THE PRODUCTION OF ORGAN TONE.
We now come to the department of the organ which will be of more
interest to the listener, viz., the various organ tones. The general
shape and construction of the pipes now in use, judging from the
earliest drawings obtainable, have not changed for hundreds of years.
The ancients were not wanting in ingenuity and we have pictures of many
funny-looking pipes which were intended to imitate the growling of a
bear (this stop was sometimes labeled Vox Humana!), the crowing of a
cock, the call of the cuckoo, the song of the nightingale, and the
twitter of the canary, the ends of these pipes being bent over and
inserted in water, just as the player blows into a glass of water
through a quill in a toy symphony. Then there was the Hummel, a device
which caused two of the largest pipes in the organ to sound at once
_and awake those who snored during the sermon_! Finally there was the
Fuchsschwanz. A stop-knob bearing the inscription, "Noli me tangere"
(touch me not), was attached to the console. As a reward for their
curiosity, persons who were induced to touch the knob thereby set free
the catch of a spring, causing a huge foxtail to fly into their
faces--to the great joy and mirth of the bystanders.
In order to understand what follows we must make a short excursion into
the realm of acoustics. We have already remarked upon the extreme
antiquity of the Flute. The tone of the Flute is produced by blowing
across a hole pierced in its side; in other words, _like a stream of
wind striking upon a cutting edge_. It is possible to produce a tone
in this way by blowing across the end of any tube made of any material,
of glass, or iron, or rubber, or cane, or even the barrel of an
old-fashioned door key. The primitive Flutes found in the Egyptian
tombs and also depicted on the ancient hieroglyphics are made of reed
or cane, about 14 inches long, possessing the usual six finger-holes.
The top end is not stopped with a cork, as in the ordinary Flute, but
is thinned off to a feather edge, leaving a sharp circular ring at
right angles to the axis of the bore. By blowing across this ring a
fair but somewhat feeble Flute tone is produced.
The six holes being closed by the fingers, the ground tone of the tube
is produced. On lifting the fingers in successive order from the
bottom end, we get the seven notes of the major scale. Closing the
holes again and blowing harder, we get the scale _an octave higher_.
By blowing still harder we get an octave higher still. In other words,
we are now producing _harmonics_.
It is possible to produce from a plain tube without finger-holes or
valves, such as the French Horn, by tightening the lips and increasing
the pressure of the player's breath, the following series of harmonics:
[Illustration: Series of harmonics]
The harmonics of a pianoforte string can be easily demonstrated by the
following experiment: Depress the "loud" pedal and strike any note in
the bass a sharp blow. On listening intently, the 3d, 5th, and 8th
(the common chord) of the note struck will be heard sounding all the
way up for several octaves. In this case the other strings of the
piano act as _resonators_, enabling the harmonics to be heard.
Coming back to our Flute again and applying the knowledge we have
gained to an organ pipe, we observe:
1. That the _pitch_ of the sound depends on the length of the tube.
2. That the pitch of the sound _also_ depends on the amount of wind
pressure.
From this last will be seen how important it is that the pressure of
the wind in an organ should be steady and uniform. Otherwise the pipes
will speak a harmonic instead of the sound intended--as, indeed,
frequently happens.
When a stop is labeled "8 ft.," that means that the bottom pipe, CC is
8 feet long and the pitch will be that of the key struck. A "16-ft."
stop will sound an octave lower; a "4-ft." stop an octave higher.
These measurements refer to pipes which are open at the top and are
only correct in the case of very narrow pipes, such as the stop called
Dulciana. Wider pipes do not require to be so long in order to produce
8-ft. tone.
"If a tube * * * open at both ends be blown across at one end, the
fundamental tone of the tube will be sounded; but if the hand be placed
at one end of the tube, so as to effectually close it, and the open end
be blown across as before, a sound will be heard exactly one octave
below that which was heard when both ends of the tube were open. One
of these pipes was an open pipe, the other a stopped pipe; and the
difference between the two is that which constitutes the two great
classes into which the flue pipes of organs are divided." [1]
Thus by stopping up the end of an organ pipe we get 8-ft. tone from a
pipe only 4 ft. long, 16-ft. tone from a pipe 8 ft. long, and so on,
but with loss of power and volume. The harmonics produced from stopped
pipes are entirely different from those of the open ones; their
harmonic scale is produced by vibrations which are as 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.,
those of a stopped pipe by vibrations which are as 1, 3, 5, 7. All
these harmonics are also called upper partials.
The Estey Organ Company claim to have discovered a new principle in
acoustics in their Open Bass pipes, of which we show a drawing
opposite. This invention (by William E. Haskell) enables the builders
to supply open bass tone in organ chambers and swell boxes where there
is not room for full-length pipes.
[Illustration: Fig. 16. Estey's Open Bass Pipes--Wood and Metal]
Referring to the illustration, it will be seen that the pipes are
partly open and partly stopped, with a tuning slide in the centre. The
builders write as follows:
"The inserted tube, or complementing chamber, in the pipe is such in
length as to complete the full length of the pipe. It is, as will be
noted, smaller in scale than the outside pipe. The effect is to
produce the vibration that would be obtained with a full-length pipe,
and in no way does it interfere with the quality of tone. In fact, it
assists the pipe materially in its speech. This is most noticeable in
a pipe such as the 32-foot Open Diapason, which when made full length
is quite likely to be slow in speech. With this arrangement the pipe
takes its speech very readily and is no slower in taking its full
speech than an ordinary 16-foot Open Diapason.
