MUSIC OF SAVAGE NATIONS.
The music of savage tribes, should properly begin a chronological
account of the music of the world. It can scarce be doubted that the
strains which to-day delight the ears of the rudest peoples, were
similar to those which gave pleasure to the uncultivated denizens of the
earth in pre-historic times. The scientific inquirer, even to-day, finds
unexpected points of resemblance in music of nations and tribes,
separated from each other in distance, custom, climate and religion;
resemblances which are so numerous that they can only be accounted for
by the hypothesis that the strains have come down from an earlier,
homogeneous race. Of course the earliest efforts of primitive man were
rather rhythmical than musical, and even at present the music of the
least civilized races is altogether rhythmical. The ease of the
discovery that a regular clapping of the hands, or stamping of the feet,
or striking two pieces of wood together, could produce a pleasing
effect, is so apparent that it puts all discussion as to the origin of
music, out of sight; a fortunate occurrence, since there are enough
points of dispute yet left for our wiseacres to contend over.
The discovery of drums and horns also came almost directly from nature;
and here the musical instruments of primitive man stopped; and here also
(in drums, clappers of wood, and trumpets) the catalogue of musical
instruments, of the more savage peoples, of the present, ceases.
But among the more advanced tribes of savages, we shall find instruments
that will cause us to coincide with Solomon’s opinion, that “there is
nothing new under the sun.”
With these, who did not stop contented at the rude percussion and
trumpet instruments, the next step was probably to cut reeds of various
lengths and to discover that the length regulated the tone. Here was the
first real discovery in music, for no sooner were high and deep tones
known than pleasant alternations would suggest themselves, and as a
consequence, melodies (however uncouth) sprang into being. Possibly at
the same mystic era, the tension of the sinews of some animal, left
exposed to the breeze, would fore-shadow string music. Then a thought
was required to find that the sounds varied with tension of the sinews,
and that a frame on which several threads and sinews were extended in
different degrees of tension, could be made to give the same variety of
tones, but of different quality of sound (_timbre_) from the reed pipes.
This already made demands upon the inventive faculties, and in the
infancy of music, as in the modern orchestra, stringed instruments take
the lead.[189]
It is improbable, however, that all nations went the same road in these
discoveries. Accident had much to do with it. The conch shell, among a
tribe near the sea, the horn, with a hunting people, and, with people
situated near the bamboo forests, the “pans pipes,” would be the first
of instruments. Instruments of the order of flutes, were also of easy
fabrication, and the knowledge that they are so wide-spread among
savages all the world over, is internal evidence that they were
“natural” instruments.
Without sketching further the probable progress of musical invention, we
shall now describe some of the instruments and songs used by the people
of the world who are yet in a state of nature. But first let us mention
some instruments, which have been handed down to us from an immensely
remote and ante-civilized period.
The antiquarians in classifying the progress of pre-historic races from
their earliest emergence from barbarism, have called that age, when the
use of metal became first known,—the Bronze Age; as at that time
smelting not being known, the use of iron was not understood, and metal
implements were fashioned of copper, which could be beaten by the hammer
(of stone) into the required shape, even when cold.
Of this mysterious epoch, a most interesting relic has been discovered,
in the shape of a musical instrument. In a sepulchre, in a deep ravine,
in Schleswig, were found very recently, a number of ornaments of bronze
and gold (silver as well as iron, was not then used), and also the horns
of many oxen. In the midst of this, lay a very large _trumpet_ of
bronze; a sure token of the existence of manufactured musical
instruments, thousands of years ago. This unique instrument when blown,
gives forth a deep, grave, and sonorous tone. In common with all the
barbarian trumpets, it has but one tone. It is at present in the Museum
of Copenhagen, but was exhibited at the Paris Exposition of 1867.[190]
The second of these instruments is more ancient still. The age preceding
the knowledge of the uses of metal by early man, is called the Stone
Age. At this period the rude implements of use and ornament were made
either of soft substances, such as wood, ivory, and horn, or else of
stone. Even in this crude epoch, instrumental music seems to have
existed, and not in its rudest form, for a specimen has fortunately been
preserved, which, if authenticated fully, will show a degree of musical
taste at a most unexpected period. In an ancient _dolman_, or sepulchre
near Poictiers was found a partly completed _flute_ made of a stag’s
horn. The distances of the holes, and shape of the mouth-piece, show an
aptitude of construction and an experience in acoustics; but the
instrument evidently belongs to the later period of the Stone Age.
