They detest war as a very brutal thing, and which, to the reproach of
human nature, is more practised by men than by any sort of beasts.
They, in opposition to the sentiments of almost all other nations,
think that there is nothing more inglorious than that glory that is
gained by war; and therefore, though they accustom themselves daily to
military exercises and the discipline of war, in which not only their
men, but their women likewise, are trained up, that, in cases of
necessity, they may not be quite useless, yet they do not rashly engage
in war, unless it be either to defend themselves or their friends from
any unjust aggressors, or, out of good nature or in compassion, assist
an oppressed nation in shaking off the yoke of tyranny. They, indeed,
help their friends not only in defensive but also in offensive wars;
but they never do that unless they had been consulted before the breach
was made, and, being satisfied with the grounds on which they went,
they had found that all demands of reparation were rejected, so that a
war was unavoidable. This they think to be not only just when one
neighbour makes an inroad on another by public order, and carries away
the spoils, but when the merchants of one country are oppressed in
another, either under pretence of some unjust laws, or by the perverse
wresting of good ones. This they count a juster cause of war than the
other, because those injuries are done under some colour of laws. This
was the only ground of that war in which they engaged with the
Nephelogetes against the Aleopolitanes, a little before our time; for
the merchants of the former having, as they thought, met with great
injustice among the latter, which (whether it was in itself right or
wrong) drew on a terrible war, in which many of their neighbours were
engaged; and their keenness in carrying it on being supported by their
strength in maintaining it, it not only shook some very flourishing
states and very much afflicted others, but, after a series of much
mischief ended in the entire conquest and slavery of the Aleopolitanes,
who, though before the war they were in all respects much superior to
the Nephelogetes, were yet subdued; but, though the Utopians had
assisted them in the war, yet they pretended to no share of the spoil.
“But, though they so vigorously assist their friends in obtaining
reparation for the injuries they have received in affairs of this
nature, yet, if any such frauds were committed against themselves,
provided no violence was done to their persons, they would only, on
their being refused satisfaction, forbear trading with such a people.
This is not because they consider their neighbours more than their own
citizens; but, since their neighbours trade every one upon his own
stock, fraud is a more sensible injury to them than it is to the
Utopians, among whom the public, in such a case, only suffers, as they
expect no thing in return for the merchandise they export but that in
which they so much abound, and is of little use to them, the loss does
not much affect them. They think, therefore, it would be too severe to
revenge a loss attended with so little inconvenience, either to their
lives or their subsistence, with the death of many persons; but if any
of their people are either killed or wounded wrongfully, whether it be
done by public authority, or only by private men, as soon as they hear
of it they send ambassadors, and demand that the guilty persons may be
delivered up to them, and if that is denied, they declare war; but if
it be complied with, the offenders are condemned either to death or
slavery.
“They would be both troubled and ashamed of a bloody victory over their
enemies; and think it would be as foolish a purchase as to buy the most
valuable goods at too high a rate. And in no victory do they glory so
much as in that which is gained by dexterity and good conduct without
bloodshed. In such cases they appoint public triumphs, and erect
trophies to the honour of those who have succeeded; for then do they
reckon that a man acts suitably to his nature, when he conquers his
enemy in such a way as that no other creature but a man could be
capable of, and that is by the strength of his understanding. Bears,
lions, boars, wolves, and dogs, and all other animals, employ their
bodily force one against another, in which, as many of them are
superior to men, both in strength and fierceness, so they are all
subdued by his reason and understanding.
“The only design of the Utopians in war is to obtain that by force
which, if it had been granted them in time, would have prevented the
war; or, if that cannot be done, to take so severe a revenge on those
that have injured them that they may be terrified from doing the like
for the time to come. By these ends they measure all their designs, and
manage them so, that it is visible that the appetite of fame or
vainglory does not work so much on there as a just care of their own
security.
“As soon as they declare war, they take care to have a great many
schedules, that are sealed with their common seal, affixed in the most
conspicuous places of their enemies’ country. This is carried secretly,
and done in many places all at once. In these they promise great
rewards to such as shall kill the prince, and lesser in proportion to
such as shall kill any other persons who are those on whom, next to the
prince himself, they cast the chief balance of the war. And they double
the sum to him that, instead of killing the person so marked out, shall
take him alive, and put him in their hands. They offer not only
indemnity, but rewards, to such of the persons themselves that are so
marked, if they will act against their countrymen. By this means those
that are named in their schedules become not only distrustful of their
fellow-citizens, but are jealous of one another, and are much
distracted by fear and danger; for it has often fallen out that many of
them, and even the prince himself, have been betrayed, by those in whom
they have trusted most; for the rewards that the Utopians offer are so
immeasurably great, that there is no sort of crime to which men cannot
be drawn by them. They consider the risk that those run who undertake
such services, and offer a recompense proportioned to the danger—not
only a vast deal of gold, but great revenues in lands, that lie among
other nations that are their friends, where they may go and enjoy them
very securely; and they observe the promises they make of their kind
most religiously. They very much approve of this way of corrupting
their enemies, though it appears to others to be base and cruel; but
they look on it as a wise course, to make an end of what would be
otherwise a long war, without so much as hazarding one battle to decide
it. They think it likewise an act of mercy and love to mankind to
prevent the great slaughter of those that must otherwise be killed in
the progress of the war, both on their own side and on that of their
enemies, by the death of a few that are most guilty; and that in so
doing they are kind even to their enemies, and pity them no less than
their own people, as knowing that the greater part of them do not
engage in the war of their own accord, but are driven into it by the
passions of their prince.
