Kamehameha
during his life-time, on condition of paying tribute.
RUSSIAN AGGRESSIONS.
During the year 1815 a Dr. Scheffer was sent to the Islands by Baranoff,
the Russian Governor of Alaska. He built a fort at Waimea, for
Kaumualii, on which the Russian colors were displayed, and urged him to
place himself under the protection of Russia. On hearing of this,
Kamehameha sent a large force to Honolulu, where a substantial fort was
built during the year 1816. He also sent orders to Kaumualii to expel
Dr. Scheffer, which was done.
DEATH OF KAMEHAMEHA.
Kamehameha I. died on May 8th, 1819, at Kailua, Hawaii. His work was
done. He had consolidated the group under a strong government, put an
end to feudal anarchy and petty wars, and thus prepared the way for
civilization and Christianity.
ABOLITION OF IDOLATRY.
In accordance with his will, his eldest son, Liholiho, was installed as
king, with the title of Kamehameha II., and Kaahumanu, his favorite
queen, as premier, to exercise equal powers with the young prince, whose
dissolute and reckless character is well known.
Their first important act was the abolition of the tabu system, which
took place at a great feast held at Kailua in October, 1819, at which men
and women ate together in public for the first time. This was followed by
the general burning of idols and temples throughout the group.
Kekuaokalani, a cousin of Liholiho, put himself at the head of the
adherents of the ancient faith, but was defeated and slain in the battle
of Kuamoo, fought about December 20th, 1819.
THE ARRIVAL OF THE AMERICAN MISSIONARIES.
The pioneer company of American missionaries to these Islands arrived at
Kailua, April 4th, 1820. They soon reduced the language to writing and
commenced printing the first book in January, 1822. They found in the
Hawaiians an amiable and highly receptive race, eager for knowledge and
easily influenced for good or evil. The principal opposition to reform
was made by foreigners.
THE WHALING FLEET.
The first whale ship called at Honolulu in 1820, and was soon followed
by many others. Their number soon increased to 100 every year, and the
furnishing of supplies for them became the chief resource of the
Islands, as the sandal-wood became exhausted.
DEATH OF LIHOLIHO.
The young king, accompanied by his wife and six chiefs, embarked for
England, November 27, 1823, on an English whale ship. On their arrival
in London they received the utmost hospitality and courtesy, but in a
few weeks the whole party was attacked by the measles, of which the king
and queen both died.
REBELLION ON KAUAI.
Meanwhile, on the death of Kaumualii, a rebellion broke out in Kauai,
led by his son, Humehume. A desperate assault was made on the fort at
Waimea, which was repulsed with loss. Over 1,000 warriors were sent down
from Oahu and Maui, and a battle was fought near Hanapepe, August 18th,
1824, in which the rebels were routed.
VISIT OF LORD BYRON.
The frigate "Blonde," commanded by Lord Byron, cousin of the poet of
that name, was commissioned to convey the remains of the late king and
queen, together with their retinue, back to their native land. It
arrived at Honolulu, May 6th, 1825, when the royal remains were
deposited in a mausoleum with impressive funeral ceremonies.
Kauikeaouli, the younger brother of Liholiho, was proclaimed king with
the title of Kamehameha III., and Kaahumanu as regent during his
minority. Her administration was signalized by a series of outrages at
Lahaina and Honolulu, committed by a depraved class of foreigners who
resented certain regulations made to restrict public prostitution.
Com. Jones visited the Islands in the "Peacock" in 1826, and concluded
the first treaty between the Hawaiian Islands and the United States. The
next year the first written laws were published against murder, theft,
adultery and gambling.
THE ROMAN CATHOLIC MISSION.
The first Roman Catholic missionaries arrived at Honolulu, July 7th,
1827, on the ship "Comet," from Bordeaux, and soon gathered a
congregation. They were members of the so-called "Picpusian Order," or
"Congregation of the Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary." Unfortunately,
misunderstandings arose, and from a mistaken belief that they were
fomenting discord and sedition, the chiefs caused them to be deported to
San Pedro, California, in January, 1832.
ACCESSION OF KAMEHAMEHA III.
Kaahumanu died June 5th, 1832, and was succeeded by Kinau, half-sister
of the king. The king's minority was declared to be at an end in March,
1833. A tract of land was leased to Ladd & Co. in 1835, and about the
same time a silk plantation was commenced by Peck & Titcomb. Cotton was
raised and manufactured on a small scale at Kailua, Hawaii.
PERSECUTIONS.
During the next few years the chiefs persisted in a harsh and
unjustifiable policy, which imperiled the independence of the country.