But the third instrument is more interesting yet. It was discovered by
M. Lartet in a ravine, along with bones of animals now extinct in
France. It is also a flute (straight, and with mouth piece), with finger
holes.[191] It is made of the bone of a reindeer, which seems a proof
positive of its being made at a time when the climate and zoology of
France were totally different from the present. From the skulls found in
tombs and caves of this period, it appears impossible that man could
have been developed sufficiently at that time to construct an article of
pleasure, such as this. The skulls are said to greatly resemble those of
the present natives of Australia. Yet their possessors must have had a
vastly superior intelligence to the latter.
It is no great leap in fact, although it may be in time, to leave the
savages of our own ancient race, and describe the musical customs of the
savages of another, and inferior one. Therefore, we will leave the
discussion of the above three instruments and their makers to
Anthropological and Ethnological societies, and pass on to the
examination of the barbarian of the present age.
One of the most curious facts in savage music is to be found in New
Zealand. It is almost universally conceded that harmony was unknown to
Europeans until the tenth century; yet in New Zealand for unknown ages,
a combination of simple thirds in a short vocal strain[192] has been
known. It only illustrates the assertion of the force of accident, in
the rise of music.
Here was a savage tribe of cannibals who came upon a most important
musical idea (to be sure, in a crude state, but still the germ of the
Harmonic theory) probably long before its acceptance among civilized
nations.
Another strange savage song is that which was sung by the aborigines of
Canada, at the time of Cartier’s taking possession in the name of the
King of France (A. D. 1537). The curious fact here, was not in the
music, but in the words, in as much as the word “Alleluia” occurred in
it. This strange coincidence made some early writers conclude that the
inhabitants were Hebrews,[193] probably the lost tribes; it is needless
to say, that the surmise, was not borne out by any further researches.
In describing the music of barbarian races, we find that its sister art,
dancing, is closely connected with it, and that it is impossible to
separate the two. In the lowest tribes, the dance is the most prominent
part of the musical efforts of the people. The Australians, who are
considered, from the conformation of their skulls, and legs, to be
nearest to the brute creation, have many interesting dances. The most
important of these is the “Cobbongo Corrobboree,” or great mystery
dance. It is performed by the inhabitants of the far interior of the
island. We subjoin the account of a witness of this event.
The time selected for this great event is every twelfth moon, and during
her declination. For several days previous, a number of tribes, whose
territories adjoin one another, congregate at a particular spot,
characterised by an immense mound of earth, covered with ashes (known
amongst the white inhabitants as “a black’s oven”), and surrounded by
plenty of “couraway” or water holes.
To this place, they bring numbers of kangaroos, possums, emus, and wild
ducks, and a large quantity of wild honey, together with a grass from
the seed of which they make a sort of bread.
“Upon the evening on which the ‘corrobboree’ is celebrated, a number of
old men (one from each tribe) called ‘wammaroogo,’ signifying
medicine-men, or charm-men, repair to the top of the mound, where, after
lighting a fire they walk round it, muttering sentences, and throwing
into it portions of old charms which they have worn round their necks
for the past twelve months.”
“This is continued for about half an hour, when they descend, each
carrying a fire-stick, which he places at the outskirts of the camp, and
which is supposed to prevent evil spirits from approaching. As soon as
this is over, during which a most profound silence is observed by all,
the men of the tribe prepare their toilets for the ‘corrobboree,’
daubing themselves over with chalk, red ochre, and fat.”[194]
“While the men are thus engaged, the gentler sex are busy arranging
themselves in a long line, and in a sitting posture, with rugs made of
possum skins, wound round their legs, and a small stick called ‘mulla
mulla’ in each hand. A fire is lit in front of them, and tended by one
of the old charmers. As the men are ready, they seat themselves,
cross-legged, like tailors, and in regular serried file, at the opposite
side of the fire to the women, while one of the medicine-men takes up
his position at the top of the mound, to watch the rising of the moon
which is the signal for ‘corrobboree.’”
