Gredos, separate this central plateau of Spain into two portions, lying
at different elevations. Old Castile and Leon, which lie to the north,
in the basin of the Duero, slope down from east to west from 5,600 to
2,300 feet; whilst New Castile and La Mancha, in the twin basins of
the Tajo and the Guadiana, have an average elevation of only 2,000
feet. In the tertiary age these two plateaux were covered with huge
lakes. One of them, the contours of which are indicated by the débris
carried down from the surrounding hills, originally discharged its
waters in the direction of the valley of the Ebro, but subsequently
opened itself a passage through the crystalline mountains of Portugal,
now represented by the gorges of the Lower Duero. At another epoch
this Lake Superior communicated with the lake which overspread what
are now the plains of New Castile and La Mancha. The area covered by
these two lakes amounted to 30,000 square miles, and Spain was then a
mere skeleton of crystalline mountains, joined together by saddles of
triassic, Jurassic, and cretaceous age, enclosing these two fresh-water
lakes, and bounded exteriorly by the ocean. This geological period
must have been of very long duration, for the lacustrine deposits are
sometimes nearly a thousand feet in thickness. The miocene strata which
form the superficial deposits of these two lake basins of the Castiles
are geologically of the same age, for fossil bones of the same great
animals—megatheria, mammoths, and hipparions—are found in both. {379}
The Cantabrian Mountains bound Leon and Old Castile towards the
north-west and north, but broad mountain ranges run out from these
immediately to the east of the Peña Labra, and form the water-shed
between the basin of the Duero and the head-stream of the Ebro. These
ranges are known by various names. They form first the _Páramos_ of
Lora (3,542 feet), which slope gently towards the south, but sink
down abruptly to the Ebro, which flows here in a gorge many hundred
feet in depth. The water-shed to the east of these continues to the
mountain pass of the Brujula, across which leads the road (3,215 feet)
connecting Burgos with the sea. Beyond this pass the so-called _Montes_
of Oca gradually increase in height, and join the crystalline Sierra de
Demanda, culminating in the Pico de San Lorenzo (7,554 feet). Another
mountain mass lies farther to the south-east. It rises in the Pico de
Urbion to a height of 7,367 feet, and gives birth to the river Duero.
The water-shed farther on is formed by the Sierra Cebollera (7,039
feet), which subsides by degrees, its ramifications extending into the
basins of the Ebro and Duero. The Sierra de la Moncayo (7,905 feet),
a crystalline mountain mass similar to the San Lorenzo, but exceeding
it in height, terminates this portion of the enceinte of the central
plateau. The broad ranges beyond offer no obstacles to the construction
of roads, but there are several rugged ridges to the south of the
Cebollera and Moncayo, which force the Duero to take a devious course
through the defile of Soria. Numantia, the heroic defence of which has
since been imitated by many other towns of the peninsula, stood near
that gorge.
[Illustration: Fig. 139.—PROFILE OF THE RAILWAY FROM BAYONNE TO CADIZ.
(Altitudes in feet.)]
The average height of the mountains separating the basin of the Duero
from that of the Tajo is more than that of those in the north-east of
Old Castile. The mountains gradually increase in height towards the
west and south-west, until they form the famous Sierra de Guadarrama,
the granitic rocks of which bound the horizon of Madrid in the north.
It constitutes a veritable wall between the two {380} Castiles, and
the construction of the roads which lead in zigzag over its passes
of Somosierra (4,680 feet), Navacerrada (5,834 feet), and Guadarrama
(5,030 feet) was attended with difficulties so considerable that
Ferdinand VI., proud of the achievement, placed the statue of a lion
upon one of the highest summits, and thus recorded that the “King
had conquered the mountains.” This sierra forms a natural rampart to
the north of the plains of Madrid, and many sanguinary battles have
been fought to secure a passage through them. The railway to Madrid
avoids them, but the depression of Ávila, through which it passes, is
nevertheless more elevated than the summit of the Mont Cenis Railway.
[Illustration: Fig. 140.—SIERRAS DE GREDOS AND DE GATA.
Scale 1 : 800,000.]
The mountains to the south-west of the Peak of Peñalara (7,870 feet),
which is the culminating point of the sierra, sink down rapidly, and at
the Alto de la Cierva (6,027 feet) the chain divides into two branches,
of which the northern forms the water-shed between the Duero and the
Tajo, whilst the more elevated southern chain joins the Sierra de
Guadarrama to the Sierra de Gredos, but is cut in two by the defile
excavated by the river Alberche, which rises to the north of it.