"We have worked this out for all classes of tone--string, flute and
diapason--and the law holds good in every instance."
Helmholtz was the first to demonstrate that the _quality_ of all
musical tones depends entirely upon the presence or absence of their
upper partials. In the hollow tone of the Flute they are almost
entirely absent; in the clanging tone of the Trumpet many of the higher
ones are present; and if we take an instrument like the Cymbals we get
the whole of the upper lot altogether.
The different qualities of tone of the organ pipes are therefore
determined: (1) By the material of which the pipes are made; (2) by the
shape of the pipe; (3) by the amount of wind pressure; (4) by the shape
and size of the mouth, the relation of the lip to the stream of wind
impinging on it from a narrow slit, and the shape and thickness of the
lip itself. The manipulation of the mouth and lip to produce the tone
desired is called voicing and calls for considerable artistic skill.
The writer recollects an instance of a clever voicer (Gustav Schlette)
taking a new organ in hand, which was not quite satisfactory, and on
the following Sunday he hardly knew it again.
Another kind of harmonics must now be described, called combinational
or Tartini tones (from Tartini, a celebrated Italian violinist of the
XVII century, who first described them). "These tones," says
Helmholtz, "are heard whenever two musical tones of different pitches
are sounded together loudly and continuously." There is no necessity
for giving a table of all of their tones here; we select the two most
useful. If two notes at an interval of a fifth are held down, a note
one octave below the lower one will be heard. So organ builders take
two pipes--one 16 feet long (CCC) and one 10 2/3 feet long (GG)--which
make the interval of the fifth, and, by sounding them together, produce
the tone of a pipe 33 feet long (CCCC). This is the stop which will be
found labeled "32-ft. Resultant." Hope-Jones makes a stop which he
calls Gravissima, 64-ft. Resultant, in his large organs. Many contend
that this system produces better results than if pipes of the actual
lengths of 32 or 64 feet were employed. Indeed, a pipe 64 feet long
would be inaudible; the human ear has its limitations and refuses to
recognize tone lower than 32 feet (just as we cannot lift water by a
suction pump over 32 feet)--_but_, these great pipes _produce
harmonics_ which wonderfully reinforce the tone of the organ.
Therefore their use is worth while.
The other combinational tone to which we refer is that produced by the
interval of a major third. It sounds two octaves below the lower note.
The writer is not aware that this has ever been used as an organ stop,
but it is found written in the organ compositions of Guilmant and other
first-rate composers. It will be seen that a skilful organist, with a
knowledge of these tones, can produce effects from small organs not
available to the ordinary player.
Reverting once more to our Flute, whose tube is shortened by lifting
the fingers from the holes, it is not generally known that this can be
done with an organ pipe; the writer has met with instances of it in
England. The two lowest pipes of the Pedal Open Diapason were each
made to give two notes by affixing a pneumatic valve near the top of
the pipe. When the valve was closed the pipe gave CCC. When the
organist played CCC sharp, wind was admitted to the valve, which
opened, and this shortened the pipe. The device worked perfectly, only
that it was not possible to hold down both CCC and CCC sharp and make
"thunder"! The organist of Chester Cathedral had been playing his
instrument twice daily for ten years before he found this out, and then
he only discovered it when the pipes were taken down to be cleaned. It
is an admirable makeshift where a builder is cramped for room.
Organ pipes are divided into three families--Flues, Reeds and
Diaphones. The flues are subdivided into Diapasons, Flutes, and
Strings, and we now proceed to consider each of these groups separately.
DIAPASONS.
The pipes usually seen in the front of an organ belong to the Great
organ Open Diapason, long regarded as the foundation tone of the
instrument. The Open Diapason may vary in size (or scale) from 9
inches diameter at CC to 3 inches. The average size is about 6 inches.
The Diapasons of the celebrated old organ-builders, Father Schmidt,
Renatus Harris, Green, Snetzler and others, though small in power, were
most musical in tone quality. Though sounding soft near the organ, the
tone from these musical stops seems to suffer little loss when
traveling to the end of quite a large building. About the year 1862
Schulze, in his celebrated organ at Doncaster, England, brought into
prominence a new and much more brilliant and powerful Diapason. The
mouths of the pipes were made very wide and they were more freely
blown. Schulze's work was imitated by T. C. Lewis, of England, and by
Willis. It has also exercised very great influence on the work done by
almost all organ-builders in this country, in Germany, and elsewhere.
Schulze's method of treatment added largely to the assertiveness and
power of the tone, but gave the impression of the pipes being overblown
and led to the loss of the beautiful, musical, and singing quality of
tone furnished by the older Diapasons. Hard-toned Diapasons became
almost the accepted standard. Willis even went so far as to slot all
of his Diapason pipes, and Cavaillé-Coll sometimes adopted a similar
practice. Walker, in England, and Henry Erben, in this country,
continued to produce Diapasons having a larger percentage of foundation
tone and they and a few other builders thus helped to keep alive the
old traditions.
In the year 1887 Hope-Jones introduced his discovery that by leathering
the lips of the Diapason pipes, narrowing their mouths, inverting their
languids and increasing the thickness of the metal, the pipes could be
voiced on 10, 20, or even 30-inch wind, without hardness of tone,
forcing, or windiness being introduced. He ceased to restrict the toe
of the pipe and did all his regulation at the flue.
His invention has proved of profound significance to the organ world.
