After the capture of Constantinople, the destruction of Greek national
life and the almost total effacement of Greek civilization naturally
involved a more or less complete cessation of Greek literary production
in the regions subjected to the rule of a barbarous conqueror. Learned
Greeks found a refuge away from their native land; they spoke the
languages of foreign people, and when they wrote books they often used
those languages, but in most cases they also wrote in Greek. The fall of
Constantinople must not therefore be taken as indicating a break in the
continuity of Greek literary history. Nor had that event so decisive an
influence as has been supposed on the revival of learning in western
Europe. The crusades had already brought the Greeks and Westerns
together, and the rule of the Franks at Constantinople and in the Levant
had rendered the contact closer. Greeks and Latins had keenly discussed
the dogmas which divided the Eastern and Western Churches; some Greeks
had adopted the Latin faith or had endeavoured to reconcile the two
communions, some had attained preferment in the Roman Church. Many had
become connected by marriage or other ties with the Italian nobles who
ruled in the Aegean or the Heptanesos, and circumstances led them to
settle in Italy. Of the writers who thus found their way to the West
before the taking of Constantinople the most prominent were Leon or
Leontios Pilatos, Georgius Gemistus, or Pletho, Manuel and John
Chrysoloras, Theodore Gazes, George of Trebizond and Cardinal Bessarion.
The Klephtic poetry.
The Ottoman conquest had reduced the Christian races in the plains to a
condition of serfdom, but the spirit of liberty continued to breathe in
the mountains, where groups of desperate men, the Klephts and the
Haiduks, maintained the struggle against alien tyranny. The adventurous
and romantic life of these champions of freedom, spent amid the noblest
solitudes of nature and often tinged with the deepest tragedy, naturally
produced a poetry of its own, fresh, spontaneous and entirely
indigenous. The Klephtic ballads, all anonymous and composed in the
language of the people, are unquestionably the best and most genuine
Greek poetry of this epoch. They breathe the aroma of the forests and
mountains; like the early rhapsodies of antiquity, which peopled nature
with a thousand forms, they lend a voice to the trees, the rocks, the
rivers and to the mountains themselves, which sing the prowess of the
Klepht, bewail his death and comfort his disconsolate wife or mother.
Olympia boasts to Ossa that the footstep of the Turk has never
desecrated its valleys; the standard of freedom floats over its springs;
there is a Klepht beneath every tree of its forests; an eagle sits on
its summit with the head of a warrior in its talons. The dying Klepht
bids his companions make him a large and lofty tomb that he may stand
therein and load his musket: "Make a window in the side that the
swallows may tell me that spring has come, that the nightingales may
sing me the approach of flowery May." The wounded Vervos is addressed by
his horse: "Rise, my master, let us go and find our comrades." "My bay
horse, I cannot rise; I am dying: dig me a tomb with thy silver-shod
hoof; take me in thy teeth and lay me therein. Bear my arms to my
companions and this handkerchief to my beloved, that she may see it and
lament me." Another type of the popular poetry is presented by the
folk-songs of the Aegean islanders and the maritime population of the
Asiatic coast. In many of the former the influence of the Frankish
conquest is apparent. Traces of the ancient mythology are often to be
found in the popular songs. Death is commonly personified by Charon, who
struggles with his victim; Charon is sometimes worsted, but as a rule he
triumphs in the conflict.
Cretan poets.
In Crete, which for nearly two centuries after the fall of
Constantinople remained under Venetian rule, a school of Greek poetry
arose strongly impressed with Italian influences. The language employed
is the dialect of the Candiotes, with its large admixture of Venetian
words. The first product of this somewhat hybrid literature was
_Erotocritos_, an epic poem in five cantos, which relates the love story
of Arete, daughter of Hercules, king of Athens, and Erotocritos, the son
of his minister. The poem presents an interesting picture of Greece
under the feudal Frankish princes, though professing to describe an
episode of the classical epoch; notwithstanding some tedious passages,
it possesses considerable merit and contains some charming scenes. The
metre is the rhymed alexandrine. Of the author, Vicence Cornaro, who
lived in the middle or end of the 16th century, little is known; he
probably belonged to the ducal family of that name, from which Tasso was
descended. The second poem is the _Erophile_ of George Chortakis, a
Cretan, also written in the Candiote dialect. It is a tragic drama, the
scene of which is laid in Egypt. The dialogue is poor, but there are
some fine choral interludes, which perhaps are by a different hand.
