second city of Aragon, and replaces Bilbilis of the Iberians, which
stood on a hill near it. {435} One of its most nauseous suburbs
is wholly inhabited by mendicants. Teruel, on the Guadalaviar, the
chief town of the Maeztrazgo, with its crenellated walls and turrets,
resembles a mediæval fortress. The Arab tower of its church is one of
the curiosities of “untrodden” Spain, and its aqueduct, which crosses a
valley on 140 arches, is a remarkable work of the sixteenth century.
Several towns of the interior of Catalonia are equally venerable
in their aspect. “Proud” Puigcerda (Puycerda), close to the French
frontier, on the Upper Segre, is hardly more than a collection of
hovels surrounded by a rampart. Seo de Urgel, in a fertile portion of
the same valley, is no doubt of some importance as a fortress, but its
streets are dirty, its houses mean, and its mud walls dilapidated.
[Illustration: Fig. 169.—THE DELTA OF THE EBRO.
Scale 1 : 375,000.]
Still lower down the Segre we meet with the ancient city of Lérida,
whose origin dates back to prehistoric times, and which, owing to
its strategical position, has at all times played a prominent part
in military history. The gardens of Lérida supply much produce for
exportation, but the place cannot rise into importance until the
Franco-Spanish coast railway shall have been completed.
Tortosa, a picturesque city just above the delta of the Ebro, and
formerly the capital of an Arab kingdom, commands one of the passages
over the Ebro, {436} and its commerce would increase if the river
offered greater facilities for navigation.
Tarragona in the time of the Romans was the great maritime outlet
of the valley of the Ebro. The city was then nearly forty miles in
circumference, with arenas, amphitheatres, palaces, temples, and
aqueducts, and a population of hundreds of thousands. The ruins of this
ancient Tarraco have been made use of in the construction of the modern
city, with its clumsy cathedral, towers, decayed ramparts, and Roman
aqueduct intersecting the suburban orange groves. The manufacturing
town of Reus may almost be looked upon as a suburb of it, and is
rapidly increasing in population. Near it is the monastery of Poblet,
in which are deposited the remains of the Kings of Aragon.
[Illustration: Fig. 170.—THE STEPPES OF ARAGON.
According to Willkomm. Scale 1 : 2,000,000.]
[Illustration: BARCELONA, SEEN FROM THE CASTLE OF MONJUL.]
The country between Tarragona and Barcelona is densely populated. We
pass through the fertile district of El Panadés, the equally fertile
valley irrigated by the reddish waters of the Llobregat, with towns and
villages in rapid succession, until we reach the suburbs of Barcelona.
The city proper lies on the sea, at the foot of the fortifications
crowning the steep heights of Monjuich. There is another citadel
of immense size to the east of the city, yet this latter reposes
gaily beneath its batteries, which could easily reduce it to ashes.
Barcelona boasts of being the great pleasure town of Spain. Its
population is less than that of Madrid, but there are more theatres
and concert halls. The dramatic performances are of a superior class,
and the taste of the people is more refined. The public promenades,
such as the Rambla, occupying the bed of an ancient torrent, the
{437} sea-walls, and the avenues of trees which separate Barcelona
from the citadel and the suburb of Barceloneta, are crowded on fine
evenings. Barcelona is no doubt the “unique city” of Cervantes, and
perhaps “the home of courtesy and of valiant men;” but we doubt its
being the “common centre of all sincere friendships.” Barcelona exceeds
all other towns of Spain by its commerce.[157] The harbour is exposed
to southerly winds, and somewhat difficult of access. Barcelona is ever
renewing itself. There are broad streets of uniformly built houses,
and some quarters, as that of Barceloneta, on a tongue of land to the
east of the port, are laid out with all the regularity of an American
city. The only architectural monuments of note are a Gothic cathedral
and the old palace of the Inquisition. But all around the town, beyond
the suburbs with their factories and workmen’s dwellings, we meet with
numerous villas, occupying delightful nooks in verdant valleys or the
steep hill-slopes. No more charming district exists in Spain than that
to the north of Barcelona and Badalona, extending as far as Masnou,
Mataró, and the river Tordera. Promontories covered with vines, pines,
and cork-oaks, and sometimes crowned by the ruins of a castle, project
into the sea; the valleys are laid out in gardens enclosed with aloe
hedges; towns and villages follow in rapid succession; and the boats
and nets of fishermen are seen on the beaches.