The old musical quality, rich in foundation tone, is returning, but
with added power. Its use, in place of the hard and empty-toned
Diapasons to which we had perforce become accustomed, is rapidly
growing. The organs in almost all parts of the world show the
Hope-Jones influence. Few builders have failed now to adopt the
leathered lip.
Wedgwood, in his "Dictionary of Organ Stops," pp. 44, 45, says:
"Mr. Ernest Skinner, an eminent American organ-builder,[2] likens the
discovery of the leathered lip to the invention by Barker of the
pneumatic lever, predicting that it will revolutionize organ tone as
surely and completely as did the latter organ mechanism, an estimate
which is by no means so exaggerated as might be supposed. The
leathered Diapason, indeed, is now attaining a zenith of popularity
both in England and America.[3] A prominent German builder also, who,
on the author's recommendation, made trial of it, was so struck with
the refined quality of tone that he forthwith signified his intention
of adopting the process. A few isolated and unsuccessful experimental
attempts at improving the tone of the pipes by coating their lips with
paper, parchment, felt, and kindred substances, have been recorded, but
undoubtedly the credit of having been the first to perceive the value
and inner significance of the process must be accorded to Mr. Robert
Hope-Jones. It was only at the cost of considerable thought and labour
that he was able to develop his crude and embryonic scientific theory
into a process which bids fair to transform modern organ building. The
names of Cavaillé-Coll and George Willis, and of Hope-Jones, will be
handed down to posterity as the authors of the most valuable
improvements in the domains of reed-voicing and flue-voicing,
respectively, which have been witnessed in the present era of organ
building."
The desire for power in Diapason tone first found expression in this
country by the introduction into our larger organs of what was called a
Stentorphone. This was a large metal Diapason of ordinary
construction, voiced on heavy wind pressure. It was most harsh,
unmusical and inartistic. It produced comparatively little foundation
tone and a powerful chord of harmonics, many of them dissonant. In
Germany, Weiglé, of Stuttgart, introduced a similar stop, but actually
exaggerated its want of refinement by making the mouth above the normal
width. As knowledge of the Hope-Jones methods spreads, these coarse
and unmusical stops disappear. He is without question right in urging
that the chief aim in using heavy pressure should be to increase
refinement, not power of tone. Sweet foundation tone produced from
heavy wind pressure always possesses satisfactory power. He is also
unquestionably right in his contention that when great nobility of
foundation tone is required, Diapasons should not be unduly multiplied,
but Tibias or large Flutes should be used behind them.
Every epoch-making innovation raises adversaries.
We learn from these that pure foundation tone does not blend. True,
there are examples of organs where the true foundation tone exists but
does not blend with the rest of the instrument, but it is misleading to
say that "pure foundation tone does not blend." Hope-Jones has proved
conclusively that by exercise of the requisite skill it does and so
have others who follow in his steps. A view of the mouth of a
Hope-Jones heavy pressure Diapason, with inverted languid, leather lip
and clothed flue, is given in Figure 17.
[Illustration: Fig. 17. Diapason Pipe with Leathered Lip]
The dull tone of the old Diapasons was due to the absence of the upper
harmonics or partials. With the introduction of the Lutheran chorale
and congregational singing it was found that the existing organs could
not make themselves heard above the voices. But it was discovered
empirically that by adding their harmonics artificially the organs
could be brightened up and even made to overpower large bodies of
singers. Hence the introduction of the Mixture stops (also called
compound stops), which were _compounded_ of several ranks of pipes.
The simplest form was the Doublette sounding the 15th and 22nd (the
double and treble octave) of the note struck. Other ranks added
sounded the 12th, 19th, and so on, until it was possible to obtain not
only the full common chord, but also some of the higher harmonics
dissonant to this chord, from a single key.
THE DECLINE OF MIXTURES.
Fifty years ago it was common to find the number of ranks of mixtures
in an organ largely exceed the total number of foundation stops.
Mixtures were inserted in the pedal departments of all large organs.
Organists of the time do not seem to have objected and many of the
leading players strongly opposed Hope-Jones when he came out as the
champion of their abolition. These stops greatly excited the ire of
Berlioz, who declaims against them in his celebrated work on
orchestration.
The tone of these old organs, when all the Mixture work is drawn, is
well nigh ludicrous to modern ears, and it is hard to suppress a smile
when reading the statements and arguments advanced in favor of the
retention of Mixtures by well-known organists of the last generation.
These mutation stops still have their place in large instruments, but
it is no longer thought that they are necessary to support the singing
of a congregation and that they should be voiced loudly. The decline
of Mixture work has in itself entirely altered and very greatly
improved the effect of organs when considered from a musical point of
view. The tone is now bright and clear. Mr. James Wedgwood says:
"The tendency to exaggerate the 'upper work' of the organ reached a
climax in the instrument built by Gabler, in 1750, for the Monastic
Church at Weingarten, near Ravensburg. This organ comprised no less
than ninety-five ranks of Mixture, including two stops of twenty-one
and twenty ranks, respectively. Toward the close of the Eighteenth
Century, the Abt Vögler (1749-1814) came forward with his
'Simplification System,' one feature of which consisted in the
abolition of excessive Mixture work. The worthy Abbe, who was a
capable theorist and a gifted player, and possessed of an eccentric
and, therefore, attractive personality, secured many followers, who
preached a crusade against Mixture work. The success of the movement
can well be measured by the amount of apologetic literature it called
forth, and by the fact that it stirred the theorists to ponder for
themselves what really was the function of the Mixture. * * * The
announcement by Mr. Hope-Jones at the beginning of the last decade of
the past century of his complete discardment of all Mixture and
mutation work may fairly be stated to have marked a distinct epoch in
the history of the controversy."
