MUSIC OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.
Under the luxurious reign of the Cæsars, music attained unusual
prominence in Rome, but it was still the music of virtuosity, rather
than true art. Skillful performers multiplied, while talented composers
did not exist. The choruses were augmented to the utmost, their numbers
exceeding all previous extent.[74] New instruments began also to appear,
the sumphonia, the hydraulic organ, and others. The study of music began
to be fashionable (in some at least of its branches) and the emperors
themselves did not disdain to practise the art. It is a singular fact,
however, that exactly those emperors who were the greatest rascals, took
the greatest interest in music. Domitian founded games in honor of
Jupiter, in which he introduced Kithara playing and other musical
contests to amuse the populace. Heliogabalus sang, danced, played the
flute, organ, and pandura, and was proficient in giving musical
recitations with flute accompaniment. Caligula studied singing and
dancing, and was so fond of the former, that when at the theatre, he
could scarcely ever refrain from following the melodies which the
tragedians sang, by humming along with them. It is related of him,[75]
that during the height of his power and tyranny, he sent, one night, a
summons to three men of consular rank, to attend him at once at his
palace; in fear and terror, the three hastened to obey, scarcely
doubting that the night was to be their last on earth; on arriving, they
were most agreeably surprised to hear the sound of flutes, and the
emperor himself suddenly burst out before them, arrayed in full
theatrical costume, and sang them a song, after which he bowed and
retired, upon which they were dismissed, and returned to their anxious
families; we can imagine that, under the circumstances, Caligula
received very hearty applause that night.
Vespasian established musical games, and gave large sums to actors and
singers.[76]
Titus was a good singer and player.
In the later days of paganism, when the music of the Christian church
had already manifested its power and superiority, the Emperor Julian
endeavored to bolster up the religion of the ancestors, and fight the
church with one of its own weapons. He therefore sought to make an
extensive reform in the religious and sacrificial music. He endeavored
to form music schools at Alexandria, in Egypt, where a new school of
singing and composition might be inculcated, and whence Rome might draw
the material for a better religious music than had formerly obtained. In
one of his letters, he says: “I deem no study more worthy of attention
than good music. I desire that you select from among the population of
Alexandria certain well born lads, who shall be supplied each with two
Egyptian artabai per month, besides rations of corn, wine and oil, and
be provided also with clothes by the comptroller of the treasury. The
boys are to be chosen for a definite time according to their voice.
Should any give promise of further abilities to reach a high degree in
the science of music, let them be informed that we propose to offer to
such, very substantial rewards. That the minds of these lads will,
independently of our encouragement, be benefited by that cleansing power
which perfect music exerts, we may rest assured on the authority of
those who in past times have laid down excellent regulations on the
subject. So much for the new choristers. As for those now under the
instruction of the music master Dioscurus, make them act here all the
more diligently to their practice. Since we are prepared to assist them
in whatever way they may choose.”[77]
This beautiful scheme was frustrated by the death of its great
originator, about two years afterward.
But among all the Roman Emperors, none was a more passionate virtuoso,
and devotee of skillful music than that incomprehensible monster, Nero.
We shall enter into considerable detail regarding this curious emperor,
as he may stand as a type (although an exaggerated one) of the soulless
and sensual musical _virtuosi_ of his era. In giving his history (so far
as it relates to music) we follow mainly the version of Suetonius.
He studied music in his early youth, and first appeared publicly in the
games of the Roman youth, entitled the _Juvenalia_;[78] here he seems to
have made no remarkable impression, either by his voice or dramatic
action. Immediately on his accession to the throne, he sent for the
famous harper Terpnus, and took the greatest pleasure in his
performances; it was his habit to sit with him after supper till late
into the night. At last he began to practice upon the instrument
himself; and at the same time he began to apply himself assiduously to
the cultivation of his voice, although it is the testimony of all his
historians, that his voice was rather thin and husky.