The Sierra de Gredos is, next to the Pyrenees and the Sierra Nevada of
Granada, the most elevated mountain chain of Spain, for in the Plaza
del Moro Almanzor it attains a height of 8,680 feet, and thus reaches
far beyond the zone of trees. Its naked summits of crystalline rocks
remain covered with snow during more than half the year. The country
extending along the southern slope {381} of these mountains is one of
the most delightful districts of all Spain. It abounds in streams of
sparkling water; groups of trees are dotted over the hill-slopes and
shield the villages; and Charles V., when he selected the monastery of
St. Yuste as the spot where he proposed to pass the remainder of his
days, exhibited no mean taste. In former times the foot of the sierra
was much more frequented, for the Roman road known as _Via Lata_ (now
called _Camino de la Plata_) crossed immediately to the west of it, by
the Puerto de Baños, and thus joined the valley of the Duero to that of
the Tajo.
The Sierra de Gata, which lies beyond this old road, has a course
parallel with that of the Sierra de Gredos, and this parallelism is
observable likewise with respect to the minor chains and the principal
river beds of that portion of Spain. The Sierra de Gata rises to a
height of 5,690 feet in the Peña de Francia, thus named after a chapel
built by a Frankish knight. Within its recesses are the secluded
valleys of Las Batuecas and Las Hurdes.
In the eastern portion of New Castile the country is for the most part
undulating rather than mountainous, and, if the deep gorges excavated
by the rivers were to be filled up, would present almost the appearance
of plains. The most elevated point of this portion of the country is
the Muela de San Juan (5,900 feet), in the Montes Universales, thus
called, perhaps, because the Tajo, the Júcar, the Guadalaviar, and
other rivers flowing in opposite directions take their rise there.
The Sierra del Tremendal, in the district of Albarracin, farther north,
is said to be frequently shaken by earthquakes, and sulphurous gases
escape there where oolitic rocks are in contact with black porphyry and
basalt. Several triassic hills in the vicinity of Cuenca are remarkable
on account of their rock-salt, the principal mines of which are those
of Minglanilla.
Farther south the height of land which separates the rivers flowing
to the Mediterranean from those tributary to the Tajo and Guadiana
is undulating, but not mountainous. We only again meet with real
mountains on reaching the head-waters of the Guadiana, Segura, and
Guadalimar, where the Sierra Morena, forming for 250 miles the natural
boundary between La Mancha and Andalusia, takes its rise. Seen from the
plateau, this sierra has the appearance of hills of moderate height,
but travellers facing it from the south see before them a veritable
mountain range of bold profile, and abounding in valleys and wild
gorges. Geographically this sierra belongs to Andalusia rather than to
the plateau of the Castiles.
In the west, judging from the courses of the Tajo and the Guadiana, the
country would appear to subside by degrees into the plains of Portugal;
but such is not the case. The greater portion of Estremadura is
occupied by a mountain mass consisting of granite and other crystalline
rocks. The sedimentary strata of the region bounded in the north by the
Sierras of Gredos and Gata, and in the south by the Sierra de Aroche,
are but of small thickness. In former times these granitic mountains of
Estremadura retained pent-up waters of the lakes which then covered the
interior plateaux, until the incessant action of water forced a passage
through them. Their highest summits form a range between the rivers
Guadiana and Tajo known as the Sierra of Toledo, and attain a height
of 5,115 feet in {382} the Sierra de Guadalupe, famous in other days
on account of the image of a miracle-working Virgin Mary, an object of
veneration to Estremeños and Christianized American Indians.
[Illustration: Fig. 141.—DEFILE OF THE TAJO IN THE PROVINCE OF
GUADALAJARA.]
Geologically the series of volcanic hills known as Campo de Calatrava
(2,270 feet) constitute a distinct group. They occupy both banks of the
Guadiana, and the ancient inland lake now converted into the plain of
La Mancha washed their foot. From their craters were ejected trachytic
and basaltic lavas, as well as ashes, or _negrizales_, but acidulous
thermal springs are at present the only evidence of subterranean
activity.
* * * * *
The rivers of the Castiles are of less importance than might be
supposed from a look at a map, for, owing to a paucity of rain, they
are not navigable. The moisture carried eastward by the winds is for
the most part precipitated upon the {383} exterior slopes of the
mountains, only a small proportion reaching the Castilian plateaux.