“If this method does not succeed with them, then they sow seeds of
contention among their enemies, and animate the prince’s brother, or
some of the nobility, to aspire to the crown. If they cannot disunite
them by domestic broils, then they engage their neighbours against
them, and make them set on foot some old pretensions, which are never
wanting to princes when they have occasion for them. These they
plentifully supply with money, though but very sparingly with any
auxiliary troops; for they are so tender of their own people that they
would not willingly exchange one of them, even with the prince of their
enemies’ country.
“But as they keep their gold and silver only for such an occasion, so,
when that offers itself, they easily part with it; since it would be no
convenience to them, though they should reserve nothing of it to
themselves. For besides the wealth that they have among them at home,
they have a vast treasure abroad; many nations round about them being
deep in their debt: so that they hire soldiers from all places for
carrying on their wars; but chiefly from the Zapolets, who live five
hundred miles east of Utopia. They are a rude, wild, and fierce nation,
who delight in the woods and rocks, among which they were born and bred
up. They are hardened both against heat, cold, and labour, and know
nothing of the delicacies of life. They do not apply themselves to
agriculture, nor do they care either for their houses or their clothes:
cattle is all that they look after; and for the greatest part they live
either by hunting or upon rapine; and are made, as it were, only for
war. They watch all opportunities of engaging in it, and very readily
embrace such as are offered them. Great numbers of them will frequently
go out, and offer themselves for a very low pay, to serve any that will
employ them: they know none of the arts of life, but those that lead to
the taking it away; they serve those that hire them, both with much
courage and great fidelity; but will not engage to serve for any
determined time, and agree upon such terms, that the next day they may
go over to the enemies of those whom they serve if they offer them a
greater encouragement; and will, perhaps, return to them the day after
that upon a higher advance of their pay. There are few wars in which
they make not a considerable part of the armies of both sides: so it
often falls out that they who are related, and were hired in the same
country, and so have lived long and familiarly together, forgetting
both their relations and former friendship, kill one another upon no
other consideration than that of being hired to it for a little money
by princes of different interests; and such a regard have they for
money that they are easily wrought on by the difference of one penny a
day to change sides. So entirely does their avarice influence them; and
yet this money, which they value so highly, is of little use to them;
for what they purchase thus with their blood they quickly waste on
luxury, which among them is but of a poor and miserable form.
“This nation serves the Utopians against all people whatsoever, for
they pay higher than any other. The Utopians hold this for a maxim,
that as they seek out the best sort of men for their own use at home,
so they make use of this worst sort of men for the consumption of war;
and therefore they hire them with the offers of vast rewards to expose
themselves to all sorts of hazards, out of which the greater part never
returns to claim their promises; yet they make them good most
religiously to such as escape. This animates them to adventure again,
whenever there is occasion for it; for the Utopians are not at all
troubled how many of these happen to be killed, and reckon it a service
done to mankind if they could be a means to deliver the world from such
a lewd and vicious sort of people, that seem to have run together, as
to the drain of human nature. Next to these, they are served in their
wars with those upon whose account they undertake them, and with the
auxiliary troops of their other friends, to whom they join a few of
their own people, and send some man of eminent and approved virtue to
command in chief. There are two sent with him, who, during his command,
are but private men, but the first is to succeed him if he should
happen to be either killed or taken; and, in case of the like
misfortune to him, the third comes in his place; and thus they provide
against all events, that such accidents as may befall their generals
may not endanger their armies. When they draw out troops of their own
people, they take such out of every city as freely offer themselves,
for none are forced to go against their wills, since they think that if
any man is pressed that wants courage, he will not only act faintly,
but by his cowardice dishearten others. But if an invasion is made on
their country, they make use of such men, if they have good bodies,
though they are not brave; and either put them aboard their ships, or
place them on the walls of their towns, that being so posted, they may
find no opportunity of flying away; and thus either shame, the heat of
action, or the impossibility of flying, bears down their cowardice;
they often make a virtue of necessity, and behave themselves well,
because nothing else is left them. But as they force no man to go into
any foreign war against his will, so they do not hinder those women who
are willing to go along with their husbands; on the contrary, they
encourage and praise them, and they stand often next their husbands in
the front of the army. They also place together those who are related,
parents, and children, kindred, and those that are mutually allied,
near one another; that those whom nature has inspired with the greatest
zeal for assisting one another may be the nearest and readiest to do
it; and it is matter of great reproach if husband or wife survive one
another, or if a child survives his parent, and therefore when they
come to be engaged in action, they continue to fight to the last man,
if their enemies stand before them: and as they use all prudent methods
to avoid the endangering their own men, and if it is possible let all
the action and danger fall upon the troops that they hire, so if it
becomes necessary for themselves to engage, they then charge with as
much courage as they avoided it before with prudence: nor is it a
fierce charge at first, but it increases by degrees; and as they
continue in action, they grow more obstinate, and press harder upon the
enemy, insomuch that they will much sooner die than give ground; for
the certainty that their children will be well looked after when they
are dead frees them from all that anxiety concerning them which often
masters men of great courage; and thus they are animated by a noble and
invincible resolution. Their skill in military affairs increases their
courage: and the wise sentiments which, according to the laws of their
country, are instilled into them in their education, give additional
vigour to their minds: for as they do not undervalue life so as
prodigally to throw it away, they are not so indecently fond of it as
to preserve it by base and unbecoming methods. In the greatest heat of
action the bravest of their youth, who have devoted themselves to that
service, single out the general of their enemies, set on him either
openly or by ambuscade; pursue him everywhere, and when spent and
wearied out, are relieved by others, who never give over the pursuit,
either attacking him with close weapons when they can get near him, or
with those which wound at a distance, when others get in between them.