Chortakis, who was brought up at Retimo, lived at the end of the 16th
and beginning of the 17th centuries. The third Cretan poem worthy of
notice is the _Shepherdess_, a charming and graceful idyll written by
Nicolas Drimyticos, a native of Apokorona, early in the 17th century.
Other Cretan poets were J. Gregoropoulos and G. Melissinos (1500), who
wrote epigrams, and Maroulos (1493), who endeavoured to write Pindaric
odes.
Literary activity after the fall of Constantinople.
Among the Greeks who were prominent in spreading a knowledge of Greek in
Europe after the fall of Constantinople were John Argyropulos, Demetrius
Chalcondyles, Constantine and John Lascaris and Marcus Musurus, a
Cretan. These men wrote in the accepted literary language; in general,
however, they were rather employed about literature than engaged in
producing it. They taught Greek; several of them wrote Greek grammars;
they transcribed and edited Greek classical writers, and they collected
manuscripts. Their stores enriched the newly founded libraries of St
Mark at Venice, of the Escorial, of the Vatican and of the National
Library in Paris. But none of them accomplished much in literature
strictly so called. The question which most deeply interested them was
that of the rival merits of the Platonic and Aristotelian philosophies,
over which a controversy of extraordinary bitterness broke out towards
the close of the 15th century. The dispute was in reality theological
rather than philosophical; the cause of Plato was championed by the
advocates of a union between the Eastern and Western Churches, that of
Aristotle was upheld by the opposing party, and all the fury of the old
Byzantine dogmatic controversies was revived. The patriarch, George
Kurtesios or Gennadius, whom Mahommed II. had appointed after the
capture of Constantinople, wrote a treatise in favour of Aristotle and
excommunicated Gemistus Pletho, the principal writer among the
Platonists. On the other hand, George of Trebizond, who attacked Pletho
with unmeasured virulence, was compelled to resign his post of secretary
to Pope Nicholas V. and was imprisoned by Pope Paul I. Scholarship was
not wholly extinct in Greece or among the Greeks for a considerable time
after the Turkish conquest. Arsenius, who succeeded Musurus as bishop of
Monemvasia (1510), wrote commentaries on Aristophanes and Euripides; his
father, Apostoles, made a collection of Greek proverbs. Aemilius Portos,
a Cretan, and Leo Allatios (1600-1650) of Chios edited a number of works
of the classical and later periods with commentaries and translations;
Allatios also wrote Greek verses showing skill and cleverness.
Constantine Rhodokanakes, physician to Charles II. of England, wrote
verses on the return of that monarch to England. About the time of the
fall of Constantinople we meet with some versifiers who wrote poems in
the spoken dialect on historical subjects; among these were
Papaspondylos Zotikos (1444), Georgilas Limenitis (1450-1500) and
Jacobos Trivoles (beginning of the 16th century); their poems have
little merit, but are interesting as specimens of the popular language
of the day and as illustrating the manners and ideas of contemporary
Greeks.
Historical works.
Among the prose writers of the 16th century were a number of
chroniclers. At the end of the 15th, Kritobulos of Imbros, who had been
private secretary of Mahommed II., wrote the history of his master,
Emmanuel Melaxos a history of the patriarchate, and Phranzes a history
of the Palaeologi. Theodosius Zygomalas (1580) wrote a history of
Constantinople from 1391 to 1578. In the 17th century Demetrius
Cantemir, a Moldavian by birth, wrote a history of the Ottoman empire,
and G. Kontares tales of ancient Athens. Others composed chronicles of
Cyprus and Crete, narratives of travels and biographies of saints. Most
of these works are written in the literary language, the study of which
was kept alive by the patriarchate and the schools which it maintained
at Constantinople and elsewhere. Various theological and philosophical
works, grammars and dictionaries were written during this period, but
elegant literature practically disappears.[8]
The literary revival.
A literary revival followed in the 18th century, the precursor of the
national uprising which resulted in the independence of Greece. The
efforts of the great Phanariote families at Constantinople, the
educational zeal of the higher Greek clergy and the munificence of
wealthy Greeks in the provinces, chiefly merchants who had acquired
fortunes by commerce, combined to promote the spread of education among
a people always eager for instruction. The Turks, indifferent to
educational matters, failed to discern the significance of the movement.