On the return of the two banished priests from California, in April,
1837, they were ordered to return in the same vessel in which they had
come, and were obliged to go on board of it. Meanwhile the British sloop
of war "Sulphur," Captain Belcher, and the French frigate "Venus,"
Captain Du Petit Thouars, arrived and interposed in behalf of the
priests. As a compromise, they were landed again on condition that they
should leave by the first favorable opportunity. Again on the 3d of
November, another priest, Rev. L. Maigret, and a lay brother arrived
from Valparaiso, but were not allowed to land. Finally Revs. Maigret and
Bachelot left in a schooner for Bonabe, Micronesia. From 1835 to 1839
the persecution of native converts was resumed, but was at last put an
end to by the declaration of rights promulgated June 4th, 1839, and the
king's edict of toleration, issued June 17th.
VISIT OF THE "ARTEMISE."
In consequence of these proceedings the French frigate "Artemise,"
Captain Laplace, was ordered to Honolulu, where it arrived July 9th, 1839.
Captain Laplace immediately sent the Government a peremptory letter
demanding that full religious liberty be proclaimed, and that the sum of
$20,000 be brought on board by noon of the 12th, or hostilities would
commence. The required treaty was signed and the money promptly paid,
and on the 16th, a commercial convention was also signed.
FIRST CONSTITUTION.
The declaration of rights, mentioned above, which guaranteed religious
liberty, produced a feeling of security unknown before, and formed the
first step towards establishing individual property in land. The first
constitution was proclaimed October 8th, 1840. It constituted a
Legislature, consisting of a House of Hereditary Nobles, and
Representatives to be chosen by the people, who voted as a separate
house. It also defined the duties of the Governors and provided for a
Supreme Court.
THE FIRST EMBASSY.
During the next two years the French and English consuls seemed to vie
with each other in the manufacture of petty grievances. Aware of the
dangers impending over it, the Hawaiian Government sent an embassy to
the United States, Great Britain and France, in July, 1842, which
consisted of Messrs. Haalilio, William Richards and Sir George Simpson,
one of the governors of the Hudson Bay Company.
VISIT OF CAPTAIN MALLET.
On the 24th of August, 1842, the French corvette "Embuscade," Captain
Mallet, arrived at Honolulu, having been sent to investigate complaints
of the violation of the Laplace Convention, chiefly relating to local
school matters. Having received an able and courteous reply to his
demands, he informed the king that Admiral Du Petit Thouars might be
expected the next spring to settle these matters.
THE CESSION TO LORD PAULET.
The dispatch of the embassy to Europe and the visit of Captain Mallet
both served to bring to a head the designs of Mr. Charlton, the British
consul. He suddenly left for London, leaving Alexander Simpson as
acting consul, in order to defeat the objects of the embassy. In
consequence of their representations, H. B. M. frigate "Carysford,"
commanded by George Paulet, was ordered to Honolulu, arriving there
February 10, 1843. On the arrival of the king from Lahaina, Lord Paulet
sent him six demands, threatening war if they were not acceded to by 4
p. m. of the next day. These demands chiefly related to a fraudulent
land claim of Charlton's, and to decisions of the courts in certain
civil suits between foreigners. Before the hour set for hostilities had
arrived, the king acceded to the demands under protest, and appealed to
the British Government for damages. But a fresh series of demands having
been made, and claims for damages having been trumped up amounting to
$80,000, the king decided, by Dr. Judd's advice, to forestall the
intended seizure of the Islands by a provisional cession, pending an
appeal to the justice of the home government.
The act of cession was carried into effect February 25th, 1843. The
British flag took the place of the Hawaiian for five months, and a body
of native troops was organized and drilled by British officers.
The country was meanwhile governed by a mixed commission consisting of
Lord Paulet, Lieutenant Frere, a Mr. Mackay and Dr. Judd.
[Illustration: OAHU COLLEGE.]
[Illustration: PAUAHI HALL, OAHU COLLEGE.]
THE RESTORATION.
On being informed of these events, Admiral Thomas, Commander-in-Chief of
H. B. M.'s naval forces in the Pacific ocean, immediately sailed from
Valparaiso for the Islands, arriving at Honolulu July 25th, 1843. He
immediately issued a proclamation, declaring in the name of his
government that he did not accept of the provisional cession of the
Hawaiian Islands, and on the 31st restored the national flag with
impressive ceremonies. His course was fully approved of by the home
government, and certainly tended to exalt the reputation of his country
for justice and magnanimity in dealing with inferior races.
THE RECOGNITION OF HAWAIIAN INDEPENDENCE.
Meanwhile the Hawaiian embassadors, who had been joined by Mr. Marshall,
the king's envoy, had done effective work in London and Paris. At their
request the matters in dispute had been referred to the law advisers of
the crown, who decided in favor of the Hawaiian Government on every
point except the Charlton land claim. At length, on the 28th of
November, 1843, the two governments of France and England issued a joint
declaration in which they recognized the independence of the Islands,
and reciprocally engaged "never to take possession, either directly or
under the title of a protectorate, or under any other form, of any part
of the territory of which they are composed."
ORGANIZATION OF THE GOVERNMENT.