Evaporation, moreover, proceeds there very rapidly, and if it were not
for springs supplied by the rains of winter there would not be a single
perennial river.[138]
Of the three parallel rivers, the Duero, the Tajo, and the Guadiana,
the latter two are the most feeble, for the supplementary ranges
of the Sierras of Gredos and Guadarrama shut off their basins from
the moisture-laden winds of the Atlantic. Yet, in spite of their
small volume, the geological work performed by them in past ages was
stupendous. Both find their way through tortuous gorges of immense
depth from the edge of the plateaux down to the plains of Lusitania.
The gorge of the Duero forms an appropriate natural boundary between
Spain and Portugal, for it offers almost insurmountable obstacles to
intercommunication. The more considerable tributaries of the Duero—such
as the Tormes, fed by the snows of the Sierra de Gredos; the Yéltes;
and the Agueda—likewise take their course through wild defiles, which
may be likened to the _cañons_ of the New World. The Tajo presents
similar features, and below its confluence with the Alberche it enters
a deep defile, hemmed in by precipitous walls of granite.
The Guadiana passes through a similar gorge, but only after it has
reached the soil of Portugal. The hydrography of its head-streams,
the Giguela and Záncara, which rise in the Serranio of Cuenca, offers
curious features; but, as they are for the most part dry during
summer, the bountiful springs known as the _ojos_, or “eyes,” of the
Guadiana are looked upon by the inhabitants as the true source of the
river. They are three in number, and yield about four cubic yards of
water a second. These springs are popularly believed to be fed by the
Ruidera, which, after having traversed a chain of picturesque lakelets,
disappears beneath a bed of pebbles; but Coello has shown that after
heavy rains this head-stream of the Guadiana actually reaches the
Záncara.
The climate of the Castilian plateaux is quite continental in its
character. The prevailing winds of Spain are the same as in the rest
of Western Europe, but the seasons and sudden changes of temperature
in the upper basins of the Duero, the Tajo, and the Guadiana recall
the deserts of Africa and Asia. The cold in winter is most severe, the
heat of summer scorching, and the predominating winds aggravate these
features. In winter, the _norte_, which passes across the snow-covered
Pyrenees and other mountain ranges, sweeps the plains and penetrates
through every crevice in the wretched hovels of the peasants. In summer
a contrary wind, the _solano_, penetrates through breaks in the Sierra
Nevada and Sierra Morena, scorches the vegetation, and irritates man
and animals. The climate of Madrid[139] is typical of that of most of
the towns of Castile. The air, though pure, is exceedingly dry and
penetrating, and persons affected with diseases of the throat run
considerable risk during their period of acclimation. “The air of
Madrid does not put out a candle, but kills a man,” says a proverb, and
the climate of that city is described as “three months of winter and
nine of hell.” True, in the {384} time of Charles V., Madrid enjoyed
the reputation of having an excellent climate, and it is just possible
that its deterioration may be ascribable to the destruction of the
forests.
[Illustration: Fig. 142.—THE STEPPES OF NEW CASTILE.
According to Willkomm. Scale 1 : 1,500,000.]
The greatest variety of plants is met with if we ascend from the
plains to the summits of the mountains, but taken as a whole the
vegetation is singularly monotonous, for the number of plants capable
of supporting such extremes of temperature is naturally limited. Herbs
and shrubs predominate. The thickets in the upper basin of the Duero
and on the plateaux to the east of the Tajo and the Guadiana consist
of thyme, lavender, rosemary, hyssop, and other aromatic plants; on
the southern slopes of the Cantabrian Mountains heaths with small
pink flowers predominate; vast areas in the mountains of Cuenca are
covered with Spanish broom, or esparto; and saline plants abound in
the environs of Albacete. These regions are generally described as
the “Steppes of Castile,” though “deserts” {385} would, perhaps, be
a more appropriate term. For miles around the village of San Clemente
not a rivulet, a spring, or a tree is met with, and the aspect of the
country throughout is exceedingly dreary. The interminable plains of La
Mancha—the “dried-up country” of the Arabs—adjoin these steppes in the
west, and there corn-fields, vineyards, and pasture-grounds alternate
with stretches of thistles, and the monotony is partly relieved by
the windmills, with their huge sweeps slowly revolving overhead.