Schools were established in every important Greek town, and school-books
and translations from Western languages issued from the presses of
Venice, Triest, Vienna and other cities where the Greeks possessed
colonies. Young men completed their studies in the Western universities
and returned to the East as the missionaries of modern civilization. For
the greater part of the 18th century the literature was mainly
theological. Notable theological writers of this epoch were Elias
Miniates, an elegant preacher, whose sermons are written in the popular
language, and Meletios of Iannina, metropolitan of Athens, whose
principal works were an ecclesiastical history, written in ancient
Greek, and a descriptive geography of Greece in the modern language,
composed, like the work of Pausanias, after a series of tours. The works
of two distinguished prelates, both natives of Corfu and both ardent
partisans of Russia, Nikephoros Theotokes (1731?-1800) and Eugenios
Bulgares (1715-1806), mark the beginning of the national and literary
renaissance. They wrote much in defence of Greek orthodoxy against
Latin heresy. Theotokes, famous as a preacher, wrote, besides
theological and controversial works, treatises on mathematics, geography
and physics. Bulgares was a most prolific author; he wrote numerous
translations and works on theology, archaeology, philosophy,
mathematics, physics and astronomy; he translated the _Aeneid_ and
_Georgics_ of Virgil into Homeric verse at the request of Catherine II.
His writings exercised a considerable influence over his contemporaries.
Poets of the Greek revival.
The poets of the earlier period of the Greek revival were Constantinos
Rhigas (q.v.), the Alcman of the revolutionary movement, whose songs
fired the spirit of his fellow-countrymen; Christopoulos (1772-1847), a
Phanariote, who wrote some charming Anacreontics, and Jacobos Rizos
Neroulos (1778-1850), also a Phanariote, author of tragedies, comedies
and lyrics, and of a work in French on modern Greek literature. They are
followed in the epoch of Greek independence by the brothers Panagiotes
and Alexander Soutzos (1800-1868 and 1803-1863) and Alexander Rhizos
Rhangabes (Rhankaves, 1810-1892), all three Phanariotes. Both Soutzos
had a rich command of musical language, were highly ideal in their
conceptions, strongly patriotic and possessed an ardent love of liberty.
Both imitated to some extent Byron, Lamartine and Beranger; they tried
various forms of poetry, but the genius of Panagiotes was essentially
lyrical, that of Alexander satirical. The other great poet of the Greek
revival, Alexander Rizos Rhangabe, was a writer with a fine poetic
feeling, exquisite diction and singular beauty and purity of thought and
sentiment. Besides numerous odes, hymns, ballads, narrative poems,
tragedies and comedies, he wrote several prose works, including a
history of ancient Greece, a history of modern Greek literature, several
novels and works on ancient art and archaeology. Among the numerous
dramatic works of this time may be mentioned the [Greek: Maria
Doxipatre] of Demetrios Bernardakes, a Cretan, the scene of which is
laid in the Morea at the time of the crusades.
Prose writers of the revival.
In prose composition, as in poetry, the national revival was marked by
an abundant output. Among the historians the greatest is Spiridon
Trikoupis, whose _History of the Revolution_ is a monumental work. It is
distinguished by beauty of style, clearness of exposition and an
impartiality which is all the more remarkable as the author played a
leading part in the events which he narrates. Almost all the chiefs of
the revolutionary movement left their memoirs; even Kolokotrones, who
was illiterate, dictated his recollections. John Philemon, of
Constantinople, wrote a history of the revolution in six volumes. He was
an ardent partisan of Russia, and as such was opposed to Trikoupis, who
was attached to the English party. K. Paparrhegopoulos's _History of the
Greek Nation_ is especially valuable in regard to the later periods; in
regard to the earlier he largely follows Gibbon and Grote. With him may
be mentioned Moustoxides of Corfu, who wrote on Greek history and
literature; Sakellarios, who dealt with the topography and history of
Cyprus; N. Dragoumes, whose historical memoirs treat of the period which
followed the revolution; K. Assopios, who wrote on Greek literature and
history. In theology Oeconomos fills the place occupied by Miniates in
the 17th century as a great preacher. Kontogones is well known by his
_History of Patristic Literature of the First Three Centuries_ and his
_Ecclesiastical History_, and Philotheos Bryennios, bishop of Serres, by
his elaborate edition of _Clemens Romanus_. Kastorches wrote well on
Latin literature. Great literary activity in the domains of law,
political economy, mathematics, the physical sciences and archaeology
displayed itself in the generation after the establishment of the Greek
kingdom.