Both the king and his advisers saw that in order to maintain a permanent
government it was necessary to combine both the native and foreign
elements together in one common organization, and to make the king the
sovereign not merely of one race or class, but of all. During the next
few years the executive departments of the Government and the judiciary
were organized by a group of men of remarkably high character and
ability.
LAND TITLES.
During the period of 1846-1855 the ancient tenure of land was abolished,
and the foundation laid of individual property in land. In the first
place, the king as feudal suzerain divided the lands of the kingdom
between himself and each one of the chiefs, his feudatories, this
partition being recorded in a book called the _Mahele_ Book, or Book of
Division. After this first partition was closed, out of four million
acres there remained in the king's hands about two and a half millions.
The king then redivided the lands which had been surrendered to him,
setting apart about a million and a half acres for the Government, and
reserving for himself as his private domain, about a million acres,
including the best of the lands. The common people were granted fee
simple titles for their house lots and the lands which they actually
cultivated for themselves, called _Kuleanas_ or homesteads.
THE "REPRISALS" OF 1849.
From 1843 till 1848 the most amicable relations continued to exist
between France and the Hawaiian Government. But this state of things was
then reversed by M. Dillon, the new French consul, who endeavored to
reopen all old disputes and to create new grievances in every possible
way. His principal grounds of complaint were the high duty on brandy and
the alleged partiality shown to the English language. On the 12th of
August, 1849, the French frigate "Poursuivante," Admiral De Tromelin,
arrived at Honolulu, and was joined the next day by the corvette
"Gassendi."
On the 22d the admiral sent to the king ten demands, drawn up by M.
Dillon, allowing the Hawaiian Government three days in which to comply
with them.
As these demands were firmly but courteously refused, an armed force was
landed on the 25th, which took possession of the deserted fort, the
custom house and other buildings, and the harbor was blockaded for ten
days. The fort was dismantled and the king's private yacht confiscated
by way of "reprisal," after which the "Poursuivante" sailed for San
Francisco, taking M. Dillon as a passenger.
THE SECOND EMBASSY TO FRANCE.
The king immediately sent Dr. Judd as special commissioner to France,
accompanied by the two nephews of the king, Alexander, the
heir-apparent, and Lot Kamehameha.
But on arriving in Paris they found that M. Dillon had preceded them,
and still retained the confidence of the Minister of Foreign Affairs.
The embassy, however, agreed with Lord Palmerston upon the basis of a
new treaty with Great Britain.
THE U. S. PROTECTORATE.
The French corvette "Serieuse" arrived at Honolulu, December 13, 1850,
bringing M. Perrin, Commissioner of France, and remained in port three
months.
To the surprise of all, he presented again the identical ten demands of
his predecessor, and resumed his policy of petty annoyance and
interference with internal affairs of the kingdom. At length his
attitude became so menacing that the king and privy council passed a
proclamation placing the Islands provisionally under the protectorate of
the United States. This action was ratified by the next Legislature.
Although it was finally declined by the United States, it had the
desired effect, and the obnoxious demands were dropped.
THE CONSTITUTION OF 1852.
Was a very liberal one for the times, and has formed the basis of all
succeeding constitutions. The nobles were to be appointed by the kings
for life. The representatives, who were to be not less than twenty-four
in number, were to be elected by universal suffrage.
INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS.
Between the years 1850 and 1860 a large part of the government land was
sold to the common people in small tracts at nominal prices.
The rapid settlement of California opened a new market for the
productions of the Islands, and gave a great stimulus to agriculture.
For a time large profits were made by raising potatoes for the
California market. Wheat was cultivated in the Makawao district, and a
steam flouring mill was erected in Honolulu in 1854. The next year 463
barrels of Hawaiian flour were exported. A coffee plantation was started
at Hanalei, Kauai, in 1842, and promised well, but was attacked by
blight after the severe drought of 1851-2. The export of coffee rose to
208,000 pounds in 1850, but then fell off. The export of sugar only
reached 500 tons in 1853. The sugar mills were generally worked by oxen
or mules, and the molasses drained in the old fashioned way.
THE UNFINISHED ANNEXATION TREATY.
The year 1853 was rendered memorable by a terrible epidemic of
small-pox, which carried off several thousand people on the Island of
Oahu. During that and the following year there was an active agitation
in Honolulu in favor of annexation to the United States. The king
favored it as a refuge from impending dangers. The missionaries
generally opposed it, fearing that its effects would be injurious to the
native race. The negotiations were carried on between Mr. Gregg, the
American Minister, and Mr. Wyllie, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, and
a draft of the treaty was completed in June, 1854.
The representatives of France and Great Britain remonstrated with the
king against it, while the heir-apparent was also opposed to it. The
negotiation was still pending when the king suddenly died on the 15th of
December, 1854.
His adopted son and heir, Alexander Liholiho, was immediately proclaimed
king, under the title of Kamehameha IV.
