is valid unless countersigned by a minister. The King, as such, is
commander of the naval and military forces, he concludes all treaties,
and the assent of the Chambers is only required if they concern
cessions of territory, or entail an expenditure of public money.
All Government officials are appointed by the King, he may dissolve
the Chamber of Deputies, justice is administered in his name, and
he possesses the right of pardon. He enjoys the fruits of the Crown
lands, and may dispose of his private property without reference to the
general laws of the country. The civil list of the King and the members
of his family annually exceeds £800,000 !
Senators are appointed by the King from amongst ecclesiastical,
military, and civil functionaries, persons of wealth, and men who
have deserved well of the country. Their number is not limited, and
they must be forty years of age. Deputies are elected for five years.
They must be thirty years of age. Neither senators nor deputies are
in receipt of emoluments, and this may explain the little zeal they
exhibit in the performance of their public duties. A quorum, consisting
of one-half the members of each house _plus_ one, is frequently
unattainable for weeks.
The franchise is enjoyed by professors of universities and colleges,
civil servants, knights of orders of chivalry, members of the liberal
professions, merchants, persons who have an income of £24 from money
invested in Government securities, and all others twenty-five years of
age, able to read and write, and paying 32s. in taxes. The number of
electors is about 400,000, but hardly one-half of them ever go to the
poll.
Each province occupies the position of a “corporation,” which may
hold property, and enjoys a certain amount of self-government. The
“Provincial Councils” consist of from twenty to sixty members, who
are chosen by the municipal electors for five years. These Councils
usually occupy themselves with the material interests of the province,
and, when not sitting, are represented by a “Deputation” charged with
controlling the acts of the prefect.
The municipal organization is very similar to that of the provinces.
The Councils are elected for five years: all males of twenty-one years
of age paying from 4s. to 20s. in taxes (according to the importance
of the municipality), professors, civil servants, members of liberal
professions, and soldiers who have been decorated are in the enjoyment
of the franchise. The Council meets twice a year, and its sittings
are held in public if a majority demands it. It appoints a municipal
_giunta_ of from two to twelve members, charged with the conduct of
current affairs. The mayors, like the provincial prefects, are {360}
appointed by Government, but must be chosen from the members of the
Municipal Council.
The great territorial divisions of the kingdom (see p. 362) consist
of 69 provinces and 284 circles (_circondarii_), or districts.
These latter again are subdivided into 1,779 judicial districts
(_mandamenti_) and 8,360 communes. The central Government is
represented in the provinces by a prefect, in the districts by a
sub-prefect, and in the communes by a mayor, or _sindaco_. This system
of administration is very much like that existing in modern France.
The administration of justice was organized in 1865. In each commune
there is a “Conciliator,” appointed for three years by Government,
on the presentation of the Municipal Council. A “Pretor” administers
justice at the capital of each of the judicial districts: he is
assisted by one or more Vice-pretors. Next follow 161 civil and
correctional courts, 92 assize courts, 24 courts of appeal, 25
commercial tribunals, and 4 courts of cassation; the latter at
Florence, Naples, Palermo, and Turin. The Code of Laws is an adaptation
of the Code Napoléon, and breathes the same spirit.
In military matters Prussia has served as a model. Every Italian,
on attaining his twenty-first year, becomes liable to serve in the
army or navy. Men embodied in the first category of the standing army
(_esercito permanente_) remain from three to five years under the
colours, according to the arm to which they belong, and six to seven
years on furlough. The men of the second category, or reserve of the
standing army, drill fifty days, and are then dismissed to their homes.
The “mobilised militia” includes all men up to forty not belonging
to the standing army. A “levy en masse,” or _Milizia stanziole_, is
provided for by law, but nothing has been done hitherto to render it
a reality. The standing army includes 90 regiments of infantry, 20
regiments of cavalry, 14 of artillery, and 1 of engineers, and numbers
410,000 men; the reserve amounts to 180,000 men; the mobilised militia
(247 battalions, 24 Alpine companies, 60 batteries, and 10 companies
of engineers), 277,000, and 234,000 officers and men are stated to be
under the colours. The four great fortresses of the north are Verona,
Mantua, Peschiera, and Legnago. These form the famous “Quadrilateral.”
