population.[117] Geographically it is more independent of Italy than
the southern island, and a profound sea, more than 1,000 fathoms in
depth, divides it from the African continent. Sardinia with Corsica
forms a group of twin islands, which is separated from the Tuscan
archipelago by a narrow strait only 170 fathoms in depth. {339} The
geological structure of the two islands is identical, and there can
be no doubt that the islands and rocks in the Strait of Bonifacio are
the remains of an isthmus destroyed by the sea. On the other hand, we
learn from a study of the geology of Sardinia that at a period not very
remote that island must have consisted of several separate islands.
The principal island formed a southerly continuation {340} of the
mountains of Corsica, whilst the smaller ones lay to the west. Alluvial
deposits, volcanic eruptions, and perhaps, also, an upheaval of the
soil, have converted the shallow straits which separated them into dry
land.
The mountains of Sardinia may be said to begin with the islands of
Maddalena and Caprera, in the Strait of Bonifacio, and in the mountain
mass of the Gallura they attain already a considerable height. A
depression separates these from the southern portion of the great
back-bone of the island, which stretches along the whole of the eastern
coast, and terminates abruptly at Cape Carbonaro. These mountains,
like those of Corsica, consist of crystalline rocks and schists; but
whilst the slope on the latter island is steepest towards the west, the
reverse is the case on Sardinia, and that island may almost be said to
turn its back upon Italy. The general slope of the island is towards
the west, and its occupation by Spain could therefore be justified by
purely geographical arguments.
[Illustration: Fig. 126.—THE STRAIT OF BONIFACIO.
Scale 1 : 300,000.]
The highest summits of the island are found in the central portion of
this crystalline chain, where the Gennargentu, or “silver mountain,”
rises to a height of 6,116 feet. A little snow remains in the crevices
of this mountain throughout the summer. The inhabitants of Northern
Sardinia formerly imagined that their own Gigantinu, or “giant,” in the
mountains of Limbarra, constituted the culminating point of the island,
but careful measurements have shown that that superb peak only attains
an elevation of 4,297 feet.
The secondary mountain groups in the western portion of the island are
separated from the main chain by recent geological formations. The
granitic {341} region of La Nurra, to the west of Sassari, almost
uninhabited in spite of its fertile valleys, and the island of Asinara
adjoining it, which abounds in turtles, are amongst these insulated
mountain regions. Another, intersected by the beautiful valley of Domus
Novas, occupies the south-western extremity of the island. Geologists
look upon it as the most ancient portion of the island, and the plain
of Campidano, which now occupies the site of an ancient arm of the
sea, is of quaternary formation. The transversal range of Marghine
occupies the centre of the island, and there, too, we meet with vast
limestone plateaux pierced by volcanic rocks. The ancient craters,
however, no longer emit lava, nor even gases, and the villagers have
tranquilly built their huts within them. Thermal springs alone indicate
the existence of subterranean forces. Volcanic cones of recent age are
met with in the north-western portion of the island, as well as in
the valley of the Orosei, on the east coast. The trachytic rocks of
the islands of San Pietro and Sant’ Antioco are of greater age. They
sometimes present the appearance of architectural piles, especially
at the Cape of Columns, which is, however, rapidly disappearing, as
the stone is being quarried to be converted into pavement. On Sant’
Antioco, which a bridge joins to the mainland, there are deep caverns,
the haunts of thousands of pigeons, which are caught by spreading a net
before their entrance.
In addition to the changes wrought by volcanic agencies, Sardinia
exhibits traces of a slow upheaval or subsidence due to the expansion
or contraction of the upper strata of the earth. Raised beaches have
been discovered by La Marmora near Cagliari, at an elevation of 243 and
322 feet above the sea-level, where shells of living species are found
together with potsherds and other articles, proving that when this
upheaval took place the island was already inhabited. Elsewhere there
exist traces of a subsidence, and the old Phœnician cities of Nora, to
the south-west of Cagliari, and Tharros, on the northern peninsula of
the Gulf of Oristano, have become partly submerged.