THE REIGN OF KAMEHAMEHA IV.
Was uneventful. He was married to Emma Rooke, a chiefess partly of English
descent, who both by her character and her talents was worthy of the
position. By their personal exertions the king and queen succeeded in
raising the funds with which to found the "Queen's Hospital" at
Honolulu. Their little son, the "Prince of Hawaii," died in 1862, at
four years of age, and with him expired the hope of the Kamehameha
dynasty. During the same year Bishop Staley, accompanied by a staff of
clergymen, arrived at Honolulu and commenced the Anglican Mission.
During the following year the king was rapidly failing in health, and on
the 30th of November, 1863, he died, at the early age of twenty-nine,
and was succeeded by his elder brother, Prince Lot Kamehameha.
The development of the country during his reign was nearly at a
stand-still. The cultivation of wheat as well as that of coffee was
given up, but the culture of rice was commenced in 1860, and proved to
be a great success.
THE REIGN OF KAMEHAMEHA V.
The reign of Kamehameha V. was memorable for the change of the
constitution which he made on his own authority, soon after coming to
the throne. The right of suffrage was made to depend on a small property
qualification and on ability to read and write. The Nobles and
representatives were henceforth to sit and vote in one chamber. During
his reign the Board of Education was constituted, the Bureau of
Immigration formed, and the Act passed in 1865 to segregate the lepers.
A treaty of reciprocity with the United States was negotiated, but
failed of ratification by the Senate.
A destructive eruption from Mauna Loa took place in 1868, in the
District of Kau. The almost total destruction of the whaling fleet in
the Arctic Sea in 1871 was a serious blow to the prosperity of the
Islands.
The King died suddenly December 11th, 1872, and with him ended the line
of the Kamehamehas.
THE REIGN OF LUNALILO.
As Kamehameha V. died without appointing any successor, the choice
devolved upon the Legislature, which met on the 8th of January, 1873,
and elected William Lunalilo, cousin of the late king, by a large
majority, amid general rejoicing. During that year, the proposal to cede
or lease Pearl Harbor to the United States in consideration of a treaty
of commercial reciprocity gave rise to an extensive agitation, which
intensified the suspicion and race prejudice that already existed.
The execution of the law for the segregation of lepers helped to widen
the breach, and the effects were seen in the mutiny of the household
troops in September, 1873, which had the sympathy of the populace.
The King's health was already failing, and on the 3d of February, 1874,
he died of pulmonary consumption. By his will he left the bulk of his
real estate to found a home for aged and indigent Hawaiians.
ACCESSION OF KALAKAUA.
Again the Legislature was called together to elect his successor on the
12th of February, 1874. The two rival candidates were the Queen-Dowager
Emma and David Kalakaua, the latter of whom was elected by thirty-nine
votes to six. A large mob, composed of Queen Emma's partisans,
surrounded the court house during the election, after which they broke
into the building and assaulted the members of the Legislature.
At the request of the Cabinet, a body of marines was landed from the U.
S. ships "Tuscarora" and "Portsmouth," and another from H. B. M.'s ship
"Tenedos," which dispersed the rioters and guarded the public buildings
for a week. Kalakaua was sworn in at noon the next day, and duly
proclaimed King.
THE RECIPROCITY TREATY.
During the next year negotiations were opened with the United States for
a treaty of commercial reciprocity, which was ratified in June, 1875,
and finally went into operation in September, 1876, in spite of bitter
opposition in both countries. The development of the resources of the
Islands, which has resulted from this treaty, has surpassed all
expectation. In connection with it there has also been a large increase
of the foreign elements in the population.
THE KING'S TOUR AROUND THE WORLD.
On the 20th of January, 1881, King Kalakaua set out on a tour around the
world, accompanied by the late Col. C. H. Judd, and Mr. W. N. Armstrong.
He was received with royal honors in Japan, and afterwards visited
China, Siam, Johore and British India. After visiting the Khedive of
Egypt, the party made the tour of Europe, and returned home by way of
the United States, arriving in Honolulu Oct. 29, 1881.
REACTIONARY POLICY OF KALAKAUA.
Unlike his predecessors, Kalakaua seemed to regard himself as merely a
king of the native Hawaiians, and foreign residents as alien invaders.
It also seemed to be his chief aim to change the system of government
into a personal despotism, in which he should have unchecked control of
the Government Treasury. Thus he took it upon himself in July, 1878, and
again in August, 1880, to dismiss a Ministry, without assigning any
reason, immediately after it had been triumphantly sustained by a vote
of the Legislature. On the latter occasion, his appointment of Celso
Caesar Moreno as premier called forth the protest of the representatives
of three great Powers, and such an uprising of the people that he had to
give way. Adroit politicians were not wanting to flatter his vanity,
defend his follies, and show him how to violate the spirit and intent
of the Constitution, while keeping within the letter of the law. The
Legislatures were packed with subservient office-holders, while every
artifice was used to debauch the native electorate and to foment race
prejudice. The national debt grew up from $389,000 in 1880 to $1,936,000
in 1887. At the same time, under the existing law, no foreigner could be
naturalized without the King's approval.