It is indeed strange to find that this man, who did much to discourage
the use of mixtures, has never quite abandoned their employment and is
to-day the sole champion of double sets of mixture pipes, which he puts
in his organs under the name of Mixture Celestes! However, these are
very soft and are of course quite different in object and scope from
the old-fashioned mixture--now happily extinct.
FLUTES.
The chief developments in Flutes that have taken place during the
period under consideration are the popularization of the double length,
or "Harmonic," principle,[4] by Cavaillé-Coll, by William Thynne and
others, and the introduction of large scale leather-lipped "Tibias" by
Hope-Jones.
Harmonic Flutes, of double length open pipes,[5] are now utilized by
almost all organ builders. Speaking generally, the tone is pure and
possesses considerable carrying power. Thynne, in his Zauber Flöte,
introduced stopped pipes blown so as to produce their first harmonic
(an interval of a twelfth from the ground tone). The tone is of quiet
silvery beauty, but the stop does not seem to have been largely adopted
by other builders. Perhaps the most beautiful stop of this kind
produced by Thynne is the one in the remarkable organ in the home of
Mr. J. Martin White, Balruddery, Dundee, Scotland.
The Hope-Jones leathered Tibias have already effected a revolution in
the tonal structure of large organs. They produce a much greater
percentage of foundation tone than the best Diapasons and are finding
their way into most modern organs of size. They appear under various
names, such as Tibia Plena, Tibia Clausa, Gross Flöte, Flute
Fundamentale and Philomela.
"The word Tibia has consistently been adapted to the nomenclature of
organ stops on the Continent (of Europe) for some centuries. The word
Tibia is now used in this country to denote a quality of tone of an
intensely massive, full and clear character, first realized by Mr.
Hope-Jones, though faintly foreshadowed by Bishop in his Clarabella.
It is produced from pipes of a very large scale, yielding a volume of
foundation tone, accompanied by the minimum of harmonic development.
Even from a purely superficial point of view, the tone of the Tibia
family is most attractive; but, further, its value in welding together
the constituent tones of the organ and coping with modern reed-work is
inestimable." [6]
"The Tibia Plena was invented by Mr. Hope-Jones, and first introduced
by him into the organ at St. John's, Birkenhead, England, about 1887.
It is a wood Flute of very large scale, with the mouth on the narrow
side of the pipe. The block is sunk, and the lip, which is of
considerable thickness, is usually coated with a thin strip of leather
to impart to the tone the requisite smoothness and finish. It is
voiced on any wind pressure from 4-inch upwards. The Tibia Plena is
the most powerful and weighty of all the Tibia tribe of stops. It is,
therefore, invaluable in large instruments. * * * The Tibia Profunda
and Tibia Profundissima are 16-ft. and 33-ft. Pedal extensions of the
Tibia Plena." [7]
"The Tibia Clausa is a wood Gedackt of very large scale (in other
words, a stopped pipe), furnished with leather lips. It was invented
by Mr. Hope-Jones. The tone is powerful and beautifully pure and
liquid. The prevailing fault of the modern Swell organ is, perhaps,
the inadequacy of the Flute work. * * * It was the recognition of this
shortcoming which led to the invention of the Tibia Clausa." [8]
The Tibia Dura is another of Mr. Hope-Jones' inventions. It is an open
wood pipe of peculiar shape, wider at the top than the bottom, and
described by Wedgwood as of "bright, hard, and searching" tone.
The Tibia Minor was invented by Mr. John H. Compton, of Nottingham,
England, one of the most artistic builders in that country. "The Tibia
Minor bears some resemblance to Mr. Hope-Jones' Tibia Clausa, but being
destined more for use on an open wind-chest, differs in some important
respects. The stop is now generally made of wood, though several
specimens have been made of metal. In all cases the upper lip is
leathered. The tone of the Tibia Minor is extraordinarily effective.
In the bass it is round and velvety * * * in the treble the tone
becomes very clear and full * * * it forms a solo stop of remarkably
fine effect, and in combination serves to add much clearness and
fulness of tone to the treble, and, in general, exercises to the
fullest extent the beneficial characteristics of the Tibia class of
stop already detailed. If only by reason of the faculty so largely
exercised, of thus mollifying and enriching the upper notes of other
stops--which too often prove hard and strident in tone--the Tibia Minor
deserves recognition as one of the most valuable of modern tonal
inventions." [9]
The Tibia Mollis, invented by Mr. Hope-Jones, is a Flute of soft tone,
composed of rectangular wooden pipes. The name Tibia Mollis is also
employed by Mr. John H. Compton to denote a more subdued variety of his
Tibia Minor.
Other Flutes found in organs are the Stopped Diapason, Clarabella,
Clarinet Flute, Rohrflöte ("Reed-flute"), Wald Flöte, Flauto Traverso,
Suabe Flute, Clear Flute, Doppel Flöte (with two mouths), Melodia,
Orchestral Flute, etc., each of a different quality of tone and varying
in intensity. The Philomela as made by Jardine is a melodia with two
mouths.
STRINGS.
Under this head are grouped the stops which imitate the tones of such
stringed instruments as the Viola, the Violoncello, the Double Bass,
and more especially the old form of Violoncello, called the Viol di
Gamba, which had six strings and was more nasal in tone.