All is now still; nothing disturbs the silence, save the occasional
jabber of a woman or child, and even that, after a few minutes, is
hushed. The blaze of the fire throws a fitful light along the
batallion-like front of the black phalanx, and the hideous faces, daubed
with paint and smeared with grease, show out at such a moment to
anything but advantage. As soon as the old gentleman who has been
“taking the lunar” announces the advent of that planet, which seems to
exercise as great an influence over the actions of these people, as over
many of those amongst ourselves, the “corrobboree” commences.
“The women beat the little sticks together,[195] keeping time to a
peculiar monotonous air, and repeating the words, the burden of which
may be translated in this manner,—
‘The kangaroo is swift,
But swifter is Ngoyulloman;
The snake is cunning,
More cunning is Ngoyulloman, etc.’
Each woman using the name of her husband, or favorite in the tribe.”
“The men spring to their feet with a yell that rings through the forest,
and brandishing their spears, and boomerangs commence their dance,
flinging themselves into all sorts of attitudes, howling, laughing,
grinning, and singing; and this they continue until sheer exhaustion
compels them to desist, after which they roast and eat the product of
the chase gathered for the occasion, and then drop off to sleep one by
one.”[196]
We have already expressed our opinion that the dance (pantomimic) first
sprang into existence when some savage finding his own limited language
(perhaps even, he had none) inadequate to describe to his companions,
some deed of hunting or war which he had performed, reproduced the feat
in actions, to give a more perfect understanding of it. If song be as
old as speech, dancing may be said to be as old as gestures.
We are not surprised, therefore, to find among the Australians, dances
which represent such events. In the “frog dance,” the performers paint
themselves as usual, and then, squatting upon their haunches, jump
around in a circle imitating the motions of the frog. The “Emu dance”
represents the chase after that swift running bird. The performer who
takes the part of the Emu, imitates its fleet, long strides, and gives
out the low rattling drumming sound which is the bird’s only note.
In the “canoe dance” men and women stationed in two lines, imitate the
graceful motions of paddling a canoe.
There is a dance “with partners” prevalent in the southern part of
Australia. Both sexes participate in it. Each man carries a belt of
possum skin, or human hair, which he keeps stretched tight, holding one
end in each hand. The men all sit down in a circle while a woman takes
her place in the middle; one of the men then dances up to her, jumping
from side to side, and swaying his arms in harmony with his movements.
The woman also begins swaying and jumping in time with him, as he
approaches her, and after a short _pas de deux_ they dance back to their
places, while the centre is occupied by a fresh couple.
A strange dance was celebrated by the Tasmanians at each full moon. The
various tribes assembled at some trysting place, and while the women
prepared the fire, and fenced off a space for the dance, the men retired
to adorn themselves with paint, and to fasten branches of bushy twigs to
their ankles, wrists and waists. The women being seated at the front of
the space, one of the oldest among them, strode forward, calling by
name, one of the performers, whom she reviled as a coward, and
challenged to come forward and meet her charge, and answer it.
The warrior was swift enough in his response, and, bounding through the
fire, into the circle, he recounted his deeds of valor in both chase and
war. At every pause he made, his female admirers took up the list of his
praises, vaunting his actions in a sort of chant which they accompanied
with extemporized drums, made of rolled kangaroo skins.
“Suddenly upon some inspiring allegro movement of the thumping hand,
thirty or forty grim savages would hound successively through the
furious flames, into the sacred arena, looking like veritable demons on
a special visit to _terra firma_; and, after thoroughly exhausting
themselves, by leaping in imitation of the kangaroo, around and through
the fire, they vanish in an instant. After this, the old lady who was
the origination of all the hubbub, gave a signal, upon which, all the
females rose, and quite unadorned, gave a series of acrobatic
performances around the fire, that were strange and wonderful to behold.