[Illustration: MASONIC TEMPLE.]
[Illustration: KAMEHAMEHA MUSEUM.]
THE REVOLUTION OF 1887.
After the legislative session of 1886, the King was virtually his own
prime minister, and went from one folly to another, until his acceptance
of two bribes, one of $75,000 and another of $80,000 in connection with
the assignment of an opium license, precipitated the revolution of
1887. Overawed by the unanimity of the movement, and deserted by his
followers, the King yielded without a struggle. The Constitution
which he was pleased to sign on the 7th of July, 1887, was a revision
of that of 1864, intended to put an end to mere personal government,
and to make the executive responsible to the representatives of the
people. Office-holders were made ineligible to seats in the Legislature.
The Ministers were henceforth to be removable only upon a vote of want
of confidence passed by a majority of all the elective members of
the Legislature. The Nobles, instead of being appointed by the King,
were to be elected for terms of six years, by electors who should
be possessed of taxable property worth $3,000, or in receipt of an
annual income of $600.
THE INSURRECTION OF 1889.
The opposition of the Court and of other adherents of the old regime, to
the reforms of 1887, led to an insurrection headed by R. W. Wilcox, on
the 30th of July, 1889 which was promptly put down, but not without
bloodshed. Seven of the rioters were killed and a large number wounded.
There can be little doubt that the late King and his sister were
accessory to this ill-advised outbreak.
ACCESSION OF LILIUOKALANI.
In order to recruit his health, the King visited California in November,
1890. In spite of the best medical attendance, he continued to fail, and
breathed his last on the 20th of January, 1891, in San Francisco. His
remains were brought to Honolulu in the U. S. S. "Charleston," arriving
there January 29th, 1891. On the same day, his sister took the oath to
maintain the Constitution, and was proclaimed Queen, under the title of
Liliuokalani.
THE REVOLUTION OF 1893.
The ex-Queen in a published statement has since declared that she signed
the Constitution unwillingly. The history of her short reign shows that
it was her unaltered purpose to restore autocratic government. In short,
she was determined to govern as well as to reign.
The decision of the Supreme Court that the term of the last Cabinet
expired with the King, gave her an opportunity (which she improved), to
dictate terms in advance to the incoming Cabinet, and to secure control
of all appointments. The legislative session of 1892 was protracted to
eight months chiefly by her determination to retain her control of the
Executive, as well as to carry through the opium and lottery bills.
Meanwhile she had caused a Constitution to be drawn up, which would
practically, have transformed the government from a limited to an
absolute monarchy, besides disfranchising a class of citizens who paid
two-thirds of the taxes. This Constitution she undertook to spring upon
the country by a _coup d'etat_, on the day of the prorogation of the
Legislature, January 14th, 1893.
Fortunately, at the critical moment, when her preparations were
complete, her Ministers shrank from sharing the responsibility of
such a revolutionary act, and induced her to postpone it. In such
an undertaking to hesitate is fatal.
Again there was a general uprising of the conservative part of the
community similar to that of 1887. But this time public opinion
condemned all half way measures, and declared the monarchy to be
forfeited by its own act.
The Reform leaders reorganized their forces, and formed a Provisional
Government, which was proclaimed January 17th, 1893 from the Government
Building. The U. S. S. "Boston," which had unexpectedly arrived from
Hilo on the day of the prorogation, landed a force on the 16th, to
protect the lives and property of American citizens, in case of disorder
or incendiarism. The Queen's ministers availed themselves of the
presence of these troops on shore as an excuse for their inaction, and
persuaded the Queen to resign under protest, and to appeal to the
government of the United States.
A treaty of annexation was soon after negotiated with the United States
during President Harrison's administration, which was withdrawn by
President Cleveland immediately after his accession. The failure of his
attempt to restore the monarchy by diplomacy is well known.
THE REPUBLIC OF HAWAII.
During the next year a convention was elected, which sat in Honolulu
during the month of June, 1894, and framed a new Constitution for the
country, and the Republic of Hawaii was formally proclaimed July 4, 1894.
Another royalist conspiracy was formed during the fall of that year,
which resulted in the insurrection of January 6th, 1895, which was
promptly crushed by the patriotic citizens of the Republic.
A dangerous epidemic of Asiatic cholera in the following September, was
stamped out by the united efforts of the public spirited citizens of
Honolulu.
For four years, in spite of hostile influences from without and enemies
at home, the Republic has maintained peace and order, administered
justice, carried on extensive internal improvements, advanced education,
and kept the financial credit of the nation above par in the markets of
the world.
OFFICIAL DIRECTORY, REPUBLIC OF HAWAII.