At the commencement of the period herein spoken of string-toned stops
as we know them to-day scarcely existed. This family was practically
represented by the Dulciana and by the old slow-speaking German Gamba.
These Gambas were more like Diapasons than strings.
Edmund Schulze made an advance and produced some Gambas and Violones
which, though of robust and full-bodied type, were pleasant and musical
in tone. They were at the time deemed capable of string-like effects.
To William Thynne belongs the credit of a great step in advance. The
string tones heard in the Michell and Thynne organ at the Liverpool,
England, exhibition in 1886 were a revelation of the possibilities in
this direction, and many organs subsequently introduced contained
beautiful stops from his hands--notably the orchestral-toned instrument
in the residence of J. Martin White, Dundee, Scotland--an ardent
advocate of string tone. Years later Thynne's partner, Carlton C.
Mitchell, produced much beautiful work in this direction. Hope-Jones
founded his work on the Thynne model and by introducing smaller scales,
bellied pipes and sundry improvements in detail, produced the keen and
refined string stops now finding their way into all organs of
importance. His delicate Viols are of exceedingly small scale (some
examples measuring only 1 1/8 inches in diameter at the 8-foot note).
They are met with under the names of Viol d' Orchestre, Viol Celeste
and Dulcet.[10] These stops have contributed more than anything else
towards the organ suitable for the performance of orchestral music.
Haskell has introduced several beautiful varieties of wood and metal
stops of keen tone, perhaps the best known being the labial Oboe and
Saxophone, commonly found in Estey organs. His work is destined to
exert considerable influence upon the art.
Other string-toned stops found nowadays in organs are the Keraulophon,
Aeoline, Gemshorn, Spitzflöte, Clariana, Fugara, Salicet, Salicional,
and Erzähler.[11]
REEDS.
As remarked in our opening chapter, pipes with strips of cane or reeds
in the mouthpiece are of great antiquity, being found side by side with
the flutes in the Egyptian tombs. These reeds, as those used at the
present day, were formed of the outer siliceous layer of a tall grass,
_Arundo donax_, or _sativa_, which grows in Egypt and the south of
Europe. They were frequently double, but the prototype of the reed
organ-pipe is to be seen in the clarinet, where the reed is single and
beats against the mouthpiece. Of course, an artificial mouthpiece has
to be provided for our organ-pipe, but this is called the _boot_. See
Figure 19, which shows the construction of a reed organ-pipe. A is the
boot containing a tube called the eschallot B, partly cut away and the
opening closed by a brass _tongue_ C, which vibrates under pressure of
the wind. D is the wire by which the tongue is tuned; E the body of
the pipe which acts as a resonator.
[Illustration: Fig. 18. Haskell's Clarinet Without Reed]
In the last half-century the art of reed voicing has been entirely
revolutionized. Prior to the advent of Willis, organ reeds were poor,
thin, buzzy things, with little or no grandeur of effect, and were most
unmusical in quality. Testimony to the truth of this fact is to be
found in old instruction books for organ students. It is there stated
that reeds should never be used alone, but that a Stopped Diapason or
other rank of flue pipes must always be drawn with them to improve the
tone quality.
[Illustration: Fig. 19. Diagram of Reed Pipe]
Willis created an entirely new school of reed voicing. He was the
first to show that reeds could be made really beautiful and fit for use
without help from flue stops. When he wanted power he obtained it by
raising the pressure, in order that he might be able to afford still to
restrain the tone and to consider only beauty of musical quality.
He was the first to show that every trace of roughness and rattle could
be obviated by imparting to the reed tongue exactly the right curve.
He restrained too emphatic vibrations in the case of the larger reed
tongues by affixing to them with small screws, weights made of brass.
He quickly adopted the practice of using harmonic, or double-length
tubes, for the treble notes, and secured a degree of power and
brilliance never before dreamed possible.
Willis gave up the open eschallot in favor of the closed variety,
thereby securing greater refinement of musical quality, though of
course sacrificing power of tone. He designed many varieties of reed
tubes, the most notable departure from existing standards being
probably his Cor Anglais and Orchestral Oboe.
Under the guiding genius of Willis, the Swell organ--which had hitherto
been a poor and weak department, entirely over-shadowed by the
Great--became rich, powerful and alive with angry reeds, which were
nevertheless truly musical in effect. Hope-Jones took up the work
where Willis left it, and has not only pushed the Willis work to its
logical conclusion, but has introduced a new school of his own.
He has taken the Willis chorus reeds and by doubling the wind pressures
and increasing the loading and thickness of tongues, has produced
results of surpassing magnificence. From the Willis Cor Anglais he has
developed his Double English Horn, from the Willis Oboe his Oboe Horn,
and from the Willis Orchestral Oboe the thin-toned stops of that class
now being introduced by Austin, Skinner and by his own firm. His chief
claim to distinction in this field, however, lies in the production of
the smooth reed tone now so rapidly coming into general use; in his
85-note Tuba; in the use of diminutive eschallots with mere saw-cut
openings; in providing means for making reed pipes stand in tune almost
as well as flue pipes; and in the utilization of "vowel cavities" for
giving character to orchestral-toned reeds.
The latter are of particular interest, as their possibilities are in
process of development. The results already achieved have done much to
make the most advanced organ rival the orchestra.