Venice is likewise a place of great strength, and made an heroic
defence in 1849. Palmanova defends the frontier between the Julian
Alps and the Gulf of Trieste. Rocca d’Anfo, on an isolated rock to the
north of Lake Garda, commands the defiles of the Adige and Chiese.
Pizzighettone, on the Adda, is no longer of much importance, now that
Italy has acquired possession of the Quadrilateral; but Alessandria, at
the confluence of the Tanaro and Bormida, will always retain its rank
as the great strategical centre of Piemont, and one of the strongest
places of Europe. Casale may be looked upon as one of its outworks, and
together with Genoa defends the passages of the Apennines. Piacenza and
Ferrara command important passages of the Po. The other fortresses of
Italy are Ancona in the centre; Porto Ferrajo in Elba; Gaeta, Capua,
and Taranto in the south; and Messina in Sicily.
The navy consists of 21 ironclads (179 guns, engines of 11,310
horse-power, 76,842 tons) and 51 wooden steamers, manned by 20,000
seamen. The great {361} naval arsenals and stations are at Spezia,
Genoa, Naples, Castellamare di Stabbia, Venice, Ancona, and Taranto.
The Roman Catholic Church alone is acknowledged by the State, but
all other religions are tolerated. The conflict between Church and
State is favourable to the spread of Protestantism; but, apart from
the Waldenses and a few foreigners in the larger towns, there are
no Protestants in Italy. Many of those, however, who are nominally
Catholics have ranged themselves amongst the enemies of their Church,
or are perfectly indifferent.
Italy occupies quite a special position in the world, owing to its
being the seat of the Papacy. Rome is the seat of two governments,
viz. that of the King and of the Sovereign Pontiff. The latter, though
shorn of his temporal power, is in principle one of the most absolute
monarchs. Once elected Vicar of Jesus Christ by the cardinals met in
conclave, he is responsible to no one for his actions, though it is
customary for him to listen to the advice of the Sacred College of
Cardinals before deciding questions of importance. The Pope alone, of
all men, is infallible; he can efface the crimes of others, “bind and
unbind,” and holds the keys of heaven and hell, his power extending
thus beyond the span of man’s natural life.
The cardinals are the great dignitaries of this spiritual government.
They are created by the Pope. Their number is limited to 70, viz. 6
Cardinal Bishops (who reside at Rome), 50 Cardinal Priests, and 14
Cardinal Deacons. The Cardinal _Camerlengo_ represents the temporal
authority of the Holy See, and on the death of a pope he takes charge
of the Vatican and of the Fisherman’s Key, which is the symbol of the
power bestowed upon St. Peter and his successors. In special cases the
cardinals of the three orders may be convoked to an Œcumenical Council.
On the death of a pope the cardinals elect his successor, who must
be fifty-five years of age, and obtain two-thirds of the votes. His
investment with the pallium and tiara, however, only takes place after
the assent of the Governments of France, Spain, Austria, and Naples
(now represented by Italy) has been secured.
In virtue of the formula of “A free Church in a free State,” so
frequently repeated since Cavour, the Pope is permitted to enjoy
sovereign rights. He convokes councils and chapters, appoints all
ecclesiastical officers, has his own post-office and telegraph, his
guard of nobles and of Swiss, pays no taxes, and enjoys in perpetuity
the palaces of the Vatican and Lateran, as well as the villa of
Castel-Gandolfo, on the Lake of Albano. In addition to this, he has
been voted by the Italian Parliament an annual “dotation” of £129,000.
This grant, however, he has not touched hitherto, but the “Peter’s
pence,” collected by the faithful in all parts of the world, amount to
more than double that sum.
Italy is divided into 47 archiepiscopal and 206 episcopal sees.
There are more than 100,000 secular priests, and in 1866, when the
monasteries and convents were suppressed, their inmates receiving
pensions from Government, there were 32,000 monks and 44,000 nuns. The
ecclesiastical army consequently numbers 176,000 souls, and is nearly
as numerous as the military force on a peace footing. {362}
The following table exhibits the area and population (estimated for
1875) of the great territorial divisions of Italy:―
Area.
Square miles. Population.