EXECUTIVE COUNCIL.
Sanford B. Dole, President of the Republic of Hawaii.
Henry E. Cooper, Minister of Foreign Affairs.
James A. King, Minister of the Interior.
Samuel M. Damon, Minister of Finance.
William O. Smith, Attorney-General.
COUNCIL OF STATE.
William C. Wilder,
Cecil Brown,
P. C. Jones,
J. A. Kennedy,
C. Bolte,
George W. Smith,
John Phillips,
D. L. Naone,
A. G. M. Robertson,
E. C. Winston,
Mark P. Robinson,
John Ena,
Samuel M. Ka-ne,
John Nott,
J. P. Mendonca.
SUPREME COURT.
Hon. A. F. Judd, Chief Justice.
Hon. W. F. Frear, First Associate Justice.
Hon. W. Austin Whiting, Second Associate Justice.
Henry Smith, Chief Clerk.
Geo. Lucas, Deputy Clerk.
James Thompson, Second Deputy Clerk.
J. Walter Jones, Stenographer.
CIRCUIT JUDGES.
First Circuit--Alfred W. Carter, Antonio Perry, Oahu.
Second Circuit--J. W. Kalua.
Third and Fourth Circuits--S. L. Austin.
Fifth Circuit--J. Hardy.
Offices and Court-room in Court House, King street. Sitting in Honolulu:
First Monday in February, May, August and November.
DEPARTMENT OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS.
Office in Executive Building, King street.
Henry E. Cooper, Minister Foreign Affairs.
George C. Potter, Secretary.
Alexander St. M. Mackintosh, Clerk.
Miss Kate Kelley, Stenographer.
B. L. Marx, Clerk Executive Council.
James W. Girvin, Secretary Chinese Bureau.
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR.
Office in Executive Building, King street.
James A. King, Minister of the Interior.
Chief Clerk, John A. Hassinger.
Assistant Clerks, James H. Boyd, H. C. Meyers, Stephen Mahaulu,
George C. Ross, Edward S. Boyd.
CHIEFS OF BUREAUS, INTERIOR DEPARTMENT.
Surveyor-General, W. D. Alexander.
Superintendent Public Works, W. E. Rowell.
Superintendent Water Works, Andrew Brown.
Inspector Electric Lights, John Cassidy.
Registrar of Conveyances, T. G. Thrum.
Road Supervisor, Honolulu, W. H. Cummings.
Insane Asylum, Dr. Geo. H. Herbert.
BOARD OF FIRE COMMISSIONERS.
Andrew Brown, Charles Crozier and J. H. Fisher.
James H. Hunt, Chief Engineer, H. F. D.
William R. Sims, Secretary.
BUREAU OF AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY.
President, the Minister of the Interior. Allan Herbert, Thomas King,
Wray Taylor, E. W. Jordan. Joseph Marsden, Commissioner and Secretary.
DEPARTMENT OF FINANCE.
Office in Executive Building, King street.
Minister of Finance, Samuel M. Damon.
Auditor-General, H. Laws.
Registrar of Accounts, W. G. Ashley.
Clerk of Finance Office, E. R. Stackable.
Collector-General of Customs, James B. Castle.
Tax Assessor, Oahu, Jonathan Shaw.
Postmaster-General, J. M. Oat.
CUSTOMS BUREAU.
Office in Custom House, Esplanade, Fort street.
Collector-General, James B. Castle.
Deputy Collector, Frank B. McStocker.
Harbor Master, Captain A. Fuller.
Port Surveyor, George C. Stratemeyer.
Storekeeper, .........
DEPARTMENT OF ATTORNEY-GENERAL.
Office in Executive Building, King street.
Attorney-General, William O. Smith.
Deputy Attorney-General, E. P. Dole.
Clerk, J. M. Kea.
Marshal, A. M. Brown.
Deputy Marshal, H. R. Hitchcock.
Jailor Oahu Prison, J. A. Low.
Prison Physician, C. B. Cooper, M. D.
DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION.
Office in Judiciary Building.
Henry E. Cooper, Minister of Public Instruction.
Commissioners, Professor William Dewitt Alexander, Mrs. Emma Louisa
Dillingham, Mr. William A. Bowen, Mrs. Alice Clark Jordan,
Mr. H. M. von Holt.
H. S. Townsend, Inspector-General of Schools.
J. F. Scott, Deputy Inspector-General of Schools.
C. T. Rodgers, Secretary of Department.
BOARD OF IMMIGRATION.
Office in Judiciary Building.
President, James A. King.
Members of Board of Immigration, J. B. Atherton, Joseph Marsden,
D. B. Smith, James G. Spencer, J. Carden. Secretary, Wray Taylor.
BOARD OF HEALTH.
Office in Judiciary Building.
President, William O. Smith.
Secretary, Charles Wilcox.