To exemplify the principle of the vowel cavities Hope-Jones was in the
habit, in his factory in Birkenhead, England, in 1890, of placing the
end of one of his slim Kinura reed pipes in his mouth and by making the
shape of the latter favor the oo, ah, eh, or ee, entirely altered and
modified the quality of tone emitted by the pipe.
Some years ago in an organ built for the Presbyterian Church,
Irvington-on-Hudson, N. Y., Hope-Jones introduced a beating reed having
no pipes or resonators of any kind. He is using this form of reed in
most of his organs now building.
In England this vowel cavity principle has been applied to Orchestral
Oboes, Kinuras and Vox Humanas, but in this country it was introduced
but seven years ago and has so far been adapted only to Orchestral
Oboes. At the time of writing it is being introduced in connection
with Hope-Jones' Vox Humanas and Kinuras. Examples are to be seen in
the Wanamaker (New York) organ; in Park Church, Elmira; Buffalo
Cathedral; Columbia College, St. James' Church, New York; College of
the City of New York; Ocean Grove Auditorium, and elsewhere. There
undoubtedly lies a great future before this plan for increasing the
variety of orchestral tone colors. Figure 20 shows a vowel cavity
applied to a Vox Humana (Norwich Cathedral, England), Figure 21 to an
Orchestral Oboe (Worcester Cathedral, England), and Figure 22 to a
Kinura (Kinoul, Scotland).
[Illustration: Fig. 20. Vox Humana with Vowel Cavity Attached. Fig.
21. Orchestral Oboe with Vowel Cavity Attached Fig. 22. Kinura with
Vowel Cavity Attached]
Builders who have not mastered the art of so curving their reed tongues
that buzz and rattle are impossible have endeavored to obtain
smoothness of tone by leathering the face of the eschallot. This
pernicious practice has unfortunately obtained much headway in the
United States and in Germany. It cannot be too strongly condemned, for
its introduction robs the reeds of their characteristic virility of
tone. Reeds that are leathered cannot be depended upon; atmospheric
changes affect them and put them out of tune.
The French school of reed voicing, led by Cavaillé-Coll, has produced
several varieties that have become celebrated. Many French Orchestral
reeds are refined and beautiful in quality and the larger Trumpets and
Tubas, though assertive and blatant, are not unmusical. The French
school, however, does not appear to be destined to exercise any great
influence upon the art in this country. (For further information
regarding reeds see chapter on tuning.)
UNDULATING STOPS--CELESTES.
The writer is not aware who first introduced into the organ a rank of
soft-toned pipes purposely tuned a trifle sharp or flat to the normal
pitch of the organ, so as to cause a beat or wave in the tone. Fifty
years ago such stops were sparingly used and many organists condemned
their employment altogether. Stops of the kind were hardly ever found
in small organs and the largest instruments seldom contained more than
one.
A great development in this direction has taken place and further
advance seems to be immediate. Already most builders introduce a
Celeste into their small organs and two or three into their larger
instruments--whilst Hope-Jones' organs are planned with Vox Humana
Celestes, Physharmonica Celestes, Kinura Celestes and even Mixture
Celestes!
Most modern Celestes are tuned sharp, the effect being more animated
than if it were tuned flat; but the aggregate effect and general
utility of the stop are greatly enhanced by the use of two ranks of
pipes, one being tuned sharp and the other flat to the organ pitch. A
three-rank Celeste (sharp, flat, and unison) formed one of the novel
features of the organ in Worcester Cathedral, England, built by
Hope-Jones in 1896. Wedgwood credits its invention to Mr. Thomas
Casson. The three-rank Celeste is also to be found in the organs of
the Bennett Organ Company.
Apart from the inherent beauty of the tones there is much to be said in
favor of the presence of these stops--if the organ is to be used as an
adjunct to, or a substitute for, the orchestra. The whole orchestra is
one huge and ever-varying "Celeste." Were it not so its music would
sound dead and cold. Few of the instrumentalists ever succeed in
playing a single bar absolutely in tune with the other components of
the band.
PERCUSSION STOPS.
This class of stop is also now finding its way into organs more
generally than heretofore. Resonating gongs giving, when skillfully
used, effects closely resembling a harp have been introduced freely by
the Aeolian Company in its house organs, and there seems no possible
objection to such introduction. The tone is thoroughly musical and
blends perfectly with the other registers. Under the name of "Chimes"
these resonant gongs are now finding place in many Church and Concert
organs. Tubular bells are also used in a similar capacity by all the
leading organ-builders,
The greatest development in this direction is found in the Hope-Jones
Unit Orchestra. In these instruments fully one-third of the speaking
stops rely on percussion for production of their tones. Even small
instruments of this type have all got the following percussion stops:
Chimes, Chrysoglott, Glockenspiel, Electric Bells (with resonators),
Xylophone, and carefully-tuned Sleigh Bells--in addition to single
percussive instruments, such as Snare-drum, Bass-drum, Kettle-drum,
Tambourine, Castanets, Triangle, Cymbals, and Chinese Gong.
As all these tone producers are enclosed in a thick Swell box, an
artist is able to employ them with as much refinement of effect as is
heard when they are heard in a Symphony Orchestra.
Mr. Hope-Jones informs the writer that he has just invented an electric
action which strikes a blow accurately proportioned to the force
employed in depressing the key, thus obtaining expression from the
fingers as in the pianoforte. He will apply this to the percussion
stops in organs he may build in the future.
When skilfully employed many of these percussion stops blend so
perfectly with the flue and reed pipes that they become an important
integral part of the instrument--not merely a collection of fancy stops
for occasional use.