The care he lavished upon the preservation of his voice, far out-does
that of any modern _prima donna_; he would lie on his back during part
of each day, with a sheet of lead on his stomach, or chest; he used
emetics and clysters copiously when it seemed at all out of order; his
food was always regulated with reference to its effect upon his voice,
and he forbore from eating many fruits and pickles, because they were
prejudicial to it.
He never delivered any addresses to his army because he feared that he
might thereby strain it; all his speeches to the soldiers were delivered
by proxy, even though he were present. On all occasions, he had his
voice-master by him, to caution him whenever he should be in danger of
over-straining, and this instructor was ordered, if the warning should
by any cause be unheeded, to clap a napkin upon his mouth by way of
enforcing his advice. Through the whole reign of this emperor however,
there was never less misery than while he was applying himself to his
musical education, or was upon his musical tours.
Encouraged by the improvement (real or imagined) in his voice, he became
desirous of appearing upon the public stage. The unjust valuation which
he placed upon the art, being apparent by his remark that “music
unheard, was valueless and unregarded.”
His first public appearance took place at Naples, A. D. 63; while
singing, the theatre was shaken by an earthquake, but Nero was not to be
checked, even by the elements, and sang to the end of his song.[79]
After the theatre had been vacated, it fell in; and Nero composed
lengthy hymns to the gods for his escape.[80]
On his return to Rome he was desirous of showing his skill in that
metropolis; at first he only sang to select audiences of friends at his
own palace, but infatuated with the applause of this flattering circle,
he was only too glad to follow their suggestion that such a fine voice
should not be hidden.
He instituted games in his own honor, entitled the _Neronia_, which were
celebrated in imitation of the Greek sacred games, every fifth year; at
these games he had introduced contests of flute and organ-players; he
was too impatient to wait until the allotted interval should have
expired, but ordered that the games should be celebrated in advance of
their accustomed time, and placed his name on the list of musical
competitors;[81] the Senate sought to avert such a disgrace, by offering
to decree the victory to him, without requiring him to compete, but Nero
answered, that he stood in no need of favor or protection; that he
depended entirely upon himself and upon his own merits; that he would
fairly enter the lists, and that the decision should come from the
judges.[82] When his name was called, he came on in his regular turn,
attended by a suite of high military officials, one of whom bore his
harp. After taking his place he announced that he would sing the story
of Niobe; this he did, and kept it up for hours, but at the conclusion
he (suddenly changing from singer to emperor) deferred the awards of the
judges for one year, as this afforded him an opportunity to appear again
in that time.
The people gave on this occasion immense applause, but whether they were
most pleased by the music, or by the novelty of the whole affair, is
doubtful.
But Nero could not wait even the exceptionally short time which he had
set, and appeared at numerous private shows, which were given from time
to time by private individuals of wealth and station. For these
performances he was glad to be offered compensation, not from any
avaricious motive, but because it stamped him as a thorough and
professional artist; of course many courtiers took advantage of this
foible and were very glad to pay him a princely _honorarium_. He was
offered on one occasion 1,000,000 sesterces for one appearance; this sum
being equivalent to $37,500 puts the enormous salaries of the modern
prima donna to the blush.
He sometimes sang for two or three days in the same place, only pausing
occasionally to take refreshments and recuperate, and seldom was any
song of his less than a day in length.
This in itself might have been an easily-avoided bore under ordinary
circumstances, but he prevented the possibility of a decreasing
audience, by posting sentinels at the doors, and forbidding all egress.
We can judge of the terrible dullness of these occasions by the fact
that some spectators, at times, jumped from the windows, at the risk of
their limbs, while others feigned death and were carried out for
burial.[83]
There were spies scattered through the audience, and any inattention to
the emperor’s singing was dangerous. The soldiers chastised every one
who did not applaud properly. If any of the lower classes presumed to
give adverse criticism, they were summarily dealt with, while those of
the upper rank who showed their weariness, were marked out for future
vengeance. The emperor had in reality the life of any subject in his
power, while seemingly only exerting legal authority; for he had
hundreds of informers, spies and perjurers about his court who could
fasten any charge on any person however high in station, and the
awe-struck senate was always ready to condemn. Many when charged with
any crime by the emperor’s minions, at once committed suicide as the
shortest way out of the scrape.