Piemont 11,301 2,995,213
Liguria 2,056 865,254
Lombardy 9,084 3,553,913
Venetia (Venezia) 9,060 2,733,406
Emilia 7,921 2,153,381
Umbria 3,720 563,582
Marches 3,748 930,712
Tuscany 9,287 2,172,832
Rome (Latium) 4,601 839,074
Abruzzos—Molise 6,676 1,302,966
Campania 6,941 2,807,450
Apulia (Puglie) 8,539 1,464,604
Basilicata 4,122 517,069
Calabria 6,663 1,229,614
Sicily 11,290 2,698,672
Sardinia 9,398 654,432
─────── ──────────
Total 114,407 27,482,174
═══════ ══════════
[Illustration]
{363}
[Illustration]
CORSICA.[127]
Corsica, with Sardinia, forms a world apart. At a remote epoch these
two islands were but one, and it is curious to find that Corsica, which
politically now forms part of France, is geographically as well as
historically much more Italian than its sister island. A glance at a
map is sufficient to convince us that Corsica is a dependency of Italy,
for while abyssal depths of more than 500 fathoms separate it from
Provence, it is joined to the coast of Tuscany by a submarine plateau,
the mountains of which rise above the surface of the waters as islands.
The climate and natural productions of the island are those of Italy,
and the language of its inhabitants is Italian. Purchased from the
Genoese, then conquered by main force, Corsica in the end voluntarily
united its destinies with those of France. It has now been connected
for more than three generations with the latter, and there can be no
doubt that most of its citizens look upon themselves as Frenchmen.
Though only half the size of Sardinia, Corsica is nevertheless larger
than an average French department. The fourth island in size of the
Mediterranean, it follows next to Cyprus, but is far more important
than that island, and only yields to Sicily and Sardinia in wealth
and population.[128] It is a country of great natural beauty. Its
mountains, attaining an altitude of over 8,000 feet, remain covered
with snow during half the year, and the view from the summits embraces
nearly the whole of the island, its barren rocks, forests, and
cultivated fields. Most of the valleys abound in running water, and
cascades glitter in all directions. Old Genoese towers, standing upon
promontories, formerly defended the entrance to every bay exposed to
incursions of the Saracens, but they are hardly more nowadays than
embellishments of the landscape.
Monte Cinto, the culminating point of the island, does not pierce the
region of {364} persistent snows. A huge citadel of granite, whose
fastnesses afforded a shelter to the Corsicans during their wars of
independence, it rises in the north-western portion of the island. From
its summit we can trace the whole of the coast from the French Alps
to the Apennines of Tuscany. There are other peaks to the north and
south of it which almost rival it in height.[129] This main chain of
the island consists throughout of crystalline rock. Transverse ridges
connect it with a parallel range of limestone mountains on the east,
which extend northward through the whole of the peninsula of Bastia,
and shut in, farther south, the old lake basin of Corte, now drained
by the Golo, Tavignano, and other rivers. The whole of the interior
of Corsica may be described as a labyrinth of mountains, and in order
to pass from village to village it is necessary to climb up steep
steps, or _scale_, and to ascend from the region of olives to that of
pasturage. The high-road which joins Ajaccio to Bastia has to climb a
pass 3,793 feet in height (Fig. 134), and even the road following the
populous western coast ascends and descends continuously, in order to
avoid the promontories descending steeply into the sea. These physical
obstacles sufficiently explain why railways have not yet been built.
[Illustration: Fig. 133.—SUBMARINE PLATEAU BETWEEN CORSICA AND TUSCANY.
Scale 1 : 1,850,000.]
[Illustration: SPAIN AND PORTUGAL]
The western coast of the island is indented by numerous gulfs and bays,
which resemble ancient fiords partly filled up by alluvial sediment.
On the eastern coast, {365} which faces Italy, the slopes are more
gentle; the rivers are larger and more tranquil, though not one of them
is navigable; and the ground is more level. This portion of the island
is known as _Banda di Dentro_, or “inner zone,” in distinction from
the _Banda di Fuori_, or “exterior (western) zone.” The eastern coast
appears to have been upheaved during a comparatively recent epoch, and
ancient gulfs of the sea have been converted into lagoons and swamps,
quite as dangerous from their miasmatic exhalations as those of the
sister island. If we add that the mountains in the west obstruct the
passage of the vivifying mistral, that the heat in summer is great, and
droughts frequent, we have said enough to account for the insalubrity
of the climate.[130] The maritime basin between Corsica and Italy is
almost shut in by mountains, and purifying breezes are rare there.