Most towns of the province of Barcelona emulate the manufacturing
industry of the capital. Igualada, at the foot of the Monserrat;
Sabadell, in a valley, full of factories; Tarrasa, the old Roman city,
near which are the famous baths of La Puda; Manresa, on the Cardoner
rivulet; Vich, the old primatial city of Catalonia; and Mataró, on the
coast, are all distinguished for the manufacture of cloth, linens,
silks, cotton stuffs, ribbons, lace, leather, hats, faience, glass, or
paper. Manufacturing industry has likewise spread into the neighbouring
province of Gerona, and notably to the city of Olot; but the vicinity
of the French frontier, the practice of smuggling, and the presence of
large garrisons in the fortresses of Gerona and Figueras have hindered
its development. Gerona has sustained many a siege, and Figueras, in
spite of its huge citadel, has been repeatedly captured. The walls of
Rosas are crumbling to pieces, and every vestige of the Greek city of
Emporion has been buried beneath the alluvium brought down by the river
Fluvia, but it still lives in the name of the surrounding district of
Ampurdan.[158]
* * * * *
The crest of the Pyrenees constitutes for the most part the political
boundary between France and Spain, but there are exceptions to this
rule. At the western extremity of the chain Spain enjoys the advantage,
for the valley of the Bidassoa, on the French slopes, belongs to it;
but France is compensated in the east by the possession of Mount
Canigou and the valley of the Upper Segre. As a rule, however, Spain
has the best of the bargain, and this is only natural, as the Pyrenees
are most accessible from the south, and the population there is more
dense. The {438} herdsmen of Aragon and the Basque provinces never
missed an opportunity of taking possession of pastures on the northern
slopes of the mountains, and these encroachments were subsequently
ratified by international treaties.
The valley of Aran, in the very heart of the Pyrenees, is one of these
bloodless conquests of Spain. The French Garonne rises in that valley,
but the defile through which it leaves it is very narrow and easily
obstructed. Up to the eighteenth century the Aranese enjoyed virtual
independence; and as they are shut off from the rest of the world by
mountains covered with snow during the greater part of the year, these
21,000 mountaineers would appear to possess more claim to constitute
themselves an independent republic than any other people in Europe.
Farther east there is another mountain valley which, nominally at
least, forms an independent republic. This is Andorra, a territory of
230 square miles, with 6,000 inhabitants. A few pastures on the French
slope excepted, the whole of this valley is drained by the beautiful
stream of Embalira, or Valira, which joins the Segre in the smiling
plain of Seo de Urgel. Most of the mountains of Andorra have been
robbed of their trees, and the destruction of the few remaining forests
is still going on. The vegetable soil is being rapidly washed away,
and the moraines of ancient glaciers gradually slide down the mountain
slopes.
The republic of Andorra is said to owe its existence to a defeat of the
Saracens by Charlemagne or Louis le Débonnaire, but in reality up to
the French Revolution the valley enjoyed no sovereign rights whatever.
It was a barony of the Counts of Urgel and of Aragon. In 1278 it was
decided that Andorra should be held jointly by the Bishops of Urgel and
the Counts of Foix. In 1793 the French republic declined to receive the
customary tribute, and in 1810 the Spanish Cortes abolished the feudal
régime. Andorra thus became an independent state. The inhabitants,
however, continue to govern themselves in accordance with old feudal
customs, which are not at all reconcilable with the principles of
modern republics. The land belongs to a few families. There is a law
of entail, and younger brothers become the servants of the head of the
family, whose hospitality they enjoy only on condition of their working
for him. The tithes were only abolished in 1842. The “liberty” of these
mountaineers consists merely in exemption from the Spanish conscription
and impunity in smuggling; and, to increase their revenues, they have
recently established a gambling-table. Their legitimate business
consists in cattle-breeding, and there are a few forges and a woollen
factory.