Coraes.
But the writer who at the time of the national revival not only
exercised the greatest influence over his contemporaries but even to a
large extent shaped the future course of Greek literature was Adamantios
Coraes (Korais) of Chios. This remarkable man, who devoted his life to
philological studies, was at the same time an ardent patriot, and in the
prolegomena to his numerous editions of the classical writers, written
In Greek or French, he strove to awake the interest of his countrymen in
the past glories of their race or administered to them sage counsels, at
the same time addressing ardent appeals to civilized Europe on their
behalf. The great importance of Coraes, however, lies in the fact that
he was practically the founder of the modern literary language.
The modern literary language.
In contemporary Greek literature two distinct forms of the modern
language present themselves--the vernacular ([Greek: he kathomiloumene])
and the purified ([Greek: he kathareuousa]). The former is the oral
language, spoken by the whole Greek world, with local dialectic
variations; the latter is based on the Greek of the Hellenistic writers,
modified, but not essentially altered, in successive ages by the popular
speech. At the time of the War of Independence the enthusiasm of the
Greeks and the Philhellenes was fired by the memory of an illustrious
past, and at its close a classical reaction followed: the ancient
nomenclature was introduced in every department of the new state, towns
and districts received their former names, and children were christened
after Greek heroes and philosophers instead of the Christian saints. In
the literary revival which attended the national movement, two schools
of writers made their appearance--the purists, who, rejecting the spoken
idiom as degenerate and corrupt, aimed at the restoration of the
classical language, and the vulgarists, who regarded the vernacular or
"Romaic" as the genuine and legitimate representative of the ancient
tongue. A controversy which had existed in former times was thus
revived, with the result that a state of confusion still prevails in the
national literature. The classical scholar who is as yet unacquainted
with modern Greek will find, in the pages of an ordinary periodical or
newspaper, specimens of the conventional literary language, which he can
read with ease side by side with poems or even prose in the vernacular
which he will be altogether unable to interpret.
Reforms of Coraes.
The vernacular or oral language is never taught, but is universally
spoken. It has been evolved from the ancient language by a natural and
regular process, similar to that which has produced the Romance
languages from the Latin, or the Russian, Bulgarian and Servian from the
old Slavonic. It has developed on parallel lines with the modern
European languages, and in obedience to the same laws; like them, it
might have grown into a literary language had any great writers arisen
in the middle ages to do for it what Dante and his successors of the
_trecento_ did for Italian. But the effort to adapt it to the
requirements of modern literature could hardly prove successful. In the
first place, the national sentiment of the Greeks prompts them to
imitate the classical writers, and so far as possible to appropriate
their diction. The beauty and dignity of the ancient tongue possesses
such an attraction for cultivated writers that they are led insensibly
to adopt its forms and borrow from its wealth of phrase and idiom. In
the next place, a certain literary tradition and usage has already been
formed which cannot easily be broken down. For more than half a century
the generally accepted written language, half modern half ancient, has
been in use in the schools, the university, the parliament, the state
departments and the pulpit, and its influence upon the speech of the
more educated classes is already noticeable. It largely owes its present
form--though a fixed standard is still lacking--to the influence and
teaching of Coraes. As in the time of the decadence a [Greek: koine
dialektos] stood midway between the classical language and the popular
speech, so at the beginning of the 19th century there existed a common
literary dialect, largely influenced by the vernacular, but retaining
the characteristics of the old Hellenistic, from which it was derived by
an unbroken literary tradition. This written language Coraes took as the
basis of his reforms, purging it of foreign elements, preserving its
classical remnants and enlarging its vocabulary with words borrowed from
the ancient lexicon or, in case of need, invented in accordance with a
fixed principle. He thus adopted a middle course, discountenancing alike
the pedantry of the purists and the over-confident optimism of the
vulgarists, who found in the uncouth popular speech all the material
for a _langue savante_. The language which he thus endeavoured to shape
and reconstruct is, of course, conventional and artificial. In course of
time it will probably tend to approach the vernacular, while the latter
will gradually be modified by the spread of education. The spoken and
written languages, however, will always be separated by a wide interval.