Between Bastia and Porto-Vecchio not a single town or village is met
with on the coast, and in the beginning of July the peasantry retire
to the hills in order to escape the fever. Only a few guards and the
unfortunate convicts shut up in the penitentiary of Casabianca remain
behind. Nothing more melancholy can be imagined than these fertile
fields deserted by their inhabitants. Plantations of eucalyptus have
been made recently with a view to the amelioration of the climate.
[Illustration: Fig. 134.—PROFILE OF THE ROAD FROM AJACCIO TO BASTIA.]
Owing to the great height of the mountains we are able to trace in
Corsica distinct zones of vegetation. Up to a moderate height the
character of the vegetation is sub-tropical, and resembles that of
Sicily or Southern Spain. There are districts which can be numbered
amongst the most fertile of the Mediterranean. One of these is the
_Campo dell’Oro_, or “field of gold,” around Ajaccio, where hedges of
tree-like cacti separate the gardens and orchards; such, also, is the
country to the north of Bastia, with its aromatic flowers and luscious
fruits. Olive forests generally cover the lower hills, their silvery
foliage contrasting with the sombre verdure of the chestnut woods
above. Balagna, near Calvi, on the north-western coast of the island,
is famous for its olives, whilst another valley, on the opposite
side of the island, near Bastia, can boast of the most magnificent
chestnut-trees. Chestnuts, in some parts, constitute the principal
article of food, {366} and enable the inhabitants, who are by no means
distinguished for their industry, to dispense with the cultivation of
cereals. Some political economists have actually proposed to fell these
trees, in order that the inhabitants may be forced to work.
Chestnut-trees grow up to a height of 6,250 feet. The virgin forests
which formerly extended beyond them to the zone of pasturage have for
the most part disappeared. In the upper Balagna valley, Valdoniello,
and Aitone, however, magnificent forests may still be seen, and a larch
(_Pinus altissimus_), the finest conifer of all Europe, attains there
a height of 160 feet. These splendid trees, unfortunately, are rapidly
disappearing. They are being converted into masts, or sawn into staves
and planks.
The pasturing grounds above these forests are frequented during summer
by herdsmen with their flocks of sheep and goats. The agile moufflon
is still met with there in a few rocky recesses, and the shepherds
assert that wild boars, though very numerous on the island, carefully
avoid its haunts. The wolf is unknown in the island, and the bear has
disappeared for more than a century. Foxes of large size and small deer
complete the fauna of the forest region of Corsica. The _malmignata_
spider, whose bite is sometimes mortal, is probably of the same species
as that of Sardinia and Tuscany; the _tarentula_ is the same as that
of Naples, but the venomous ant known as _innafantato_ appears to be
peculiar to the island.
* * * * *
We know nothing about the origin of the aboriginal inhabitants
of Corsica. There are neither nuraghi, as in Sardinia, nor other
antiquities enabling us to form an opinion with respect to their
manners. But there exist near Sartène and elsewhere several dolmens, or
_stazzone_, menhirs, or _stantare_, and even avenues of stones, which
are similar in all respects to those of Brittany and England. We may
assume, therefore, that these countries were formerly inhabited by the
same race.
The inhabitants of Corte, in the interior of the island, and the
mountaineers of Bastelica, boast of being Corsicans of the purest
blood. At Bastia the type is altogether Italian, but as we travel
into the interior we meet men with large fleshy faces, small noses
devoid of character, clear complexion, and eyes of a chestnut colour
rather than black. Phocæans, Romans, and Saracens, who maintained
themselves here until the eleventh century, were succeeded by Italians
and French. Calvi and Bonifacio were Genoese settlements, and at
Carghese, near Ajaccio, we even meet with a colony of Greek Mainotes,
who settled there in the seventeenth century, and whose descendants
now speak Greek, Italian, and French. But, in spite of these foreign
immigrations, the Corsicans have in a large measure retained their
homogeneity. Paoli was rather proud of a Genoese proverb, which said
that the “Corsicans deserved to be hanged, but knew how to bear it.”