The republic of Andorra recognises two suzerains, viz. the Bishop
of Urgel, who receives an annual tribute of £25, and the French
Government, to whom double that sum is paid. Spain and France are
represented by two provosts, the commandant of Seo de Urgel exercising
the functions of viceroy. The provosts command the militia and appoint
the bailiffs, or judges. They, together with a judge of appeal,
alternately appointed by France and Spain, and two _rahonadores_, or
defenders of Andorran privileges, form the Cortes. Each parish is
governed by a consul, a vice-consul, and twelve councillors elected
by the heads of families. A General Council, of which the consuls and
delegates of the parishes are members, meets at the village of Andorra.
But in spite of these fictions Andorra is an {439} integral part of
Spain, and the carabineers never hesitate to cross the frontiers of
this sham republic. By language, manners, and customs the Andorrans are
Catalans. Exemption from war has enabled them to grow comparatively
rich. They are intelligent and cunning, and well know how to assume
an air of astonishment when their interests are at stake. Acting the
fool, in order to take some one in or avoid being ensnared, is called
by their neighbours “playing the Andorran.” Andorra, a neat village,
is the capital of the territory, but San Julia de Loria is the most
important place, and the head-quarters of the smugglers.
VII.—BASQUE PROVINCES, NAVARRA, AND LOGROÑO.[159]
The Basque provinces (Vascongadas) and the ancient kingdom of Navarra,
though scarcely a thirtieth part of Spain, constitute a separate
region, not only on account of geographical position, but also because
they are inhabited for the most part by a distinct race, having its own
language, manners, and political institutions.
Looked at from a commanding position, the hills connecting the Pyrenees
with the Castilian plateau resemble a sea lashed by contrary winds, for
there are no prominent mountain ranges. Even the Pyrenees have sunk
down to a mean height of 3,000 feet, and the Lohihulz (3,973 feet),
where they cease to form the frontier, scarcely deserves to be called a
mountain. They extend thence to the Pass of Azpiroz (1,860 feet), where
they terminate. The vague range beyond is known as Sierra de Aralar
(4,330 feet), and still farther west by a variety of local names.
These mountains are traversed by several low passes, facilitating
communication with the valley of the Ebro, the most important of which
is the Pass of Orduña (2,134 feet), which is crossed by the railway
from Bilbao to Miranda, and dominated by the Peña Gorbea (5,042 feet)
and the Sierra Salvada (4,120 feet).
The spurs which descend from these mountains towards the Bay of Biscay
are likewise very irregular in their features. Most of them are
connected by transversal chains, through which the rivers have only
with difficulty forced for themselves an outlet towards the sea. The
Bidassoa, for instance, sweeps far to the south, through the valley of
Bastan, before it takes its course to the northward, in the direction
of its estuary at Fuenterrabia. Within its huge bend it encloses a
detached portion of the Pyrenees, the principal summit of which is the
famous Mont La Rhune (2,954 feet), on the French frontier. Equally
isolated is the Jaizquibel (1,912 feet), which rises from the plains of
Irun, close to the mouth of the Bidassoa, and from whose summit there
is a view of incomparable beauty. It terminates in Cape Higuer, or
Figuer, the northernmost point of Cantabria.
The maritime slope of the Basque countries presents a great variety
of geological formations, including Jurassic limestones and chalk,
granites and porphyries. The mineral resources are immense; copper
and lead abound, but the great wealth consists in iron. The mines of
Mondragon, in Guipúzcoa, have long been famous, but the most productive
mining district is Somorrostro, to the west of Bilbao. {440}
[Illustration: Fig. 171.—THE ENVIRONS OF BARCELONA.
Scale 1 : 100,000.]
[Illustration: GORGES OF PANCORBO.]
The sierras of Aragon running parallel with the Pyrenees extend also
into Navarra and the Vascongadas, and are frequently connected with the
main range by lateral branches. To the west of Pamplona they spread
out into a rugged plateau, surmounted by the Sierra de Andía (4,769
feet), the labyrinthine ramifications of which occupy the district of
Amezcuas, a region offering great advantages to partisan warfare. The
southern chain, not so well defined, bounds the Carrascal, or “country
of evergreen oaks,” in the south. This region, too, has frequently been
the scene of civil war. Farther west the famous defile of Pancorbo
leads through the Montes {441} Obarenes (4,150 feet) to the plateau
of Castile. The saddle of Alsásua (1,955 feet), over which passes the
railway from Vitoria (1,684 feet) to Pamplona (1,378 feet), connects
the Pyrenees with the Sierra de Andía, whilst as to the mountains of
the province of Logroño, they are spurs of the mountain masses forming
the northern edge of that plateau, viz. the Sierra de la Demanda in the
west, and the Sierra de Cebollera in the east, the latter giving birth
to the Sierras de Camero.