Amongst the rivers of the island there is only one which deserves that
name. This is the Tirso, or Fiume d’Oristano, which is fed by the
snows of the Gennargentu and the rains which descend on the western
mountain slopes. Other rivers of equal length are hardly more than
torrents, which at one time invade the fields adjoining them, and at
another shrink to a thin thread of water meandering between thickets of
laurel-trees. Most of the river beds are dry during eight months of the
year, and even after rain the water does not find its way into the sea,
but is absorbed by the littoral swamps.
All these swamps have brackish water. The largest amongst them
communicate freely with the sea, at least during the rainy season, but
others are separated from it by a strip of sand. But these, too, are
brackish, for the sea-water percolates through the soil, and keeps them
at the same level. The water of the inland swamps is likewise saturated
with saline substances derived from the surrounding soil. They
generally dry up in summer, but the coating of salt which then appears
is hardly dry enough to repay the labour of collection and refinement.
The only salt marshes actually exploited are those of Cagliari and of
Carlo-Forte, on San {342} Pietro. They have been leased to a French
company, and yield annually nearly 120,000 tons of salt.
Swamps and marshes envelop nearly the whole of the island in a
zone of miasmata, which are carried by the wind into the interior,
producing fever even in the more elevated mountain districts. There are
localities on the island the air of which no stranger can breathe with
impunity. The coast districts of Sardinia, with their stagnant waters,
are, in truth, the most unhealthy in Italy, and quite one-fourth of
the area of the island is exposed to the scourge of malaria, which
sufficiently accounts for the small population of the island and the
little progress made.
Even when Sardinia was at the height of its prosperity, and supplied
Rome with an abundance of corn, cheese, pork, lead, copper, iron, and
textile fabrics, it was noted for its unhealthiness, and the emperors
exiled to it those whom they desired to get rid of. Then, as now, the
landed proprietors, about the middle of June, retired to the towns, the
walls of which offered some protection against the poisonous air. The
Italian Government officials are sent to the island as a punishment,
and for the most part look upon themselves as condemned to death. Even
the native villagers are bound to observe the greatest precautions, and
wear garments of skin or leather which are impenetrable to rain, mist,
and dew. They are dressed most warmly during the hottest part of the
year as a protection against the climate, and in their long _mastrucas_
of sheepskin they almost look like Wallachian herdsmen.
Ancient geographers, as well as the Sardinians themselves, ascribe the
unhealthiness of the climate to the rarity of north-easterly winds.
The mountains of Limbarra, in the north of the island, are popularly
supposed to act as a sort of screen, which diverts this health-bringing
wind, to the great detriment of Lower Sardinia; and there appears
to be much truth in this popular notion. South-westerly winds, or
_libeccios_, are almost equally rare, and when they blow they do so
with tempestuous violence.
The regular winds of Sardinia blow from the north-west or south-east.
The former is known as the _maestrale_, the latter as the _levante_ or
_sirocco_, called _maledetto levante_ by the inhabitants of Southern
Sardinia. It becomes charged with moisture during its passage across
the Mediterranean, and its temperature is in reality much less than
might be supposed from the lassitude produced by it. The maestrale, on
the other hand, is hailed with joy, for it is an invigorating wind. On
reaching the coast it generally parts with its moisture, and when it
arrives at Cagliari it is perfectly dry. The capital of Sardinia is
indebted to this wind and to sea breezes for its low temperature (62·4°
F.), which is far lower than that of Genoa.
Hurricanes are comparatively rare, and hailstorms, which work such
damage elsewhere, are hardly known. Most of the rain falls in autumn;
it ceases in December, when the pleasantest season sets in. These are
the “halcyon days” of ancient poets, when the sea calms down in order
that the sacred bird may build his nest. But these pleasant days are
succeeded by a wretched spring. February, the “double-faced month” of
Sardinian mariners, brings capricious frosts, to which {343} succeed,
in March and April, abrupt changes of temperature, winds, and rain.
Vegetation in consequence is far more backward than might be supposed
from the latitude.