Members, D. Keliipio, C. A. Brown, N. B. Emerson, M. D.;
F. R. Day, M. D.; C. B. Wood, M. D., and T. F. Lansing.
Port Physician, Dr. Francis Day.
Dispensary, Dr. H. W. Howard.
Leper Settlement, Dr. R. K. Oliver.
POLICE COURT.
Police Station Building, Merchant street.
George H. de la Vergne, Magistrate.
William Cuelho, Clerk.
[Illustration: KAWAIAHAO CHURCH (Hawaiian).]
[Illustration: CENTRAL UNION CHURCH.]
* * * * *
FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES IN HONOLULU.
_Diplomatic._
United States--Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary,
Albert S. Willis, Esq.; residence, King St. Ellis Mills, Esq.,
Secretary of Legation.
Portugal--Charge d'Affaires and Consul-General, Senhor A. de Souza
Canavarro; residence, Beretania St.
Great Britain--Commissioner and Consul-General, Captain A. G. S. Hawes.
Japan--Diplomatic Agent and Consul-General, Mr. H. Shimamura;
residence, Nuuanu Ave. H. I. J. M. Eleve Consul, Mr. K. Mimashi,
Secretary H. I. J. M. Consulate-General.
France--Consul and Commissioner, Mons. Louis Voisson; Chancellor
of Legation, Mons. A. Vizzavona.
_Consular._
United States--Consul-General, Ellis Mills. W. Porter Boyd, United
States Vice and Deputy Consul-General.
Italy--F. A. Schaefer, Consul. (Dean of the Consular Corps.)
Netherlands--J. H. Paty, Consul.
Denmark--H. R. Macfarlane, Consul.
Mexico, H. Renjes, Consul.
Peru--Bruce Cartwright, Consul.
Chile--Julius Hoting, Consul.
Austria-Hungary--J. F. Hackfeld, Consul.
Germany--J. F. Hackfeld, Consul.
Belgium--H. Focke, Consul.
Great Britain--T. R. Walker, Vice-Consul.
Spain--H. Renjes, Vice-Consul.
Russia--J. F. Hackfeld, Acting Vice-Consul.
Sweden and Norway--Charles Weight, Acting Consul.
China--Goo Kim Fui, Commercial Agent; Wong Kwai, Assistant
Commercial Agent.
U. S. Consular Agent, Kahului, A. J. Dickens, Acting.
U. S. Consular Agent, Mahukona, C. J. Falk.
U. S. Consular Agent, Hilo, Charles Furneaux.
* * * * *
PRINCIPAL HAWAIIAN REPRESENTATIVES ABROAD.
_United States._
Washington, D. C.--Francis M. Hatch, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister
Plenipotentiary; Major Frank P. Hastings, Charge d'Affaires and
Secretary of Legation.
New York--E. H. Allen, Consul-General.
Chicago--Fred W. Job, Consul-General for the States of Illinois,
Michigan, Ohio, Indiana and Wisconsin.
San Francisco--Charles T. Wilder, Consul-General for the Pacific
States, California, Oregon, Nevada and Washington; J. F. Soper,
Vice and Deputy Consul-General.
Boston--Gorham D. Gilman, Consul-General.
Portland, Oregon--J. McCracken, Consul.
Port Townsend--James G. Swan, Consul.
Seattle--John H. Carter, Consul.
Tacoma--J. T. Steeb, Acting Consul.
Philadelphia--Robert H. Davis, Consul.
San Diego--H. P. Wood, Consul.
Detroit--A. L. Bresler, Consul.
_Great Britain._
London--Manley Hopkins, Consul-General; Cyril Hopkins, Vice-Consul.
Liverpool--Harold Janion, Consul.
Bristol--Mark Whitwill, Consul.
Hull--W. Moran, Consul.
Newcastle-on-Tyne--E. Biesterfeld, Consul.
Falmouth--Cecil Robert Broad, Consul.
Dover (and the Cinque Ports)--Francis Wm. Prescott, Consul.
Swansea--H. Goldberg, Consul.
Cardiff--J. Bovey, Consul.
Edinburgh and Leith--E. G. Buchanan, Consul.
Glasgow--Peter Denniston, Consul.
Dundee--J. G. Zoller, Consul.
Dublin--R. Jas. Murphy, Consul.
Queenstown--Geo. B. Dawson, Consul.
Belfast--W. A. Ross, Consul.
Middlesborough--B. C. Atkinson, Consul.
_British Colonies._
Toronto, Ontario--J. Enoch Thompson, Consul-General; Col. Geo. A. Shaw,
Vice-Consul.
St. John's, N. B.--Allan O. Crookshank, Consul.
Rimouski--J. N. Pouliot, Vice-Consul.
Montreal--Dickson Anderson, Consul.
Yarmouth, N. S.--Ed. F. Clements, Vice-Consul.
Victoria, B. C.--R. P. Rithet, Consul-General for British Columbia.