Several of the mountain districts are quite Castilian in their asperity
and nakedness, for the forests have been cut down to feed the iron
furnaces. In Southern Navarra we meet with veritable deserts. But in
the Basque countries and Western Navarra, where it rains copiously, the
hills are clad with forests, the valleys with turf, and rivulets wind
amongst groves of elder-trees. Naked precipices of sand or limestone
contrast well with this verdure, from which peep out the small white
houses of villages embosomed in orchards, and scattered in the valleys
and hill-sides.
[Illustration: Fig. 172.—THE SAND-BANKS OF MATARÓ.
Scale 1 : 125,000.]
Moist north-westerly winds are frequent in the Bay of Biscay,
and account for the equable temperature of the country. It rains
abundantly, and in all seasons. The climate resembles that of Ireland,
and, though damp, it is healthy and most conducive to the growth
of vegetation. The country is rich in corn, wine, oil, and cattle;
the northern slopes are covered with fruit trees of every kind, and
_zagardua_, or cider, is a favourite drink; and in the more remote
valleys of the Pyrenees we meet with some of the most magnificent
forests in Spain. That of Val Cárlos (valley of Charlemagne), near the
famous Pass of Roncevaux, or Roncesvalles, though none of the largest,
is reputed for its beauty and legendary associations. {442}
Who are the Basques, whose bravery is traditional? What is their
origin? What their relationship to the other peoples of Europe?
All these questions it is impossible to answer. The Basques are a
mysterious race, and can claim kinship with no other nation. It is not
even certain whether all those who pass by that name are of the same
race. There is no typical Basque. No doubt most of the inhabitants of
the country are distinguished by finely chiselled features, bright and
firm eyes, and well-poised bodies, but the differences in stature,
form of skull, and features are very considerable. Between Basque and
Basque the differences are as great as between Spaniards, Frenchmen,
and Italians. There are tall men and short, brown and fair, long
skulls and broad, and almost every district has its distinct type.
The solution of this problem is daily becoming more difficult, for,
owing to a continual intermixture with their neighbours, the original
type, if there really existed one, is gradually being obliterated. It
is possible that at some remote time the remnants of various races
occupied this country, and adopted the language of the most civilised
among them. Instances of this kind abound in every people.
Leaving out of sight the differences existing between the Basques
of Spain and those of French Navarra, the Basques may be described
as having broad foreheads, straight noses, finely shaped mouths and
chins, and well-proportioned figures. Their features are exceedingly
mobile, and every sentiment is reflected upon them by a lighting up of
the eyes, a movement of the eyebrows, or a trembling of the lips. The
women especially are distinguished by the purity of their features;
their large eyes, smiling lips, and small waists are universally
admired. Even in the towns, where the race is least pure, most of them
are strikingly beautiful and full of grace. There are districts where
obesity is a veritable phenomenon. Men and women carry themselves
nobly; they are polite to strangers, but always dignified.
The Basques call themselves Euskaldunac, or Euskarians, and their
language Euskara, or Eskuara. The exact meaning of these terms is
not known, but in all probability it is “speech.” This speech of the
Basques differs in its words and structure from every other language
of the world; but many words have been borrowed from neighbouring
languages. Everything with which they became acquainted through
foreigners, all ideas imported since prehistoric times, are designated
by words not forming part of the original stock of the language. Even
the names of domestic animals and metals are of foreign origin. The
language may, perhaps, be classed with the polysynthetic languages of
the American Indians, or with the agglutinant idioms of the Altai, and
belongs, consequently, to the most remote period of human history. As
to the Basques themselves, they declare their speech to be superior to
every other, and according to some it was in Euskara that man first
saluted the sun.