Estremadura and the slopes of the Sierra Morena are principally
covered with rock-roses, and from the summit of some hills a carpet of
_jarales_, bluish green or brown, according to the season, extends as
far as the eye reaches, and in spring is covered with an abundance of
white flowers resembling newly fallen snow.
Woods are met with only on the slopes of the mountains. Oaks of various
species and chestnut-trees occupy the lower zone, and conifers extend
beyond them to the extreme limit of trees. These latter likewise cover
the vast tracts of shifting sands which extend along the northern
foot of the Sierra de Guadarrama, and are the analogue of the French
_landes_.
The remains of the ancient forests still shelter wild animals. In the
beginning of this century bears were numerous on the southern slopes of
the Cantabrian Mountains; the thickets of Guadarrama, Gredos, and Gata
still harbour wolves, lynxes, wild cats, foxes, and even wild goats.
Deer, hares, and other game abound. The oak forests are haunted by wild
boars of immense size and strength. Before the downfall of Islam it was
thought meritorious to keep large herds of pigs, and a traveller who
visits the remote villages of Leon, Valladolid, and Upper Estremadura
will find that this ancient custom still survives. The black hogs of
Trujillo and Montanchez are famous throughout Spain for their excellent
hams.
The country offers great facilities for the breeding of sheep and
cattle; there are, however, several districts which are admirably
suited to the production of cereals. The Tierra de Campos, in the basin
of the Duero, is one of them. It owes its fertility to a subterranean
reservoir of water, as do also the _mesa_ of Ocaña and other districts
in the upper basins of the Tajo and the Guadiana, which are arid only
in appearance. The vine flourishes on stony soil, and yields excellent
wine, and the same may be said of the olive-tree, which constitutes
the wealth of the Campo de Calatrava. Agricultural pursuits would thus
appear to offer great advantages; and if thousands of acres are still
allowed to lie fallow, if nomad habits still predominate, this is
owing to sloth, force of habit, the existence of feudal customs, and
sometimes, perhaps, to discouragement produced by seasons of drought.
Most of the herds of _merinos_ are obliged to traverse nearly half
Spain in search of the food they require. Each herd of about 10,000
sheep is placed in charge of a _mayoral_, assisted by _rabadanes_ in
charge of detachments of from 1,000 to 1,200 animals. The shepherds and
sheep of Balia, in Leon, are reputed to be the best. In the beginning
of April the merinos leave their pasture-grounds in Andalusia, La
Mancha, and Estremadura for the north, where they pass the summer,
returning in September to the south. It may readily be imagined that
{386} these wandering herds do much damage to the fields through
which they pass, even though the privileges of the sheep-breeders were
abrogated in a large measure in 1836. Spain, however, in spite of every
advantage offered by nature, is obliged now to import sheep from abroad
to improve its flocks. Mules, too, which are almost indispensable in
so stony a country, are imported from France. Camels, llamas, and
kangaroos have been introduced, but their number has never been large,
and the fauna as well as the flora of the Castiles bears the stamp of
monotony.
* * * * *
As is the land, so are its inhabitants. The men of Leon and the
Castiles are grave, curt of speech, majestic in their gait, and of even
temper. Even in their amusements they carry themselves with dignity,
and those amongst them who respect the traditions of the good old time
regulate every movement in accordance with a most irksome etiquette.
The Castilian is haughty in the extreme, and _Yo soy Castellano !_ cuts
short every further explanation. He recognises no superiors, but treats
his fellows on a footing of perfect equality. A foreigner who mixes for
the first time in a crowd at Madrid or elsewhere in the Castiles cannot
fail of being struck by the natural freedom with which rich and poor
converse with each other.
The Castilian, thanks to his tenacious courage and the central position
he occupies, has become the master of Spain, but he can hardly be said
to be the master in his own capital. Madrid is the great centre of
attraction of the entire peninsula, and its streets are crowded with
provincials from every part of Spain. This invasion of the capital,
and of the Castiles generally, is explained by the sparseness of the
population of the plateaux, a sparseness not so much due to the natural
sterility of the country as to political and social causes. There
can be no doubt that the Castiles formerly supported a much denser
population than they do now, but the towns of the valleys of the Tajo
and the Guadiana have shrunk into villages, and the river, which was
formerly navigable as far as Toledo, is so no longer, either because
its volume is less now than it used to be, or because its floods
are no longer regulated. Estremadura, at present one of the poorest
provinces of Spain, supported a dense population in the time of the
Romans, who founded there the Colonia Augusta Emerita (Mérida), which
became the largest town of Iberia. During the dominion of the Moors,
too, Estremadura yielded bounteous harvests, but the old cities have
disappeared, and the fields are now covered with furze, broom, and
rock-roses.