So that, unless he secures himself by flight, they seldom fail at last
to kill or to take him prisoner. When they have obtained a victory,
they kill as few as possible, and are much more bent on taking many
prisoners than on killing those that fly before them. Nor do they ever
let their men so loose in the pursuit of their enemies as not to retain
an entire body still in order; so that if they have been forced to
engage the last of their battalions before they could gain the day,
they will rather let their enemies all escape than pursue them when
their own army is in disorder; remembering well what has often fallen
out to themselves, that when the main body of their army has been quite
defeated and broken, when their enemies, imagining the victory
obtained, have let themselves loose into an irregular pursuit, a few of
them that lay for a reserve, waiting a fit opportunity, have fallen on
them in their chase, and when straggling in disorder, and apprehensive
of no danger, but counting the day their own, have turned the whole
action, and, wresting out of their hands a victory that seemed certain
and undoubted, while the vanquished have suddenly become victorious.
“It is hard to tell whether they are more dexterous in laying or
avoiding ambushes. They sometimes seem to fly when it is far from their
thoughts; and when they intend to give ground, they do it so that it is
very hard to find out their design. If they see they are ill posted, or
are like to be overpowered by numbers, they then either march off in
the night with great silence, or by some stratagem delude their
enemies. If they retire in the day-time, they do it in such order that
it is no less dangerous to fall upon them in a retreat than in a march.
They fortify their camps with a deep and large trench; and throw up the
earth that is dug out of it for a wall; nor do they employ only their
slaves in this, but the whole army works at it, except those that are
then upon the guard; so that when so many hands are at work, a great
line and a strong fortification is finished in so short a time that it
is scarce credible. Their armour is very strong for defence, and yet is
not so heavy as to make them uneasy in their marches; they can even
swim with it. All that are trained up to war practise swimming. Both
horse and foot make great use of arrows, and are very expert. They have
no swords, but fight with a pole-axe that is both sharp and heavy, by
which they thrust or strike down an enemy. They are very good at
finding out warlike machines, and disguise them so well that the enemy
does not perceive them till he feels the use of them; so that he cannot
prepare such a defence as would render them useless; the chief
consideration had in the making them is that they may be easily carried
and managed.
“If they agree to a truce, they observe it so religiously that no
provocations will make them break it. They never lay their enemies’
country waste nor burn their corn, and even in their marches they take
all possible care that neither horse nor foot may tread it down, for
they do not know but that they may have use for it themselves. They
hurt no man whom they find disarmed, unless he is a spy. When a town is
surrendered to them, they take it into their protection; and when they
carry a place by storm they never plunder it, but put those only to the
sword that oppose the rendering of it up, and make the rest of the
garrison slaves, but for the other inhabitants, they do them no hurt;
and if any of them had advised a surrender, they give them good rewards
out of the estates of those that they condemn, and distribute the rest
among their auxiliary troops, but they themselves take no share of the
spoil.
“When a war is ended, they do not oblige their friends to reimburse
their expenses; but they obtain them of the conquered, either in money,
which they keep for the next occasion, or in lands, out of which a
constant revenue is to be paid them; by many increases the revenue
which they draw out from several countries on such occasions is now
risen to above 700,000 ducats a year. They send some of their own
people to receive these revenues, who have orders to live magnificently
and like princes, by which means they consume much of it upon the
place; and either bring over the rest to Utopia or lend it to that
nation in which it lies. This they most commonly do, unless some great
occasion, which falls out but very seldom, should oblige them to call
for it all. It is out of these lands that they assign rewards to such
as they encourage to adventure on desperate attempts. If any prince
that engages in war with them is making preparations for invading their
country, they prevent him, and make his country the seat of the war;
for they do not willingly suffer any war to break in upon their island;
and if that should happen, they would only defend themselves by their
own people; but would not call for auxiliary troops to their
assistance.