Poetical writers in the vernacular.
Many of the best poets of modern Greece have written in the vernacular,
which is best adapted for the natural and spontaneous expression of the
feelings. Dionysios Solomos (1798-1857), the greatest of them all,
employed the dialect of the Ionian Islands. Of his lyrics, which are
full of poetic fire and inspiration, the most celebrated is his "Ode to
Liberty." Other poets, of what may be described as the Ionic school,
such as Andreas Kalvos (1796-1869), Julius Typaldos (1814-1883), John
Zampelios (1787-1856), and Gerasimos Markoras (b. 1826), followed his
example in using the Heptanesian dialect. On the other hand, Georgios
Terzetes (1806-1874), Aristotle Valaorites (1824-1879) and Gerasimos
Mavrogiannes, though natives of the Ionian Islands, adopted in their
lyrics the language of the Klephtic ballads--in other words, the
vernacular of the Pindus range and the mountainous district of Epirus.
This dialect had at least the advantage of being generally current
throughout the mainland, while it derived distinction from the heroic
exploits of the champions of Greek liberty. The poems of Valaorites,
which are characterized by vivid imagination and grace of style, have
made a deep impression on the nation. Other poets who largely employed
the Epirotic dialect and drew their inspiration from the Klephtic songs
were John Vilaras (1771-1823), George Zalokostas (1805-1857) in his
lyric pieces, and Theodore Aphentoules, a Cretan (d. 1893). With the
poems of this group may be classed those of Demetrius Bikelas (b. 1835).
The popular language has been generally adopted by the younger
generation of poets, among whom may be mentioned Aristomenes Probelegios
(b. 1850), George Bizyenos (1853-1896), George Drosines, Kostes Palamas
(b. 1859), John Polemes, Argyres Ephthaliotes, and Jacob Polylas (d.
1896).
Poetical writers in the conventional language.
Contemporary with the first-mentioned or Ionic group, there existed at
Constantinople a school of poets who wrote in the accepted literary
language, and whose writings serve as models for the later group which
gathered at Athens after the emancipation of Greece. The literary
traditions founded by Alexander Rizos Rhangabes (1810-1892) and the
brothers Alexander and Panagiotis Soutzos (1803-1863 and 1800-1868), who
belonged to Phanariot families, were maintained in Athens by Spiridion
Basiliades (1843-1874) Angelos Vlachos (b. 1838), John Karasoutzas
(1824-1873), Demetrios Paparrhegopoulos (1843-1873), and Achilles
Paraschos (b. 1838). The last, a poet of fine feeling, has also employed
the popular language. In general the practice of versification in the
conventional literary language has declined, though sedulously
encouraged by the university of Athens, and fostered by annual poetic
competitions with prizes provided by patriotic citizens. Greek lyric
poetry during the first half of the century was mainly inspired by the
patriotic sentiment aroused by the struggle for independence, but in the
present generation it often shows a tendency towards the philosophic and
contemplative mood under the influence of Western models.
Dramatists, translators and satirists.
There has been an abundant production of dramatic literature in recent
years. In succession to Alexander Rhangabes, John Zampelios and the two
Soutzos, who belong to the past generation, Kleon Rhangabes, Angelos
Vlachos, Demetrios Koromelas, Basiliades and Bernadakes are the most
prominent among modern dramatic writers. Numerous translations of
foreign masterpieces have appeared, among which the metrical versions of
_Romeo and Juliet_, _Othello_, _King Lear_, _Hamlet_, _Macbeth_ and _The
Merchant of Venice_, by Demetrios Bikelas, deserve mention as examples
of artistic excellence. Goethe's _Faust_ has been rendered into verse by
Probelegios, and _Hamlet_, _Antony and Cleopatra_, _Coriolanus and
Julius Caesar_, into prose by Damiroles. Among recent satirists, George
Soures (b. 1853) occupies a unique position. He reviews social and
political events in the [Greek: Rhomeos], a witty little newspaper
written entirely in verse, which is read with delight by all classes of
the population.
Recent prose writers.