The vegetation of Sardinia resembles that of the other islands of the
Mediterranean. The forest in the highland valleys of the interior
and on the trackless mountain slopes consists of pines, oaks, and
holm-oaks, mixed here and there with yoke-elms and maples. The
villages are surrounded by chestnut-trees and groves of magnificent
walnut-trees. The hill-tops, robbed of their forests, are covered
with odoriferous plants and thickets of myrtles, strawberry-trees,
and heather. It is there the bees collect the bitter honey so much
despised by Horace. Vast tracts of uncultivated land near the seashore
are covered with wild olive-trees, which only need grafting to
yield excellent fruit. All the fruit trees and useful plants of the
Mediterranean flourish in Sardinia. Almond and orange trees, introduced
by the Moors at the close of the eleventh century, flourish vigorously.
The orange groves of Millis, which are protected by the extinct volcano
of Monte Ferru, are, perhaps, the most productive on the shores of
the Mediterranean, and in good seasons yield 60,000,000 oranges.
The gardens of Domus Novas, Ozieri, and Sassari are of surprising
fertility. In the southern part of the island, wherever the cultivated
fields gain upon the lands covered with rock-roses, fennel, and lilies,
they are fenced in with fig-trees. The fan-shaped foliage of the
date-palm is seen near every town, and more especially in the environs
of Cagliari. By a curious contrast the dwarf palm is not met with in
the southern lowlands of the island, though their climate is almost
African, but forms dense thickets in the solitudes of Alghero, in the
north of the islands. The inhabitants eat the roots of this tree, as do
also the Moors.
Although all the plants of neighbouring countries become easily
acclimatized in Sardinia, that island is naturally poorer in species
than are continental regions lying under the same latitude. There
is nothing special about its flora, for the island is probably only
a remnant of a larger tract of land which formerly joined Europe to
Africa. As to the famous plant mentioned by ancient writers, which,
eaten by mistake, produced fits of “sardonic laughter,” or even death,
it does not appear to be peculiar to the island. Mimaut thinks,
from the descriptions of Pliny and Pausanias, that the large-leafed
water-parsley (_Sium latifolium_) is referred to.
The number of species of animals, like that of plants, is smaller in
Sardinia than on the neighbouring continent. There are neither bears,
badgers, polecats, nor moles. Vipers or venomous serpents of any
description do not exist, and the only animal to be dreaded is the
tarentula (_arza_, or _argia_), a sting from which can be cured only
by dancing until completely exhausted, or by immersion in dung. The
ordinary frog, though common in Corsica, does not exist, but European
butterflies are numerous. The _moufflon_, which is, perhaps, the
ancestor of our domestic sheep, and has been exterminated in nearly
all the islands of the Mediterranean, still lives in the mountains of
Corsica and Sardinia. Wild horses roamed over Sant’ Antioco as recently
as the beginning of this century; myriads {344} of rabbits burrow in
the small islands lining the coast; and wild goats with long horns and
yellow teeth inhabit the limestone island of Tavolara, in the Gulf of
Terranova. These goats are descended from domestic animals abandoned
at some former period. Caprera, the residence of Garibaldi, is named
after the goats which formerly inhabited it, and animals of that kind
recently introduced there quickly returned to a state of nature.
Naturalists have observed that the mammals of Sardinia are smaller
than the same species living on the continent. The goat is the only
exception to the rule. The stag, deer, wild boar, fox, wild cat, hare,
rabbit, marten, and weasel are all of them smaller than the continental
varieties. The same rule applies to domesticated animals, with the
exception of the pig, which grows to a great size, especially where
it is allowed to roam through oak forests. There is a variety of this
animal whose hoofs are not cloven, and which ought, therefore, to be
classed amongst solipeds. The horses and asses of Sardinia are dwarfs.
But the horse is distinguished by great sobriety, sureness of foot,
vigour, and endurance. If in addition to these advantages it possessed
a more attractive exterior, it would rank among the most highly
appreciated horses of Europe. As to the donkeys, though hardly larger
than a mastiff, they are brave little animals, and frequently share
with their masters the only room of their abode. The old-fashioned
mills, resembling in every respect the Roman bas-reliefs which may
be seen in the Vatican, are propelled by these donkeys, which thus
materially contribute towards the support of their proprietors.