The main point being however, with each of them, to outscream her sister
singers.”[197]
In the dances of Australia and Tasmania, only the rudest instruments of
percussion are used, and the chants are not musical, though sometimes
(rarely) the attitudes are graceful. A far more musical and poetical
people, are the New Zealanders who as we have already mentioned,
intuitively knew of harmony before the Europeans. Many of their love,
war, and religious songs have real sentiments of beauty in them, and the
gift of improvising poems and songs is much prized among them. Singular
to state, they (unlike all other savage races) do not use the drum in
their accompaniment. The _pahu_ (drum) is only used by them to give
military signals.[198] Their chief instrument is the flute, which is
usually made from a human thigh bone; often that of a fallen enemy. When
this is the case, the instrument is more than ordinarily prized, and is
worn around the neck. It is played through the nose, by placing the
nostril against the aperture, and blowing; stopping the other nostril
with the finger.
The native New Zealander sings in all his sports and labours, and in
spite of his _penchant_ for human flesh, is of a light and joyous
temperament. Every incident of war, chase or love is commemorated by an
extemporized song. Sometimes these songs live for generations after
their signification has passed away; and thus it is, that in many of the
songs of this people, words are found, of which, neither the singers nor
audience understand the meaning. One song (_E’Haka_) is accompanied with
much mimicry; when giving this, the performers sit down in a circle,
throw off their upper mats, and sing in concert, making meanwhile the
wildest of gestures, and turning up their eyes so that only their whites
are visible.
Their canoe song is very animating, and is often accompanied by the
primitive nose flute mentioned above.
The words (improvised) are such as “pull away! pull away! pull away.”
“Dig into the water.” “Break your backs,” etc., and are shouted with
stentorian lungs, but not unmusically.
But their greatest song and dance is the war-dance. In this they far
excel all other savage tribes the world over. Their movements although
extremely violent, are made with a precision and unity, to which all
other races are strangers. A description of this unique performance
speaks of it as follows.
“They begin by smearing the whole of their clothing and painting their
faces with scarlet ochre, so as to make themselves as hideous as
possible. When they assemble for the dance they arrange themselves in
lines usually three deep, and excite their naturally passionate
dispositions to the highest pitch by contorting their faces, and
thrusting out their tongues as an act of defiance, interspersing these
gestures with shouts, yells and challenges to the enemy. The dance
itself begins with stamping the feet in perfect time with each other,
the vigor of the stamp increasing continually, and the excitement
increasing in similar proportion. Suddenly with a yell, the whole body
of men leap sideways into the air, as if actuated by one spirit, and as
they touch the ground, come down on it with a mighty stamp that makes
the earth tremble. The war song is raised, and in accordance with its
rhythm, the men leap from side to side, each time coming down with a
thud, as of some huge engine.”[199]
The New Zealander often entertains himself with sham fights,[200] but
nothing has so intense an effect upon him as the music and action of
this rhythmic war-dance. Even when actual war is not impending, he will
enter into it with a vigor that is terrible. It transforms him for the
time into a monomaniac, and absorbs his whole nature; even when the
dance is given in honor of a stranger, it is dangerous to go too near
the Maori (native New Zealander) until he has become more tranquil.
On one occasion a party of New Zealanders, visiting a European ship,
were requested to give an exhibition of their war-dance on board. They
did so, beginning without much excitement, but gradually their leaps
became so fierce and powerful that the captain was afraid that they
would break the deck; he begged of them to desist, but in vain; he might
as well have spoken to a whirlwind. His voice was drowned in the shouts
and singing of the frenzied warriors. The chief of the party, showed the
influence of its charms, in a ludicrous manner:—
He had been presented on his arrival, with a full suit of naval uniform,
and he stalked around the deck, in all the dignity of new clothes. He
cheerfully allowed his followers to begin the war-dance, but he himself
looked on with conscious dignity; but after the excitement had continued
a few minutes, he too was drawn into its vortex. At first a gentle
swaying of his body, in time with the music was all: then a little
_sotto voce_ singing, then he joined in the rhythm stamping, and
finally, forgetting his new finery, he sprang into line and danced more
enthusiastically than any of them; so much so, that the clothes soon
split, and at the end of the dance he presented a very seedy appearance.