The expulsion of the Moors no doubt contributed towards the decay of
these once fertile regions, but the principal cause must be looked for
in the growth of feudal, military and ecclesiastical institutions,
which robbed the cultivator of the fruits of his labours. Subsequently,
when Cortes, Pizarro, and other _conquistadores_ performed their
prodigious exploits in the New World, they attracted the enterprising
youth of the province. The peaceable cultivation of the soil was held
in contempt, fields remained untilled, and 40,000 nomadic shepherds
took possession of the country. It is thus the _Estremeños_ became what
they are, the “Indians” of the nation. {387}
This decrease of population was unfortunately attended by a return
towards barbarism. Three hundred years ago the region on the southern
slopes of the Sierra de Guadarrama was famous for its industry. The
linen and cloth of Ávila, Medina del Campo, and Segovia were known
throughout Europe; Burgos and Aranda del Duero were the seats of
commerce and industry; and Medina de Rio Seco was known as “Little
India,” on account of the wealth displayed at its fairs. But
misgovernment led to the downfall of these industries, the country
became depopulated, and its ancient culture dwindled to a thing of the
past. At the famous university of Salamanca the great discoveries of
Newton and Harvey were still ignored at the close of last century as
being “contrary to revealed religion,” and the lower classes grovelled
in the most beastly superstitions.
In this very province of Salamanca, close to the Peña de Francia,
exist the “barbarous” Batuecas, who are charged with not being able
to distinguish the seasons. Nor are the inhabitants of other remote
mountain districts of the Castiles what we should call civilised.
Amongst these may be noticed the _charros_ of Salamanca and the famous
_maragatos_ of Astorga, most of them muleteers. They only intermarry
amongst themselves, and are looked upon as the lineal descendants of
some ancient tribe of Iberia. The suggestion that they are a mixed race
of Visigoths and Moors is not deserving of attention, for neither in
their dress nor in their manners do they remind us of Mussulmans. They
wear loose trousers, cloth gaiters fastened below the knee, a short
and close-fitting coat, a leather belt, a frill round the neck, and
a felt hat with a broad brim. They are tall and strong, but wiry and
angular. Their taciturnity is extreme, and they neither laugh nor sing
when driving before them their beasts of burden. It is difficult to
excite their passion, but, once roused, they become ferocious. Their
honesty is above suspicion, and they may be safely trusted with the
most valuable goods, which they will defend against every attack, for
they are brave, and skilled in the use of arms. Whilst the men traverse
the whole of Spain as carriers of merchandise, the women till the soil,
which, being arid and rocky, yields but a poor harvest.
* * * * *
The vicissitudes of history explain the existence of numerous towns in
the Castiles which can boast of having been the capital of the country
at one time or other. Numantia, the most ancient of all those cities,
exists no longer, and the learned are not yet agreed whether the ruins
discovered near the decayed town of Soria are the remains of the walls
demolished by Scipio Æmilianus. But there are several cities of great
antiquity which possess some importance even at the present day. Leon
is one of these. It was the head-quarters of a Roman legion (_septima
gemina_), and its name, in reality a corruption of _legio_, is supposed
to be symbolized by the lions placed in its coat of arms. Leon was one
of the first places of importance taken from the Moors. Its old walls
are in ruins now, and the beautiful cathedral has been transformed into
a clumsy cube. Astorga, the “magnificent city” of Asturica Augusta, has
fallen even lower than Leon, whilst Palencia (the ancient Pallantia)
still enjoys a certain measure of prosperity, owing {388} to its
favourable geographical position at the Pisuerga, which has caused it
to be selected as one of the great railway centres of the peninsula.
Burgos, the former capital of Old Castile, points proudly to its
graceful cathedral and other ancient buildings, but its streets are
nearly deserted, and the crowds which congregate occasionally in the
churches, hotels, or at the railway station are composed, for the most
part, of beggars. In the cathedral are preserved numerous relics, and
the Cid, whose legendary birthplace, Bivar, is near, lies buried in it.
[Illustration: Fig. 143.—SALAMANCA AND ITS DESPOBLADOS.
Scale 1 : 200,000.]