Vancouver, B. C.--J. W. McFarland, Vice-Consul.
Sydney, N. S. W.--W. E. Dixon, Consul-General.
Melbourne, Victoria--G. N. Oakley, Consul.
Brisbane, Queensland--Alex. B. Webster, Consul.
Hobart, Tasmania--Hon. Audley Coote, Consul.
Launceston, Tasmania--Geo. Collins, Vice-Consul.
Newcastle, N. S. W.--W. J. Gillam, Consul.
Auckland, N. Z.--James Macfarlane, Consul.
Dunedin, N. Z.--W. G. Neill, Consul.
Gibraltar--H. Schott, Consul.
_France and Colonies._
Paris--Alfred Houle, Charge d'Affaires and Consul-General;
A. N. H. Teyssier, Consul.
Marseilles--........, Consul.
Bordeaux--Ernest de Boissac, Consul.
Dijon--H. F. J. Vieilhomme, Consul.
Liborne--C. Schaessler, Vice-Consul.
Cette--Julius Chavasse, Vice-Consul.
Grenoble--J. L. Garcin, Vice-Consul.
Papeete, Tahiti--E. A. Bonet, Consul.
_Spain._
Barcelona--Enrique Minguez, Consul-General.
Cadiz--J. Shaw, Consul.
Valencia--Julio Soler, Consul.
Malaga--F. T. de Navarra, Consul.
Cartagena--J. Paris, Consul.
_Portugal and Colonies._
Lisbon--A. F. de Serpa, Consul-General.
Oporto--Narciso T. M. Ferro, Consul.
Madeira Island--L. D. F. Branco, Consul.
Cape Vincent, Cape de Verde Islands--Clarimundo Martins, Vice-Consul.
Lagos, Cape de Verde Islands--Manuel Jose Barbosa, Vice-Consul.
_Azores Islands._
Ponta Delgardo (St. Michaels)--Senhor Bernardo Machado de Faria Maia,
Consul-General; A. da Silva Moreira, Consul.
_Italy._
Rome--Dwight Benton, Consul-General; Hale P. Benton, Vice and Deputy
Consul-General.
Palermo, Sicily--A. Tagliavia, Consul.
Genoa--Raphael de Luchi, Consul.
_Holland._
Amsterdam--D. H. Schmull, Consul-General.
Dordrecht--P. J. Bouwman, Consul.
_Japan._
Tokio--R. W. Irwin, Minister Resident.
Kobe--C. P. Hall, Vice-Consul.
Yokohama--B. C. Howard, Consul; Dr. Stuart Eldridge, M. D.,
Sanitary Inspector.
_China._
Hong Kong--J. J. Bell Irving, Acting Consul-General; Dr. Gregory P.
Jordan, M. D., Sanitary Inspector.
Amoy--Robert H. Bruce, Consul; Dr. Hugh MacDougald, M. D.,
Sanitary Inspector.
_Belgium._
Antwerp--Victor Forge, Consul-General.
Ghent--E. Coppieters, Consul.
Liege--J. Blanpain, Consul.
Bruges--E. Van Den Brande, Consul.
_Sweden and Norway._
Stockholm, Sweden--C. A. Engvalls, Consul-General.
Christiana, Norway--L. Samson, Consul.
Gothemburg, Sweden--Gustaf Kraak, Vice-Consul.
_Austria._
Vienna--Hugo Schonberger, Consul.
_Germany and Colonies._
Bremen--H. F. Glade, Charge d'Affaires and Consul-General;
J. F. Muller, Consul.
Hamburg--E. F. Weber, Consul.
Frankfort-on-Main--J. Kopp, Consul.
Dresden--A. P. Russ, Consul.
_Canary Islands._
Las Palamas--L. Falcon y Quevedo, Consul; J. B. De Laguna, Vice-Consul.
Santa Cruz de la Palma--Antonio C. de las Casas, Vice-Consul.
Areciefe de Lanzarote--E. Murales, Vice-Consul.
_Mexico._
Mexico--Col. W. J. De Gress, Consul-General; R. H. Baker, Vice-Consul.
Manzanillo--Robert James Barney, Consul.
Ensenada--James Moorkens, Vice-Consul.
_Central and South America._
Valparaiso, South America--David Thomas, Charge d'Affaires and
Consul-General.
Lima, South America--F. L. Crosby, Consul.
Montevideo, South America--Conrad Hughes, Consul.
_Philippine Islands._
Iloilo--Geo. Shelmerdine, Consul.
Manila--Jasper M. Wood, Consul.
Cebu--Geo. A. Cadell, Consul.
Transcriber's Note
With the exception of OCEANIC STEAMSHIP AUSTRALIA, the illustrations and
cover image come from a slightly different printing of the pamphlet than
the text.
Minor typographical errors and irregularities have been corrected.
The table of contents and list of illustrations have been added for the
reader's convenience.