It is needless to say that the dance could not in any way be checked,
and found its conclusion only when all the dancers were reduced to a
state of complete exhaustion.
With all savage people, song, dance and poetry are indissolubly united;
a fact which goes far to prove the “naturalness” of the old Greek music.
In the Malaysian archipelago we find a similar style of music, to that
described above; but we find the natural instrument of barbarians, the
drum, far more plentifully used.
The Javanese have two kinds of drums, both made of copper, but differing
in size and pitch. The sound is like that of a distant bell, and as they
are used in sets, the compass often reaches an octave. The larger set,
called _Salendro_ contains but five tones in this interval; the general
effect of this set is _major_. The smaller set, called _Pelog_, contains
seven drums to the octave, and is minor in style. The natives themselves
speak of the _Salendro_ as being masculine, and the _Pelog_ as being
more tender and feminine in its _effect_.
The songs of Java (as also of other islands in the Malay archipelago)
are strongly suggestive of the Scotch popular ballads, and can readily
be reproduced in our scale.
It is not customary to sing the written poems, with an instrumental
accompaniment unless there is dancing simultaneously. As in French
poetry and song, many letters, usually mute, are sounded, so in the
Javanese much license of pronunciation is allowed in song, which would
be condemned in prose. There are some traces of inflection and accent,
altering the meaning of a word; thus “_boten_” signifies “_no_,” but
when the accent is placed on the first syllable, it signifies a haughty
or peremptory refusal, but when on the latter, a mild and regretful one.
The Javanese have three styles of musical compositions, the great,
medium, and lesser. The latter is used for the popular songs, the former
for the higher flights of poetry.
Very often one can hear an old native, on a holiday occasion, singing of
the great deeds of the ancient princes; the subjects of his ballads, are
often borrowed from the _babads_, or popular legends of the country, and
he accompanies himself with a species of stringed instrument. He sings
of the glories and fall of the kingdom of Pad-jad-jaran, and praises and
laments those royal heroes. Many of the love songs of the Malays are
written in the form of question and answer, as follows,—
“Where do the swallows go to bathe?
They go to bathe in the forest brook.
What has my loved one promised to me?
She has promised to chat a little with me,” etc.
This questioning and answering is not confined to their music, for the
Javanese are passionately fond of conundrums.[201] The imagery of their
poems and songs is of the simplest and most natural description, fields,
flowers, trees, rivers, etc., appear _ad infinitum_ in their
literature.[202] Their early historical legends are full of Gods in
human form, of giants, and miracles; somewhat resembling in this the
Hindoo allegories.
Theatrical representations, of course form a large part of both
Malaysian and Polynesian popular amusements. In Java, national history
is preserved not only by the ballads, but by pantomimic representations;
in the latter, little puppets made of leather, wood, or paper, and
sometimes masked performers, appear. The performance is accompanied by
orchestral music, certain stringed instruments of which are only played
by women. Some of the representations are given at night behind a white
curtain, and resemble what, with us, are called, “shadow pantomimes;”
these are performed mostly by females, and often last all night,
breaking up, at times, as late as six in the morning.
At all Javanese _fetes_, music is played, and every native is expected
to entertain such wandering musicians as apply to him. A refusal is apt
to cost dearly, as the irate musicians stone the dwelling of the
obdurate one.[203]
M. Scherzer, connected with the Austrian Round-the-world expedition in
1857 (in the frigate Novara), was not highly delighted with the Javanese
pantomime dancing and music;[204] he says:
“Conversation was carried on with difficulty, for an incessant and
stupefying noise was kept up with the _gammelong_, or orchestra of
bells. Bayaderes, very scantily clothed, and excessively ugly, executed
sentimental and religious dances of a most tedious description.
Stiff, slow, and thin, these damsels jumped like forks, with motions as
graceful as those of old semaphores. The governor was kind enough to
explain to us, that the dance was meant to represent the touching
history of four sisters, who, lost in the forest, implored from the
divinity the return of their mother.