Sardinia abounds more than any other country of Western Europe in
prehistoric remains. There are megaliths, known as “giants’ stones,”
“altars,” or “long-stones,” as in Brittany, scarcely any of them
showing traces of the chisel. Dolmens, however, are rare, and the
genuineness of all is doubted. Amongst these monuments there are,
perhaps, some which were connected with the worship of some Eastern
deity, for Phœnicians and Carthaginians stayed for a considerable
time upon the island, where they founded Caralis, Nora, Tharros, and
other towns; and even during the time of the Romans it was customary
to place Punic inscriptions upon the tombstones. The ruins of Tharros
have yielded golden idols and other articles in large numbers, most
of them being of Egyptian origin. But the principal witnesses to the
civilisation of the ancient Sards are the curious structures known
as _nuraghi_. They generally occupy the hill-tops, and, seen from a
distance, resemble pyramids. The limestone plateau of Giara, near the
centre of the island, is surrounded by masonry structures of this
description, which abound also in other portions of the island, the
number still existing being nearly 4,000. They are most numerous in the
basaltic region to the south of Macomer, and are met with for the most
part in fertile districts, far away from the arid steppes.
The origin and uses of these nuraghi have been a subject of much
discussion, but archæologists now almost universally adopt the views
of Signor Spano, the indefatigable explorer of Sardinian antiquities.
According to him these nuraghi were dwellings, and their Phœnician name
simply means “round house.” The rudest {345} among them, dating back
probably for forty centuries, contain but a single chamber. They were
erected during the age of stone, when man first gave up his cavern
dwellings. The more recent constructions date back to the age of
bronze, and even of iron. More skill is exhibited in their structure,
though no mortar has been used, and they contain two or more chambers,
forming as many floors, and accessible by means of stone stairs.
The ground floor of some is large enough for the accommodation of
forty or fifty persons, and is furnished with antechambers and small
semicircular recesses. The nuraghi of Su Domu or S’Orcu, near Domus
Novas, which has recently been demolished, contained ten chambers and
four courtyards; it was a fortress as well as a dwelling-place, capable
of accommodating a hundred persons and standing a siege. The dwellings
of the modern Albanians and of the Swaneti in the Caucasus still
resemble these ancient abodes.
[Illustration: Fig. 127—LA GIARA.
Scale 1 : 308,640.]
The rubbish which accumulated in these nuraghi has yielded a multitude
of objects which throw light upon the daily life of the inhabitants,
and bear witness to their relative civilisation. The lower strata only
contain hand-made utensils, stone arms, and pottery, but in the upper
and more recent layers many articles of bronze have been found. Other
monuments of cyclopean structure stand near these ancient dwellings.
They are popularly known as “giants’ tombs,” and Signor {346} Sapi,
who has examined a large number of them, has discovered in every
instance the ashes of human beings.
Though very superstitious, the Sardinians have no legends respecting
these dwellings of the aborigines, and at most attribute them to the
devil. This absence of traditions is no doubt traceable to the almost
total annihilation of the inhabitants by successive conquerors. The
Carthaginians showed no mercy to the aborigines, and during the first
centuries of Roman rule massacres and forcible emigration were the
order of the day, and the gaps thus created were filled up by Italian
colonists and exiles.
The ancient Sards were most likely Iberians. They are of low stature,
and the climate, which has stunted the growth of wild and domesticated
animals, appears to have influenced man likewise; but they are well
proportioned and muscular, have an abundance of black hair and strong
beards, and scarcely ever grow bald. There are minor differences in
the Sards of the two provinces. Those of the north have generally oval
features and an aquiline nose, whilst those near Cagliari, who are
probably more mixed, have irregular features and prominent cheek-bones.
The inhabitants of the interior of the island are, perhaps, of purer
race than any other Europeans. Their ancestors, no doubt, were of
the most diverse origin, but most invasions which took place after
the Roman era stopped short at the coast. The Vandals paid a visit
to Sardinia, but all the other Germanic tribes, who ravaged nearly
every other country of Western Europe, spared that island, and its
inhabitants were thus able to preserve their manners and language. The
Moors, Pisans, Genoese, Catalonians, and Spaniards, who successively
invaded the island, never penetrated beyond the coast. There is only
one exception to this rule, viz. that of the Barbaricini, who inhabit
the mountain district of Barbagia, in the very centre of the island,
and who are supposed to be the descendants of Berbers expelled from
Africa by the Vandals. When they came to the island they were still
pagans, and they intermarried with their neighbours, the Ilienses,
an aboriginal tribe, pagans like themselves. They were converted to
Christianity in the seventh century, and the sombre dress worn by their
women reminds us of Barbary.