Among those who fell under Nero’s displeasure for not appreciating his
music, was the future emperor Vespasian, who during one of the songs,
fell fast asleep. Nero was with difficulty persuaded to spare his life,
but finally contented himself with banishing him from the court. The
scene must have been to some extent, ludicrous, when these poor, bored
victims of the emperor-musician, applauding vehemently, cried out for
more. Yet the applause did not always fall in the right place, and to
obviate this difficulty, the emperor formed a corps of _claquers_ or
professional applauders, whose duty it was to lead, and direct the
applause at the proper moments. This army of _claquers_ consisted of
many fashionable young men, and five thousand commoners. They could
easily be distinguished by their elegant attire and curled locks.
The system pursued was similar to that at present used in some of the
Parisian theatres; there was one chief, or leader, and several deputy
commanders; the force was divided into small parties, and mingled among
the _bona fide_ audience, and at a signal from their chief, there would
be applause of the required kind.
Nero lavished large sums on this _corps_, and was ever susceptible of
flattery to his musical talents: on some Alexandrians singing some
verses in his praise, he was so elated that he sent to Alexandria for
more singers and conferred many benefits upon them.
Once while singing in the Roman theatre, in the character of Orestes,
the murderer of his mother (which he certainly ought to have acted well,
for Nero killed his own mother) he came on the stage loaded with chains,
on which a young soldier rushed on the stage to deliver him; this
compliment to the reality of his acting was specially grateful to Nero.
The passion for acting and singing were with him almost monomania;
during the immense conflagration of Rome, which he himself had kindled,
(and which burned for six days and seven nights) he stood upon the tower
of Mecaenas, and was so impressed with the spectacle, that he hastened
to his theatre, put on the appropriate costume, and sang “The
Destruction of Troy:” hence the proverb “Nero fiddled while Rome was
burning,” which might run more appropriately “Nero sang because Rome was
burning,” for it was not callousness, as has been implied, but rather
the reverse of it; a venting of the emotions caused by the grandeur of
the spectacle.
That he had implicit belief in his musical powers, there can be no
manner of doubt, for he had thoughts of possibly using it as a
profession; it had been foretold that the time should come when he would
be forsaken by all; on which he replied to the soothsayer “an artist can
gain his livelihood in any country.”
In Greece at the public games, the musical contests were still an
important feature,[84] and the cities where they were celebrated,
hearing of Nero’s vanity in music, sent envoys to him with several
golden crowns, as tribute to his abilities in the art; Nero was
gratified beyond measure, and said that the Greeks had the only proper
appreciation of music. He gave a sumptuous supper to the envoys, after
which they begged that they might be permitted to hear that divine
voice; Nero, nothing loth, consented, and as might be expected the
Greeks went into ecstasies of applause. This determined Nero to make a
musical tour through Greece, and attend the sacred games there.
He started on his journey with a vast retinue, among which were the
entire force of _claquers_. Arriving in Greece he ordered the games
which did not fall in that year, to be celebrated out of course, and
also, contrary to all precedent, established musical contests at the
Olympic games, that he might have the honor of appearing in them.[85]
At these games, he appeared with all his enforced boredom, none being
allowed to leave the theatre, during his performances. The anxiety and
earnestness he displayed in these contests are almost incredible. He
bribed better artists to allow him to win, and he would address the
judges, telling them that he had made all study and preparation, and
taken all the care necessary for so important a contest, but the issue
was in their hands, he hoped therefore they would not regard any purely
accidental mishaps. The judges would thereupon mildly encourage the
timid contestant.