THE DIAPHONE.
The invention of the Diaphone by Hope-Jones in 1894 will some day be
regarded as the most important step in advance hitherto achieved in the
art of organ building. The existence of patents at present prevents
general adoption of the invention and limits it to the instruments made
by one particular builder. In addition to this the Diaphone takes so
many forms and covers so large a field that time must necessarily pass
before its full possibilities are realized.
Enough was, however, done by Hope-Jones in connection with the organs
he built in England a dozen or eighteen years ago to leave the
experimental stage and prove the invention to be of the greatest
practical importance to the future of organ building. The author's
opinion that before long every new large organ will be built upon the
Diaphone as a foundation, is shared by all who have had opportunity to
judge. By no other means known to-day can anything approaching such
grand and dignified Diapason tone be produced. Were twenty large
Diapasons added to the instrument in Ocean Grove, N. J., or to that in
the Baptist Temple, Philadelphia, and were the Diaphone removed, the
instrument would suffer most seriously. In the Pedal department no
reed or flue pipe can begin to compare with a Diaphone, either in
attack or in volume of tone.
In Figure 23 we give a sectional view of the first large Diaphone made,
namely that constructed for the Hope-Jones organ in Worcester
Cathedral, Eng., 1896.
[Illustration: Fig. 23. Diaphone in Worcester Cathedral, Eng.]
M is a pneumatic motor or bellows to which is attached a rod bearing
the compound and spring valve V, V|1|, working against the spring S.
On the admission of wind (under pressure) to the box A, the motor M is
caused to collapse, and thereby to open the valves V, V|1|. Wind then
rushes into the chamber B, and entering the interior of motor M through
the passage C, equalizes the pressure in the motor. The action of the
springs now serves to close the valves V, V|1|, and to open out the
motor M, whereupon the process is repeated.
[Illustration: Fig. 24. Diaphone in Aberdeen University.]
In Fig. 24 we illustrate the Diaphone in the Hope-Jones organ built for
Aberdeen University, Scotland. The action is as follows:
Wind from the organ bellows enters the pipe foot F, and raises the
pressure in the chamber C. The air in the chamber will press upon the
back of the valve V, tending to keep it closed. It will press also
upon the bellows or motor M, and as this bellows has a much larger area
than that of the valve, it will instantly collapse, and, through the
medium of the tail piece T, will pull the valve V off its seat and
allow the compressed air in the chamber C to rush into the resonator or
pipe P. Owing to the inertia of the column of air contained in the
pipe P, a momentary compression will take place at the lower end of the
pipe, and the pressure of the air inside the motor M will, in
consequence, be raised. The motor having now increased pressure both
sides, will no longer keep the valve off its seat, and the spring S
will open the motor and close the valve. The compression caused by the
admission of the puff of air into the lower parts of the pipe P will be
followed by the usual rarefaction, and as this rarefaction will exhaust
or suck the air from the inside of the motor M, the valve will again be
lifted from its seat, and the cycle of operations will be repeated as
long as the wind supply is kept up. A series of regular puffs of wind
will thus be delivered into the lower part of the resonator or pipe,
resulting in a musical note.
Figs. 25, 26, 27 represent the first Diaphone heard in a public
building in this country, namely that of a model sounded in St.
Patrick's Cathedral, New York City, in 1905. In this form of Diaphone
the pressure of air operating the Diaphone has been varied between 10
inches and 500 inches, without perceptible variation in the pitch of
the note emitted.
[Illustration: Figs. 25, 26, 27. Diaphone in St. Patrick's Cathedral,
New York]
Referring to Fig. 25, the chamber WW is supplied with air under
pressure whenever the organist presses a key or pedal calling into use
this particular note. The pressure of air enters through the circular
engine supply port S, thus raising the pressure in the chamber C and
forcing in an upward direction the aluminum piston P through the medium
of the division D (colored black), which forms a portion of the
aluminum piston.
When the lower edge of the piston has risen a certain distance it will
uncover the circular engine exhaust port E, and will allow the
compressed air to escape into the atmosphere. At this moment the rise
of the piston will have closed the engine supply port S.
The momentum acquired by the piston (see Fig. 27) will cause it to
travel upward a little further, and this upward travel of the division
D will cause a compression of air to take place at the foot of the
resonator or pipe R. This compression will be vastly increased through
the simultaneous opening of the eight circular speaking ports SP.
The pressure of the compressed air at the foot of the resonator E will
now by acting on the upper surface of the division D depress the
aluminum piston until the engine supply port S is again opened.
By this time the compression at the foot of resonator R will have
traveled up the pipe in the form of a sound wave, and will have been
followed by the complementary rarefaction. This rarefaction on the
upper side will render more effective the pressure of the compressed
air again admitted through the engine supply port S on the underside of
division D.
It will be seen that this cycle of operations will be repeated as long
as the organist holds down his pedal or key admitting compressed air to
the chamber W.
As the aluminum piston P is very light and is in no way impeded in its
movement or swing, the speed of its vibration, and consequently the
pitch of the note emitted, will be governed by the length of the
resonator or pipe R.
The tone given by this particular form of Diaphone possesses a peculiar
sweetness in quality, while the power is limited only by the pressure
of air used to operate it.
[Illustration: Fig. 28. Diaphone in the Auditorium, Ocean Grove, N. J.]