Almost all the prose writers have employed the literary language. In
historical research the Greeks continue to display much activity and
erudition, but no great work comparable to Spiridion Trikoupis's
_History of the Revolution_ has appeared in the present generation. A
history of the Greek nation from the earliest times to the present day,
by Spiridion Lampros, and a general history of the 19th century by
Karolides, have recently been published. The valuable [Greek: Mnemeia]
of Sathas, the [Greek: meletai Byzantines historias] of Spiridion
Zampelios and Mavrogiannes's _History of the Ionian Islands_ deserve
special mention, as well as the essays of Bikelas, which treat of the
Byzantine and modern epochs of Greek history. Some of the last-named
were translated into English by the late marquis of Bute. Among the
writers on jurisprudence are Peter Paparrhegopoulos, Kalligas, Basileios
Oekonomedes and Nikolaos Saripolos. Brailas-Armenes and John
Skaltzounes, the latter an opponent of Darwin, have written
philosophical works. The _Ecclesiastical History_ of Diomedes Kyriakos
and the _Theological Treatises_ of Archbishop Latas should be noted. The
best-known writers of philological works are Constantine Kontos, a
strong advocate of literary purism, George Hatzidakes, Theodore
Papademetrakopoulos and John Psichari; in archaeology, Stephen
Koumanoudes, Panagiotes Kavvadias and Christos Tsountas have won a
recognized position among scholars. John Svoronos is a high authority on
numismatics. The works of John Hatzidakes on mathematics, Anast.
Christomanos on chemistry, and Demetrios Aeginetes on astronomy are well
known.
Fiction.
The earlier works of fiction, written in the period succeeding the
emancipation of Greece, were much affected by foreign influence. Modern
Greece has not produced any great novelist. The [Greek: Kretikoi gamoi]
of Spiridion Zampelios, the scene of which is laid in Crete, and the
_Thanos Blechas_ of Kalligas are interesting, the former for accuracy of
historical detail, the latter as a picture of peasant life in the
mountains of Greece. Original novel writing has not been much
cultivated, but translations of foreign romances abound. In later times
the short story has come into vogue through the example of D. Bikelas,
whose tales have acquired great popularity; one of them, _Loukis Laras_,
has been translated into many languages. The example of Bikelas has been
followed by Drosines Karkavitzas, Ephthaliotis, Xenopoulos and many
others.
Prose writers in the vernacular.
The most distinguished of the writers who adhere to the vernacular in
prose is John Psichari, professor of the Ecole des Hautes Etudes in
Paris. He is the recognized leader of the vulgarists. Among the best
known of his works are [Greek: To taxeidi mou], a narrative of a journey
in Greek lands, [Greek: Toneiro tou Giannire], [Greek: He Zoulea], and
[Greek: ho Magos]. The tales of Karkavitzas and Ephthaliotis are also in
the vernacular. Among the younger of M. Psichari's followers is M.
Palli, who has recently published a translation of the _Iliad_. Owing to
the limited resources of the popular language, the writers of this
school are sometimes compelled to employ strange and little-known words
borrowed from the various dialects. The vernacular has never been
adopted by writers on scientific subjects, owing to its inherent
unsuitability and the incongruity arising from the introduction of
technical terms derived from the ancient language. Notwithstanding the
zeal of its adherents, it seems unlikely to maintain its place in
literature outside the domain of poetry; nor can any other result be
expected, unless its advocates succeed in reforming the system of public
instruction in Greece.
Periodicals and Journals.
Many periodicals are published at Athens, among which may be mentioned
the _Athena_, edited by Constantine Kontos, the _Ethnike Agoge_, a
continuation of the old _Hestia_, the _Harmonia_ and the [Greek:
Diaplasis ton paidon], an educational review. The Parnassos, the
Archaeological Society and other learned bodies issue annual or
quarterly reports. The Greek journals are both numerous and widely read.
They contain much clever writing, which is often marred by inaccuracy
and a deficient sense of responsibility. Their tendency to exaggerated
patriotic sentiment sometimes borders on the ludicrous. For many years
the Nea _Hemera_ of Trieste exerted a considerable influence over the
Greek world, owing to the able political reviews of its editor,
Anastasios Byzantios (d. 1898), a publicist of remarkable insight and
judgment.