This was followed by another choregraphic entertainment, a dance of
eight warriors, accompanied by the perpetual _gammelong_. The same
delectable music, delighted the ears of those who were without in the
court-yard. Hideous masks, on foot and on horseback, circulated there
amidst the crowd; a Mussulman priest was also howling fearfully, as he
danced on hot ashes, near to a mass of burning wood; others jumped in
and danced away frantically. At last the priest himself joined them, and
the shouts and gesticulations became furious. This representation had
probably some signification of religious expiation, at least it would
have been deemed as such in ancient mysteries.”
After this followed conjuring tricks of a wonderful, though sanguinary
description, “and then the infernal _gammelong_ began again.” Then came
excellent fireworks. “At last the _gammelong_ ceased its stunning
noise.”
During Captain Cook’s voyage round the world, Banks and Solander, two of
his best associates witnessed (A. D. 1769) a pantomime in one of the
Society islands. It was of a comic nature, and contained music and
dancing. The subject was the adventures of a thief, including his
capture.[205] In Cook’s second voyage, Forster observed a comic opera in
the Society islands, which appear closely allied to the above. Actors
and actresses appeared in this play, the first act of which concluded
with a burlesque beating of three of the participants. The commencement
of the second act was announced by the musicians beating their
drums.[206]
In the Tonga islands, the actors of these musical dramas recite
sentences which are answered by a chorus of singers. There is a great
variety in their movements and groupings. Occasionally they sing slowly,
and afterwards quickly for about a quarter of an hour. Sometimes they
form a semi-circle, assume a bending position, and sing in a subdued
tone of voice, a soft air, which is soon followed again by a loud and
vehement declamation.
It is a singular fact that some of the races most addicted to
cannibalism are also much addicted to music. We have seen this already
in the case of the New Zealanders; it will be fully as apparent with the
most cannibalistic race of the globe,—the Fiji Islanders. With them,
music teaching is a remunerative art, and any one who has composed a new
song or dance, can earn a large quantity of goods by teaching it. Their
musical instruments are poor and few; they consist of pipes, flutes,
drums, and trumpets. The trumpets are merely conch shells, blown through
an aperture in the side.
The flutes are nose-flutes, played by putting the aperture under one
nostril, closing the other with the thumb of the left hand, and blowing.
The pipes are a species of pandean pipes made of bamboo.
The dances are very carefully got up, and more resemble military
movements than dances, the similitude being increased by the martial
array of the dancers, who are all dressed as if for war, their faces
painted with scarlet, their bodies powdered black, and their best clubs
or spears in their hands. They execute intricate manœuvres, marching in
various figures, wheeling, halting, and stamping their feet in exact
time to the rhythm of the song, and the beat of the drum.
Sometimes several hundred men are engaged in the dance, while the
musicians are twenty or thirty in number. The scene at one of these
dances is very picturesque, but it wants the furious energy, which gives
such fiery animation to the war-dance of the New Zealanders; the
movements, though correct in point of time, being comparatively dull and
heavy. In order to enliven it a little more, a professional buffoon is
usually introduced upon the scene, who performs sundry grotesque
movements, and is usually applauded for his exertions. Music and dancing
are always used at the celebration of a marriage.[207] Mr. Seeman in a
recent work[208] says of the entertainment called _Kalau Rere_, that,
“with its high poles, streamers, evergreens, [these cannibals are very
tasty in their personal adornments, wreaths of flowers, evergreens,
etc., being much used], masquerading, trumpet shells, chants, and other
wild music, is the nearest approach to dramatic representation, the
Fijians seem to have made, and it is with them, what private theatricals
are with us. Court fools, in many instances hunchbacks, are attached to
the chief’s establishment.”
The music of the remaining races of Oceanica, does not differ very
materially from the above-described forms. Many of the instruments found
in use among the Malays, have had their origin in China and India,[209]
and therefore the description of them has not been made so minute as
that of the instruments of those countries. Summed up briefly, we find
that the taste for rhythm is _every where_ prevalent; for instruments of
percussion, almost so, (the New Zealanders forming a notable exception
here), and that the prevailing impulse of these races, on hearing
rhythmic music, is to dance.
We now proceed to the examination of the music of another large division
of the human race.