History bears, indeed, witness to their patriotism, fearlessness,
and respect for truth; but it also tells us of foolish ambitions,
jealousies, and a furious spirit of revenge. Even in the middle of
last century the practice of the vendetta cost a thousand lives
{367} annually. Entire villages were depopulated, and in many parts
every peasant’s house was converted into a fortress, where the men
were constantly on the alert, the women, protected by custom against
outrage, sallying forth alone to cultivate the fields. The ceremonies
observed when a victim of the vendetta was brought home were terrible.
The women gathered round the corpse, and one amongst them, in most
cases a sister of the deceased, furiously called down vengeance upon
the head of the murderer. The _voceri_ of death are amongst the finest
national songs. Foreign domination is to blame, no doubt, for the
frequency of these assassinations. The judges sent to the country did
not enjoy the confidence of the inhabitants, and these latter returned
to the primitive law of retaliation.
Though Corsica gave a master to France, the spirit of the people is
essentially republican. The Romans barely succeeded in enslaving it,
and even in the tenth century the greater portion of the island formed
a confederation of independent communities known as _Terra del Comune_.
The inhabitants of each valley formed a _pieve_ (_plebs_), by whom were
elected a _podesta_ and the “fathers of the commune.” These latter
appointed a “corporal,” who was charged with the defence of popular
rights. The podestas in turn elected a Council of twelve, who stood
at the head of the confederation. This constitution survived conquest
and invasion. In the eighteenth century, when fighting heroically
against Genoa and France, Corsica declared all citizens equal. It was
institutions like these which made Rousseau say that “that little
island would one day astonish Europe.” Since that time the Napoleonic
era has whetted the ambition of the Corsicans, and they appear to have
forgotten their traditions of freedom.
Corsica is one of the least-populated departments of France.[131] The
eastern slope of the island, though more fertile and extensive than
the western, and formerly densely peopled, is now almost a desert. The
Roman colony of Mariana no longer exists, and the Phocæan emporium of
Aleria has dwindled down since the thirteenth century into an isolated
homestead standing close to a pestiferous swamp. At the present time
the great centres of population are on the western coast, which faces
France, enjoys a salubrious climate, and possesses magnificent ports.
The Corsicans certainly appear to deserve the charge of idleness which
is brought against them, for they have done but little to develop the
great resources of their island. Fishing and cattle-breeding they
understand best. In many parts agricultural operations are carried
on almost exclusively with the help of Italian labourers, known as
Lucchesi, because most of them formerly came from Lucca. Thanks,
however, to the impulse given by France, a commencement has been made
in the cultivation of the soil, and olive oil, equal to the best of
Provence, wine, and dried fruits already constitute important articles
of export.[132]
Corsica abounds in ores, but they do not appear to be as rich as those
of Sardinia. Formerly iron mines alone were worked, the ore being
conveyed to the {368} furnaces near Bastia and Porto Vecchio; but of
late years copper mines have been opened at Castifao, near Corte, and
argentiferous lead is being procured from a mine near Argentella,
not far from Ile Rousse. Red and blue granite, porphyry, alabaster,
serpentine, and marble are being quarried. There are many mineral
springs, but the only one enjoying a European reputation is that of
Orezzo, which rises in the picturesque district of Castagniccia. Its
ferruginous water contains a considerable quantity of carbonic acid,
and is recommended as efficacious in a host of diseases.
[Illustration: Fig. 135.—VIEW OF BASTIA.]
The most important town of Corsica, though not its capital, is Bastia,
thus named from a Genoese castle built towards the close of the
fourteenth century on the beach of the hill village of Cardo. Bastia
stands about a mile to the north of the two former capitals of the
island, viz. Mariana and Biguglia, of which the former has left no
trace, whilst the latter has dwindled down to a miserable village. The
geographical position of Bastia is excellent, for it is within easy
reach of Italy, and frequent communications with that country have
exercised a most happy influence upon its inhabitants, who are the
most civilised and industrious of the whole island. Its harbour is
small, and far from safe, but it is much frequented. The city rises
amphitheatrically upon hills, and is surrounded by delightful gardens
and numerous villas. {369}