For the present we are compelled to look upon the Basques as the last
remnant of an ancient race. There are not wanting proofs that the
Euskaldunac formerly occupied a far wider territory. No monuments,
no inscriptions, nor even legends give a clue to this; but we find
it, after thousands of years, in the names of mountains, rivers, and
towns. Euskarian names abound in the Pyrenean valleys of Aran, Bastan,
Andorra, and Querol, and in the plain to the north of them. {443}
[Illustration: Fig. 173.—THE VALLEY OF ANDORRA.
Scale 1 : 375,000.]
Most writers on Spain identify these Euskarians with the Iberians of
the ancients, and they have been credited with being the authors of
various inscriptions upon coins written in unknown characters which
have been discovered in Spain and Southern France, and which M. Boudard
has shown to be really in Euskarian. They must thus have occupied the
whole of the peninsula and Southern France, and even in Africa traces
of their presence have been discovered. {444}
The extent of territory occupied by Basque-speaking populations in the
time of the Romans is not known, but probably it was not any greater
than it is now, for the Euskarians have ever since maintained their
independence, and nothing compelled them to adopt the language of their
despised neighbours. Bilbao has almost become Spanish, as have also
the towns in the plain of Álava. Pampeluna, the Irun of the Iberians,
is Euskarian merely by historical tradition, whilst farther east
Basque is only spoken in the upper valleys of Roncevaux, Orbaiceta,
Ochagavia, and Roncal. The Peak of Anie marks the extreme limit of
Basque on both slopes of the Pyrenees. Out of four Euskarian provinces
there is only one—viz. Guipúzcoa—where Basque predominates; but even
in that province the inhabitants of the cities of St. Sebastian and
Irun speak Castilian. In the south of Navarra and of the so-called
Basque provinces the inhabitants have spoken a Latin dialect from time
immemorial. Spanish and French are slowly but surely superseding the
Basque, and the time when it will be a thing of the past is not very
distant.[160]
Strabo speaks of the Cantabrians, the direct ancestors of the Basques,
with an admiration akin to horror. Their bravery, love of freedom, and
contempt of life he looked upon as superhuman qualities. In their wars
against the Romans they killed each other to escape captivity, mothers
strangled their children to spare them the indignities of slavery,
and prisoners nailed to the cross burst into a chant of victory. The
Basques have never been wanting in courage. History shows that they
were superior to the surrounding nations in uprightness, generosity,
love of independence, and respect for personal liberty. The serfs of
the neighbouring provinces looked upon them as nobles, for in their
abject condition they fancied that personal liberty was a privilege of
nobility. This equality, however, existed only in Guipúzcoa and Biscay,
whilst in Álava and Navarra, where the Moors gained a footing, and
Castilian influences made themselves felt later on, there originated a
feudal nobility, with its usual train of vassals and serfs. However,
all the provinces have jealously watched over their local privileges.
At a period when European history was one continual series of wars,
the Basques lived in peace. Their small commonwealths were united into
a fraternal confederation, and enabled to resist invaders. They were
bound to sacrifice life and property in the defence of their common
fatherland, and their standards were emblazoned with three hands
joined, and the motto, _Irurak bat_, _i.e._ “The three (provinces) are
but one.”
Nothing exhibits more strikingly the comparative civilisation of these
Euskarians than their respect for personal liberty. The house of a
Basque was inviolable, and he could not be deprived of his horse or his
arms. At their national meetings all voted, and in some of the valleys
even the women were permitted to take part in the discussions. It was
not, however, customary for the women to sit down at the same table
with the _etcheco-jauna_, or master of the house, and his sons; they
took their meals separately by the side of the hearth. This old custom
is still observed in country districts; and so strong is the force of
tradition, that the wife would almost consider it a disgrace to be seen
sitting by {445} the side of her husband on any other occasion than
her wedding-day. On fête-days the women keep apart; they dance amongst
themselves, allowing the men to engage in ruder sports. If a nation
may be judged from its pastimes, the Basques deserve to rank high in
our estimation. They are fond of athletic sports, and mysteries and
pastoral pieces are still performed in the open air.
[Illustration: Fig. 174.—JAIZQUIBEL.
Scale 1 : 200,000.]