Of all the idioms derived from the Latin, that spoken in Sardinia has
most resemblance to the language of the ancient Romans. More than five
hundred words are absolutely identical. There are likewise a few Greek
words not met with in any other Latin idiom, as well as two or three
words which have no affinity with any other European tongue, and which
are, perhaps, derived from the language spoken by the aborigines. The
two leading dialects, those of Logoduro, in the north, and of Cagliari,
are directly derived from the Latin, and are, perhaps, most nearly
related to Spanish. At Sassari, and in some of the neighbouring coast
districts, an Italian dialect is spoken which is very much like that
of Corsica or Genoa. At Alghero the descendants of the Catalonian
immigrants who settled there about the middle of the fourteenth century
still speak their old Provençal. The _Maurelli_, or _Maureddus_, in
the environs of Iglesias, who are probably Berbers, {347} and can be
recognised by their narrow skulls, make use of a few African words.
Maltzan looks upon the inhabitants of the fertile district of Millis as
the purest representatives of African immigrants, and it was they who
introduced the cultivation of the orange into Sardinia.
The Sardinians of the interior not only retain their ancient language,
but likewise many of their ancient customs. Their dances are still the
same as in the time of Greece. In the north the steps are regulated by
the human voice, the chanters occupying the centre of the ring. In the
south a musical instrument, the _launedda_, is used, which is nothing
but an ancient flute, made of two or three reeds. The customs observed
at christenings, weddings, and funerals are likewise of remote date.
Marriage, as amongst nearly all the ancient inhabitants of Europe, is
preceded by a feigned abduction of the bride. The latter, after she has
entered the house of her husband, must not stir from her place during
that day, nor speak a single word. Mute as a statue, she is no longer a
sentient being, but a “thing,” the property of her husband. She is not
permitted to see her relatives during three days, and in the south many
women partly conceal their features.
The mountaineers likewise observe the lugubrious ceremony of a wake,
called _titio_ or _attito_. Women, who are either the friends of
the deceased or are engaged for the purpose, penetrate the mortuary
chamber, tear their hair, howl, and improvise hymns of mourning. These
old pagan ceremonies become truly terrific when the deceased has been
the victim of assassination, for in that case the mourners swear to
take the life of the murderer. Up to the beginning of this century
the practice of the vendetta annually cost the lives of hundreds of
young men. At the present day it is confined to the most secluded
parts of the island, and in the mountain districts of Nuoro and La
Gallura it is customary at christenings to place a few bullets in the
swaddling-clothes of the infants, these consecrated bullets being
supposed never to miss their mark. Another custom still more barbarous
has ceased to be observed since the beginning of the last century.
Women, called “finishers” (_accabadure_), were employed to hasten the
end of dying persons, a practice which often led to the most atrocious
deeds.
The peasant of Sardinia, though not the proprietor of the soil, is
nevertheless permitted to enjoy the result of his labour. The feudal
system existed up to 1840, and many traces of it still survive. The
great barons, most of them of Spanish extraction, were almost the
absolute masters of the country, and up to 1836 they administered the
law, had their prisons, and erected gallows as a symbol of their power.
The peasants, however, were not tied to the land, but could migrate at
pleasure, and custom granted them a fair share of the produce of the
soil. By virtue of an _ademprivio_ they were permitted to cut wood in
the forests, to pasture their sheep on the hills, and to bring into
cultivation the waste lands of the plains. Agriculture was carried
on in the most primitive fashion, for the great lords of the land
usually resided abroad, and the management of their estates was left
to bailiffs. Government has now become the proprietor of most of the
unenclosed {348} land, 80,000 acres of which have been ceded to the
Anglo-Italian Company, which has undertaken to provide the island with
a network of railways.
[Illustration: Fig. 128.—DISTRICT OF IGLESIAS.