He always adhered strictly to the rules imposed upon the contestants; he
would never spit, or wipe the perspiration from his forehead; once on
dropping his staff, he was greatly alarmed lest the accident should lose
him the prize, but was reassured by one of the contestants who told him
that he was sure that the judges had not perceived the occurrence; after
the conclusion of his song, he fell on his knees, stretching out his
hands in humble supplication for the verdict of the judges. But when the
victory was awarded to him, (as it was always sure to be) his humility
was thrown to the winds; he then caused his own heralds to proclaim him
as the victor, and soon set up statues of himself in the various cities,
with laudatory inscriptions, according to the custom of Greece. Not
content however, with this, he also caused the statues of all previous
victors to be pulled down and thrown in the sewers.
He took the prize (of course) in every Greek contest in which he
participated. Competition was freely invited, though not as freely
tolerated.
In one of the Grecian contests a musician entered the lists against him,
who was very proud of his skill, and could not be bought; he contested
the prize so obstinately and skilfully, that Nero’s soldiers also
entered the contest by driving him to the wall, and killing him in sight
of the audience;[86] the prize was awarded to Nero.
His return from the tour was made with grand pomp; on reaching Naples,
he had a breach made in the walls (according to Greek custom) and made
his triumphal entry into the city, through it. In the same manner he
entered Rome and Antium. In Rome he arrogated to himself a full triumph,
and entered in state; all his prizes to the number of eighteen hundred
were placed in chariots, and appeared in the procession, each one
bearing an inscription as to where and when it was won. Statues were set
up, and medals struck in honor of his unprecedented musical success.
From this time forward, until his death he did not abate in his musical
studies or ardor.
Towards the close of his reign, he took much interest in the water
organ, of which we have previously given a description.
When his affairs were at a crisis, soon to be followed by his death, he
still gave most of his time to his favorite study. One day when
messengers first brought to him the tidings of a new rebellion, it is
related that he spent a few moments in consultation about these
momentous state affairs, and the rest of the day in showing to his
courtiers some new organs which he said he intended shortly to introduce
into the theatre.
When apprised of the fact that the legions of Julius Vindex had
mutinied, and that that able general had also declared against him, he
was sufficiently aroused to march against him, but, ever a maniac on the
subject of music, he declared that he intended to do nothing but appear
in the camp of the rebellious legions, and weep and sing to them
pathetic songs, which should so affect them that they would at once
return to their allegiance; the next day after the bloodless victory he
promised to appear and sing songs of triumph in the theatre; and he
thought it well that composers should begin to write the triumphal odes
at once.
In preparing for the expedition, his chief care was not for instruments
of war, but to provide safe carriage for his musical instruments; many
wagons were filled with these, as he took along several water organs.
But the expedition never took place, and he never had the chance of
testing the effects of pathetic music upon the Roman legions, for all
the army declared against him and he suddenly found himself deserted by
his court, and proscribed by the senate. In his downfall nothing hurt
him more than that his enemies spoke of him as “that pitiful harper,”
and he constantly appealed to his attendants if any could excel him in
the art.
He at this crisis made a vow that, if his reign continued peaceably, he
would appear in the games he intended to give in honor of his success
against the insurgents, and play the water organ, flute and sumphonia,
as well as enact a play, and dance; but these inflictions the Roman
people were spared.
In one night his seemingly strong power vanished, and he was compelled
to fly for his life, attended only by three or four persons. Having made
his way to the suburban residence of Phaon, one of his freedmen, it was
soon apparent that he could not escape, and that he must die, either by
the hands of the infuriated Romans, or by his own. Weeping and sobbing,
while his attendants prepared his grave, almost his last words before
his suicide were “Alas! what an artist the world is now to lose,” thus
in his latest moments, keeping up that egotism and infatuation for music
which had been one of his ruling characteristics through life.
The musical side of Nero’s character is certainly to some extent
ludicrous, but there were other and far darker sides to his hideous
character. These of course are not within our province to dwell upon,
but we have chosen to give a full description of his musical life that
the reader may clearly see how little of true art, or love of art could
have existed in so oppressive an atmosphere.