In Fig. 28 we give an illustration of the form of Diaphone used in the
Hope-Jones Unit organ at the Auditorium, Ocean Grove, N. J.
P is a pallet controlling the admission of air into the body of the
pipe P|1|. M is a motor adapted for plucking open the pallet P through
the medium of strap _s_. The box B is permanently supplied with air
under pressure from the bellows. When the valves V and V|1| are in the
position shown in the drawing, the Diaphone is out of action, for the
wind from the box B will find its way through the valve V (which is
open) into the interior of the motor M.
When it is desired to make the note speak, the small exterior motors
M|1| and M|2| are simultaneously inflated by the electro-pneumatic
action operated by depressing the pedal key. The valve V will
thereupon be closed and the valve V|1| be opened. As the pressure of
air inside the motor M will now escape into the pipe or resonator P|1|,
the motor will collapse and the pallet P will be opened in spite of the
action of the spring S which tends to keep it closed.
The wind in the box B will now suddenly rush into the lower end of the
pipe P|1|, and by causing a compression of the air at that point will
again raise the pressure of the air inside the motor M. The pallet
will thereupon close and the cycle of operations will be repeated--thus
admitting a series of puffs of wind into the foot of the pipe P|1| and
thereby producing a musical tone of great power.
As the valve V|1| is open, the sound waves formed in the pipe P|1| will
govern the speed of vibration of the motor M. It will thus be obvious
that the Diaphone will always be in perfect tune with the resonator or
pipe P|1|, and that the pitch of the note may be altered by varying the
length of the pipe.
[Illustration: Fig. 29. Diaphone in St. Paul's Cathedral, Buffalo, N.
Y.]
In Fig. 29 will be found an illustration of the Diaphone (or valvular
reed) used in the Hope-Jones organ at St. Paul's Cathedral, Buffalo, N.
Y.
Upon depressing a key, wind is admitted into the box B. Pressing upon
the valve V it causes it to close against its seat in spite of the
action of the spring S. This, however, does not take place until a
pulse of air has passed into the foot of the pipe P, thereby
originating a sound wave which in due time liberates the valve V and
allows the spring S to move it off its seat and allow another puff of
air to enter the pipe P. By this means the valve V is kept in rapid
vibration and a powerful tone is produced from the pipe P. At
Middlesborough, Yorkshire, England, Hope-Jones fitted a somewhat
similar Diaphone of 16 feet pitch about 1899, but in this case the
resonator or pipe was cylindrical in form and measured only 8 feet in
length.
In Fig. 30 will be found another type of Diaphone in which the tone is
produced through the medium of a number of metal balls, covering a
series of holes or openings into the bottom of a resonator or pipe, and
admitting intermittent puffs of air.
[Illustration: Fig. 30. Diaphone Producing Foundation Tone]
The action is as follows. Air under pressure enters the chamber B
through the pipe foot A, and passing up the ports C, C|1|, C|2|, etc.,
forces the metal balls D, D|1|, D|2|, etc., upwards into the chamber E;
the bottom end of the resonator or pipe. The pressure of air above the
balls in the resonator E, then rises until it equals or nearly equals
the pressure of air in chamber B. This is owing to the fact that the
column of air in the pipe or resonator E possesses weight and inertia,
and being elastic, is momentarily compressed at its lower end. This
increased pressure above the balls allows them to return to their
original position, under the influence of gravity. By the time they
have returned to their original position, the pulse of air compression
has traveled up the pipe in the form of a sound wave, and the
complementary rarefaction follows.
The cycle of movement will then be repeated numerous times per second,
with the result that a very pure foundation tone musical note will be
produced.
The Diaphone is tuned like ordinary flue pipes and will keep in tune
with them; the pressure of wind (and consequently the power of the
tone) may be varied without affecting the pitch. The form of the pipe
or resonator affects the quality of the tone; it may be flue-like or
reedy in character, or even imitate a Pedal Violone, a Hard and Smooth
Tuba, an Oboe, or a Clarinet.
* * * * * * * *
In closing this chapter, the writer desires to express indebtedness for
much of the material therein to the comprehensive "Dictionary of Organ
Stops," by James Ingall Wedgwood, Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries,
Scotland, and Fellow of the Royal Historical Society (published by the
Vincent Music Co., London, England). Although the title is somewhat
forbidding, it is a most interesting book and reveals an amount of
original research and personal acquaintance with organs in England and
the Continent that is simply marvelous. It ought to be in the library
of every organist.
[1] Broadhouse, J., "Musical Acoustics," p. 27.
[2] Mr. Skinner has built some of the finest organs in this country.
[3] Much of Roosevelt's finest work is now being improved by various
builders by leathering the lips.
[4] The "Harmonic" principle is described in Dom Bedos' book, published
in 1780, as applied to reeds, and Dr. Bédart states that this principle
was applied to flutes as early as 1804.
[5] That is to say, the pipes are made double the length actually
required, but are made to sound an octave higher by means of a hole
pierced half-way up the pipe.
[6] Wedgwood; "Dictionary of Organ Stops," p. 150.
[7] Wedgwood: _Ibid_., p. 153.
[8] Wedgwood: _Ibid_., p. 151.
[9] Wedgwood: _Ibid_. p. 153.
[10] "The Hope-Jones pattern of Muted Viol is one of the most beautiful
tones conceivable."--Wedgwood: "Dictionary of Organ Stops," p. 173.
[11] The Erzähler, a modified Gemshorn, is found only in organs built
by Ernest M. Skinner.