AUTHORITIES.--Constantine Sathas, [Greek: Neoellenike philologia]
(Athens, 1868); D. Bikelas, [Greek: Peri neoellenikes philologias
dokimion] (London, 1871), reprinted in [Greek: Dialexeis kai
anamneseis] (Athens, 1893); J. S. Blackie, _Horae Hellenicae_ (London,
1874); R. Nicolai, _Geschichte der neugriechischen Literatur_
(Leipzig, 1876); A. R. Rhangabe, _Histoire litteraire de la Grece
moderne_ (Paris, 1877); C. Gidel, _Etudes sur la litterature grecque
moderne_ (Paris, 1878); E. Legrand, _Bibliotheque grecque vulgaire_
(vol. i., Paris, 1880); J. Lamber, _Poetes grecs contemporains_
(Paris, 1881); Kontos, [Greek: Glossikai paratereseis] (Athens, 1882);
Rhangabe and Sanders, _Geschichte der neugriechischen Literatur von
ihren Anfangen bis auf die neueste Zeit_ (Leipzig, 1885); J. Psichari,
_Essais de grammaire historique neo-grecque_ (2 vols., Paris, 1886 and
1889); _Etudes de philologie neo-grecque_ (Paris, 1892); F. Blass,
_Die Aussprache des Griechischen_ (3rd ed., Berlin, 1888);
Papademetrakopoulos, [Greek: Basanos hellenikes prophoras] (Athens,
1889); M. Konstantinides, _Neo-hellenica_ (_Dialogues in Modern Greek,
with Appendix on the Cypriot Dialect_) (London, 1892); Rhoides,
[Greek: Ta Eidola. Glossike melete] (Athens, 1893); Polites, [Greek:
Meletai peri tou biou kai tes glosses Hellenikou laou] (2 vols.,
Athens, 1899).
For the Klephtic ballads and folk-songs: C. Fauriel, _Chants
populaires de la Grece moderne_ (Paris, 1824, 1826); Passow,
_Popularia carmina Graeciae recentioris_ (Leipzig, 1860); von Hahn,
_Griechische und albanesische Marchen_ (Leipzig, 1864); [Greek:
Tepharikes, Lianotragouda] (2nd ed., Athens, 1868); E. Legrand,
_Recueil de chansons populaires grecques_ (Paris, 1874); _Recueil de
contes populaires grecs_ (Paris, 1881); Paul de Lagarde,
_Neugriechisches aus Kleinasien_ (Gottingen, 1886); A. Jannaris,
[Greek: Asmata Kretika] (_Kreta's Volkslieder_) (Leipzig, 1876); A.
Sakellariou, [Greek: Ta Kypriaka] (Athens, 1891); [Greek: Zographeios
Hagon], published by the [Greek: Hellenikos philologikos syllogos]
(Constantinople, 1891). Translations: L. Garnett, _Greek Folksongs
from the Turkish Provinces of Greece_ (London, 1885); E. M. Geldart,
_Folklore of Modern Greece_ (London, 1884). Lexicons: A. N. Jannaris,
_A Concise Dictionary of the English and Modern Greek Languages_
(English-Greek) (London, 1895); Byzantios (Skarlatos D.), [Greek:
Lexikon tes Hellenikes glosses] (Athens, 1895); A. Sakellario, [Greek:
Lexikon tes Hellenikes glosses] (5th ed., Athens, 1898); S.
Koumanoudes, [Greek: Synagoge neon lexeon] (Athens, 1900). Grammars:
Mitsotakes, _Praktische Grammatik der neugriechischen Schrift- und
Umgangssprache_ (Stuttgart, 1891); M. Gardner, _A Practical Modern
Greek Grammar_ (London, 1892); G. N. Hatzidakes, _Einleitung in die
neugriechische Grammatik_ (Leipzig, 1892); E. Vincent and T. G.
Dickson, _Handbook to Modern Greek_ (London, 1893); A. Thumb,
_Handbuch der neugriechischen Volkssprache_ (Strassburg, 1895); C.
Wied, _Die Kunst der neugriechischen Volkssprache durch
Selbstunterricht schnell und leicht zu lernen_ (2nd ed., undated,
Vienna); A. N. Jannaris, _Historical Greek Grammar_ (London, 1897).
(J. D. B.)